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Emotions
brief, specific psychological and physiological responses that help humans meet goals
primary appraisal
unconscious, fast, automatic reactions to situations (like or dislike)
secondary appraisal
conscious, slower, more deliberate (anger/fear/disgust)
six universal emotions
happiness, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, fear (All Dogs Feel Some Special Happiness)
Duchenne Smile
a "real" smile - muscles around the eye contracts, upper cheek raises, pouch under the lower eyelid
affect valuation theory
cultures differ in the emotions they value/idealize in accordance with cultural values
display rules
cultural rules that govern how, when, and to whom people express emotion
emotional intelligence (EQ)
ability to express recognize, and use emotions well within social interactions
4 skills of EQ
ability to accurately perceive others' emotions, 2. ability to understand one's own emotions, 3. ability to use current feelings to help make good decisions, 4. ability to manage one's emotions to fit the situation appropriately
Darwin's 3 Hypotheses
emotion is universal, 2. our expressions are similar to other primates, 3. emotions are encoded, not learned
oxytocin
hormone and neurotransmitter
top down processing
information is filtere and interpreted based on schema information, then a decision is made (more stereotypes)
Bottom up processing
information is taken from the senses, put together, and then a decision is made (less stereotypes)
broaden and build hypothesis
positive emotions broaden thought and action repertoires, helping people build social resources
morality
regulating behavior to fit into society
social intuitionist model of moral judgement
people have automatic emotional reactions to moral situations
moral foundations theory
five evolved, universal moral domains in which specific emotions guide moral judgements
5 moral pillars
care/harm, fairness/cheating, loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion, purity/degradation
three determinants of emotions
peak, end, duration neglect (i.e. how painful you remember something depends on how painful it was at it's most painful moment and how painful it was at the end, not how long it lasted)
affective forecasting
predicting future emotional states and their duration
immune neglect
tendency to underestimate our resilience during negative life events
focalism
tendency to focus on only one aspect of an experience or event when trying to predict future emotions
what makes people happy
age + gender = irelevant, money only to a certain point (~$75,000), social relationships are the most powerful
ABC of attitudes
Affect, Behavior, Cognition
affect
emotional reactions to an attitude object
behavior
knowledge about interactions with an attitude object
cognition
thoughts about the attitude object
likert scales
self report of attitudes toward objects
response latency
the time it takes to respond to a stimulus
LaPiere study of attitudes
chinese couples (90% said they would deny service, 1/250 actually did)
ambivalent attitudes
when affective and cognitive components of attitude may conflice (chocolate: affective - good, cognitive - bad)
attitudes v behaviors
attitudes - broad, behaviors - specific
explicit v implicit behaviors
explicit - deliberate behavior, implicit - automatic
cognitive dissonance theory
we rationalize our decisions to reduce dissonance and restore consistency
effort justification
the more we work on something, the more we justify our reasoning to do it
forced compliance
when you subtly make people behave in a manner that is inconsistent with their beliefs, attitudes, or values to elicit dissonance
over-justification effect
when rewards/external incentives decrease one's intrinsic motivation to perform a task
self-perception theory
when we don't have a clear, solidified attitude or when the attitude isn't important
embodied cognition
the study of how thoughts are influenced by the body and physiological sensations
terror management theory
people deal with the anxiety of death through symbolic immortality (children) or meeting/exceeding standards set by worldview
social psychology
the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to each other
The Milgram Experiment
80% continued past 150 volts, 62.5% continued to maximum
fundamental attribution error
the failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behavior, and the tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions on behavior
channel factor
circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface but have a great consequence on behavior
construal
people's interpretation and inference about the stimuli or situations they confront
gestalt psychology
people perceive objects by unconscious interpretation of what the object represents as a whole
schema
a knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored knowledge
automatic processing
we perceive the world quickly and automatically (e.g. processing someones face)
controlled processing
effortful, deliberate, conscious processing
natural selection
an evolutionary process that molds animals and plants so traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on
theory of mind
ability to understand seemingly invisible mental states, beliefs, desires, intentions, and can predict others' responses
parental investment
costs and benefits associated with reproduction differ for men and women
naturalistic fallacy
the idea that the way things are is the way things should be
theory
a body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world (general)
hypothesis
a prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances (specific)
operationalization
turn an abstract concept into something observable that we can test with experiments
ways to operationalize
behaviors, physiological reactions, self-report
observational research
observing social situations in an semi-formal way
archival research
analyzing social behaviors documented in past behaviors
surveys
interviews or written questionnaires
types of sampling
random (all us college students), convenience (uiuc)
correlational research
research that psychologists conduct to see whether there is a relationship between variables
correlation coefficient
statistical value that indicates how well you can predict one variable using another
reverse causation
X may cause Y OR Y may cause X
third variable problem
X doesn't cause Y, Y doesn't X, some other unmeasured variable causes both
spurious correlatioin
correlation that occurs just by chance
experimental research
systematically controls and manipulates events to understand particular behaviors
3 components of an experiment
manipulation of independent variables, random assignment, control conditions
external validity
experimental setup that closely resembles real-life situations --> results can safely be generalized to such situations
internal validty
confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results
measurement validity
the correlation between some measure and some outcome that the measure is supposed to predict
triangulation
the use of multiple methods to study a single topic
statistical significance
a measure of the probability that a given result could have occurred by chance
applied science
concerned with solving real-world problems
self
a person's particular nature or qualities that make a person unique and distinguishable from others
traits
ways that you think, feel, and act that make you different from others
3 primary components of the self
individual, relational, collective
individual self
beliefs about our unique personal traits, abilities, preferences etc.
relational self
beliefs about our identities in specific relationships
collective self
beliefs about our identities as members of social groups to which we belong
older siblings
more dominant, achievement-oriented, conscientious, want to maintain the status quo
younger siblings
more agreeable, open to new experiences, rebellious, want to challenge the status quo
diversification
siblings may take on different roles in the family to minimize conflict
reflected self-appraisals
our beliefs about what others think of our social selves
working self-concept
only a subset of self-knowledge is brought to mind in a particular context
trait vs state
trait: the avg version of you (relatively stable), state: how you are in different contexts
social comparison theory
people compare themselves to others to evaluate their own opinions
upward comparison
when you want to improve something about yourself, you compare with people who are better
downward comparison
when you want to feel good about yourself, you compare with people who are worse
self-schema
cognitive structures, derived from past experience, that represent a person's beliefs and feelings about the self in particular domains
self-reference effect
we have a better memory for information related to ourselves
self-complexity
the tendency to define the self in terms of multiple domains that are distinct from one another
self-esteem
the positive/negative evaluation or attitude an individual has toward the self
contingencies of self-worth
self-esteem is contingent on success and failure in domains that are important to their self
self-enhancement
people's desire to maintain, increase, or protect their self-esteem or self-views
self-evaluation maintenance model
we are motivated to have positive self-esteem, and to achieve that, we engage in various forms of motivated reasoning
social comparison
we make downward social comparisons to feel better
self-verification theory
people strive for stable, accurate beliefs about the self
self-regulation
processes used to initiate, alter, and control their behavior in the pursuit of goals
possible selves
hypothetical selves that a person aspires to be in the future