UIUC Psyc 210 Exam 2

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4 major neural movement centers

4 major neural movement centers

lower motor neurons, upper motor neurons, cerebellum, basal ganglia

two types of muscle receptors

muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs

muscle spindles

associated with stretch, small gamma motor neurons

two types of muscle spindle receptor endings

primary sensory endings and secondary sensory endings

primary sensory endings

innervate the central region of the muscle spindle

secondary sensory endings

innervate the thin ends of the muscle spindle

Golgi tendon organs

contraction, connect with alpha motor neurons

lower motor neurons

located in brainstem and spinal cord, each motor neuron innervates multiple muscle fibers, but one muscle fiber = one motor neuron

lower motor neurons located in brainstem

send axons to muscles of the head

lower motor neurons located in the spinal cord

send axons to muscles of the rest of the body

how are muscles activated

sensory info enter spinal cord via dorsal root, motor info enters spinal cord via ventral root, muscles receive neural input from motor neurons in the spinal cord , motor neurons release ACh

antagonistic pairs

muscles that serve opposite functions; when one muscle contracts, the other lengthens

Sensory information enters the spinal cord via the _______

dorsal root

Motor neurons can send signals out of the spinal cord via the _______ to muscle fibers in order to initiate movement

ventral root

4 descending projections from brainstem to spinal cord

tectospinal, rubrospinal, reticulospinal, vestibulospinal

tectospinal tract

neck musculature and head and eye movements

rubrospinal tract

arm musculature

reticulospinal tract

-temporal and spatial coordination of movement -cardiovascular -respiratory

three major motor cortices

primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex

primary motor cortex

voluntary movement, topographic organization, contains betz cells

Betz cells

extremely large pyramidal neurons of the primary motor cortex

supplementary motor area

planning of movements

premotor cortex

The region of the brain controlling learned motor skills. Planning and control of limb movements

Apostolos Georgopoulos

-monkey and joystick experiment -learned neurons are 'tuned' to specific movements

Raster plot

Graph shows timing of action potentials

Cerebellum function

coordination of voluntary movements and balance

Three lobes of the cerebellum

anterior, posterior, flocculonodular

anterior/vermis lobe of cerebellum

-motor coordination -limb control -subtle feedback and error control

posterior lobe of cerebellum

timing, planning

flocculonodular lobe of cerebellum

equilibrium, balance

Inputs to cerebellum

motor and premotor cortex, relayed in pontine nuclei

How many somatotopic maps are there of the cerebellum

at least 2

Three layers of cerebellum

molecular, purkinje, granular

Molecular layer of cerebellum

lots of connections, few neurons

Purkinje cell layer of cerebellum

-middle layer, large cells form a single row -GABAergic (they release GABA) -lots of purkinje cells

granular layer of cerebellum

innermost layer, granule cells

two external inputs of cerebellum

-climbing fibers from inferior olive to purkinje cells -mossy fibers from pontine nuclei to granule cells

pontine nuclei

The clusters of neurons that relay information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellar cortex.

internal connections/inputs of cerebellum

-parallel fibers from granule cells -allow cerebellum to perform comparisons -contact purkinje cells

output of cerebellum

Purkinje cells

Purkinje cells in cerebellum

-relay info back to motor cortices -receives input from motor cortices and sensory input, and sends out info back to motor cortices to correct them, they send to muscles

cerebellum damage results in affected

-balance/gait -guided movements -error in range and force of movement -inability to rapidly stop limbs

role of basal ganglia

allow the initiation of movement on a global scale

Subcortical brain structures that make up basal ganglia

-caudate -putamen -globus pallidus -subthalamic nuclei -substantia nigra pc and pr -thalamus -ventral tegmental area

globus pallidus

component of the basal ganglia that connects to the thalamus which relays information to the motor areas and the prefrontal cortex

Which two subcortical brain structures in the basal ganglia are associated with dopamine

Substantia nigra pars compact and Ventral tegmental area

In rodents, the caudate and putamen combine to form the _____

striatum

Projections from the cerebral cortex to striatum

pyramidal tract (PT) neurons and intertelencephalic (IT) neurons

pyramidal tract (PT) neurons

upper motor neurons that project to brainstem and spinal cord

Intertelencephalic (IT) neurons

Motor cortex neurons that do NOT project to brainstem and spinal cord

direct pathway of basal ganglia

(promotes movement) 1. striatum, 2. GPI, 3. thalamus

indirect pathway of basal ganglia

(inhibits movement) 1. striatum, 2. GPE, 3. STN, 4. GPI, 5. thalamus

glutamate is ______ and GABA is ________

excitatory and inhibitory

Learning definition

process by which experience results in changes in behavior

Memory definition

internal record of past experiences acquired through learning

Habituation

-a decrease in the strength or occurrence of a behavior after repeated exposure to the stimulus that produces that behavior -stimulus specific

orienting response

an organism's innate reaction to a novel stimulus

Factors influencing the rate and duration of habituation

-how arousing the stimulus is -the number of times it is experienced -the length of time between repeated exposures

Sensitization

-phenomenon in which an arousing stimulus leads to stronger responses to a later stimulus -not stimulus specific

Habituation and sensitization are both forms of ________

non-associative learning

classical conditioning

a form of learning in which the organism acquires the expectation that a given stimulus predicts a specific upcoming important event

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

Operant conditioning - Edward Thorndike

-organism learns to make response in order to obtain or avoid important consequences -also known as instrumental conditioning

Edward Tolman

cognitive psychologist; latent learning and cognitive map

Tolman's study

A study where it was revealed that rats actually had made a cognitive map of the maze but didn't show their learning until he placed a treat at the end

place cells

neurons maximally responsive to specific locations in the world

directional coding - head direction cells

-certain cell fires action potentials any time the animal points its head in a specific direction -represent these in a polar rate-map

Karl Lashley

-larger lesions resulted in more errors -ultimately led to the conclusion that the engram is distributed and not store in any one brain region

In what ways can the brain change structurally?

-dendrite length -# of spines -# of axon terminals -# of connections -reorganize connections

In what ways can the brain change its transmission?

-quantity of neurotransmitter packed in each vesicle -# of vesicles available for release -# of receptors on postsynaptic neuron -rate of neurotransmitter breakdown -rate of neurotransmitter reuptake

An enriched environment promotes growth of __________ and __________, and leads to a greater number of ___________

axons, dendritic spines, connections

subregions of hippocampus

dentate gyrus, CA3 (cornu ammonis 3), CA1, subiculum

entorhinal cortex

an area of the medial temporal cortex that is a major source of neural signals to the hippocampus (dentate gyrus)

path of axons in the hippocampus

-Entorhinal Cortex to dentate gyrus -dentate gyrus to CA3 -CA3 to CA1 -CA1 to subiculum -subiculum to dentate gyrus

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

long-term depression (LTD)

a long-term decrease in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input caused by stimulation of the terminal button while the postsynaptic membrane is hyperpolarized or only slightly depolarized

Who was H.M and why was he important?

-suffered from epilepsy -had brain region with hippocampus removed -developed anterograde amnesia -temporally graded retrograde amnesia

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new episodic memories

temporally graded retrograde amnesia

Inability to retrieve memories from just prior to the onset of amnesia with intact memory for more remote events.

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

semantic and episodic memory are types of __________ memory

declarative (explicit)

Both the semantic and episodic memories are dependent on the __________ of the brain

medial temporal lobe (hippocampus)

ACh is _______ when encoding, and _______ when consolidating

high, low

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system in the hippocampus

Consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain (cortex)

what is the main source of ACh to cortical structures

-basal forebrain

what is the main source of ACh to the prefrontal cortex

nucleus basalis

what is the main source of ACh to the hippocampus

Medial septal nucleus and nucleus of diagonal band of broca

what is the main source of ACh to the brainstem and cerebellum

Pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei

Path of ACh for memory encoding

Neocortex → Entorhinal Cortex → Hippocampus

path of ACh for memory consolidation

hippocampus → entorhinal cortex → neocortex

emotion definition

complex program of actions triggered by the presence of specific stimuli

Feelings of emotion definition

perceptions of the emotional action programs

Program of actions consists of three components:

-Autonomic -Behavioral -Hormonal

Autonomic program of action

facilitate the behaviors and provide quick mobilization of energy for vigorous movement

Behavioral program of action

-muscular movements appropriate to the situation -overt behaviors