chapter 17

• The Western partnership of North American and western European capitalist and democratic countries hoped to steer the world in a direction that would correspond to both their ideals and their long-term interests.
• Their goal was a harmonious worldwide community of independent nation-states, sharing the Western privileges of democratic freedom and capitalist prosperity, of which they would be the leaders and guardians.

• Changes were being made within the Western partnership.
• The U.S. capitalist economy grew more productive than its partners as it shrank its welfare state safety net.
• As the western European countries pooled their resources in the European Union, they came to wield almost as much economic power as the United States.
• The United States was still the senior partner in the Western partnership and it remained the strongest influence in world affairs.

• The rest of the world had its own thoughts about being steered by the West.
• There was a lot of distrust in the economic field.
• Powerful domestic groups like bankers and farmers were not allowed to be affected by globalization.
• The West was protecting its own interests at the expense of the rest of the world.

• Many of the world's peoples were locked in national, ethnic, and reli gious conflicts that took priority over the pursuit of harmony, prosperity, and freedom.
• The fall of communism released some of these conflicts.

• Both inside and outside the West, these conflicts were seen as a test of the West's ability to steer the world.

• Western mediation and more or less wholehearted military intervention, United Nations sanctions and war crimes tribunals, and help from Western-backed volunteer organizations often damped these conflicts down or relieved the suffering they caused.

• The conflicts did not stop until they caused tragic devastation.
• The postcolonial conflicts, resentment and distrust of Western power and influence, as well as growing evidence that Western power was not unlimited, strengthened three formidable challenges to the order of global civilization that the West wanted to establish: militant Islamic fundamentalism, nuclear proliferation, and terrorism.

• Postmodernists held out the hope of human fulfillment through the liberation of inner human energy and denied the possibility of finding ultimate truth through either reason or faith.
• Postmodernists opposed both rules of behavior that all must obey and highly organized power structures that required and enforced such behavior.

• They spoke up for groups that broke the rules and were held down by power structures.
• Postmodernists produced works that embodied their view of the irrationality of the world, reacted against the idealized abstraction of Modernism, or proclaimed the nobility and suffering of the groups they supported.

• Most of the traditions of thought and art that Postmodernists criticized were Western ones.
• Postmodern thought and art were influential within the lands of Western civilization, despite the fact that they were Doubting the possibility of finding truth and subverting social conformity for the sake of fulfilling desire.

• After the fall of communism, Islamic tensions and resentments exploded in terrorist attacks on the United States.
• The United States launched an ambitious effort to change the way in which the West steered the world by using force or the threat of it more readily than before and by encouraging the spread of secular democratic government to Islamic countries.
• Iraq was invaded and overthrew in the service of these aims.
• The United States came to be involved in a complex process of negotiation and compromise among the religious and ethnic groups that it had liberated, rather than remolding Iraq according to its own design.
• The process might form a precedent for future interactions between Islam and the West.

• The collapse of communism brought an end to the world order.
• It no longer made sense to speak of the free world, the socialist camp, the imperial and colonial nations, or even the First, Second, and Third Worlds in this world with neither blocs nor c hapter 17: western civilization in the world of today colonial empires.
• The world's renewed hopes for harmonious diversity needed a new term.

• The time had come for this community to emerge now that the blocs were gone.

• The United Nations and its affiliated organizations were common institutions in this community.

• Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States are all located in North America and western Europe.
• Japan, a non-Western country, was the most successful in trying to gain equality with the West by adopting and adapting Western ways of doing business.

• All of the G7 countries had been prominent and privileged in the world at the end of the 19th century, and had managed to keep this position through all the ups and downs of imperialism, two world wars, decolonization, and the Cold War.

• In spite of its non-Western traditions of civilization, they formed the political and economic West with Japan, which was fully Western in this political and economic sense.
• At the end of the twentieth century, these countries hoped to steer the international community according to their capitalist interests and democratic ideals.

• The ideals and interests that held them together during the twentieth century would have to be shared for this to happen.

• The people of the rest of the world would have to feel that they too had a stake in a capitalist-democratic world order.
• If the West maintained its unity, followed its ideals as well as its interests, and was able to operate by consensus with the rest of the world, then perhaps it could steer the world to the benefit of all.
• Ethnic, religious, and international rivalries would be contained, economies would be able to grow, and nations outside the Western heartland besides Japan would gain influence and power equal to that of the West.
• It is possible that the international community will turn from hope to reality and that democratic freedom and capitalist prosperity will be shared among the nations of the world.

• Alternatively, the democratic and capitalist countries might become divided and neglect their ideals in order to impose their will on the rest of the world.
• The result would be a much less benign world order.
• The struggle for existence would be fierce among nations, ethnic groups, religions, and eco nomic competitors, and the "fittest" countries would hold down the rest by economic power, technical supremacy, and military force.
• There were worse possibilities, such as a gradual environmental disaster caused by an overindustrialized world, or a sudden catastrophe caused by the use of nuclear or other weapons of mass destruction.

• The democratic and capitalist countries would have to share the credit with the rest of the world if the best alternatives came about.
• It would not be the fault of these countries alone if the worst possibilities were realized.
• They had won the Cold War and that gave them the strongest influence on the distribution of wealth and power in the future.

• The end of the Cold War was a victory not only for democracy and capitalism but also for the new international power structure that had grown up within the Western heartland.
• In the past, Western civilization was sometimes divided between rival states and ruled by universal empires like Rome's.
• The United States was the senior partner in the partnership and operated in consensus with its junior partners in western Europe.
• The communist adversary that brought the new power structure into being was gone in the 1990s.
• Even though their economic and social policies were growing apart, the European partners were forming stronger links among themselves because of the shared democratic values, economic links of trade and investment, and the dangers and uncertainties of the postcommunist world.

• Clinton faced opposition in both the House and the Senate from 1994 onward for his plan to shrink the U.S. welfare state.

• The Republicans were able to defeat Clinton when he proposed extensions of the welfare state.
• If he proposed less drastic versions of Republican policies, he could make them look radical.

• Clinton won reelection in 1996 and kept control of govern ment policy out of the hands of the Republicans.
• The Republicans were angry and looked for scandals that could bring him down.
• Their efforts came to a head when the House of Representatives impeached him on charges stemming from his efforts to conceal improper relations with a White House intern.
• The affair added a lot of poison to the political atmosphere after the Senate acquitted Clinton.

• The economic expansion that began in the mid-1980s continued into the Clinton years.
• The president and his advisers benefited from the "Cold War divi c hapter 17: western civilization in the world of today dend", a reduction in defense spending following the disappearance of the Soviet threat, and made politically astute concessions to the Republicans' desire to cut welfare spending.
• They were able to reduce the federal deficit in gradual steps because of this.

• Consumers had money to spend to keep the economy growing and unemployment was low.
• The United States imported more goods from abroad than it exported.
• Foreign investors were willing to lend money to make up for the difference between what the United States sold and what it bought in foreign countries.

• The economic system that came out of the uneasy cooperation between the Republicans and the Democrats was harsher than before the rise of conservatism under Reagan.
• The jobs it created were mostly in low-paying service industries, since technology and global competition were reducing the need for high-paid workers in manufacturing.
• At a time when many other advanced industrial economies were stagnant or beset by crises, the United States seemed to be a model of capitalist economic success.

• At the end of Clinton's presidency there was a collapse of a speculative stock market boom, an economic downturn, and a rise in unemployment.

• The recovery was led by the conservative Republican President George W.

• Bush was slow in creating jobs.
• The new administration did not follow the principle of cutting government spending but did follow the principle of low tax rates.

• The administration was betting that as the economy recovered from the recession, the government would take in more money in taxes.
• The government had to borrow huge amounts of money from foreign and domestic sources.
• The U.S. model of capitalism was likely to face a painful crisis if the administration lost its bet on economic growth.

• The welfare state safety net and regulation of pay and hours were preferred by most western European countries because they did not want their economies to grow like that of the United States.
• The pooling of some of their national sovereignty in common institutions was a historic change in the power structure of Western civilization.

• The western European economies did not grow in the 1990s due to government spending on welfare states.
• Employers in Western Europe did not want to hire workers who would have to pay high wages.
• Most western European voters accepted the trade-off between jobs and production and welfare state security since there was no time limit to their benefits.

• In most countries, privatization, budget trimming, and confrontation with labor unions were less radical than in the United States.
• The basic features of the system were maintained regardless of which party ran the government, as was the case in France and Germany.
• By the early twenty-first century, however, as government spending on welfare states continued to grow, worldwide competition increased, and ten low-wage eastern European and Mediterranean countries prepared to join the European Union.

• Margaret Thatcher's policies were more radical than those of other European leaders.

• She did not try to tear down the welfare state safety net and her own party forced her to resign after she pushed through a local government tax system that favored the wealthy.
• Her successor, John Major, followed more moderate policies until his Conservative party was divided over how far Britain should join in the European Union.

• Both the welfare state safety net and Thatcherite reforms were upheld by Blair.

• After the end of the Second World War, the process of building common institutions among western European nations began.
• The founding of the European Economic Community or Common Market took place in 1957.
• For too many national interests and identities were at stake, the building of common institutions never went smoothly.
• The original six nations of Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands were joined by Britain, Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain.

• The Germans did not want their western neighbors to turn against them as had happened before the two world wars.
• The world of today is eager not to allow Germany too much freedom of action.
• The answer seemed to be to pool more of their sovereignty.
• The Treaty of Maastricht was signed in 1993 and changed the community's name to the European Union.

• The European Union is being built.
• The Treaty of Maastricht made membership of the EU more demanding on individual nations than before, and progress in putting it into effect was not always smooth.
• The member nations were not able to agree on policies that would allow them to pursue their own interests.
• Member nations gained exemptions or simply ignored some of the demands.
• When the EU rules suited larger and more powerful countries, they would break them.
• For several years, France and Germany have run budget deficits at a higher rate than allowed by the European Central Bank, which oversees matters affecting the value of money.
• The European Commission, the EU's central administration, has sued the two countries in the European Court of Justice.

• Bitter conflicts over the distribution of government power have arisen from the pooling of sovereignty.
• In the Council of Ministers, the body through which national governments control EU policies, small countries fear being outvoted by large ones, and large ones complain of being underrepresented as against small ones.

• If the European Parliament gained more power over the actions of the Commission and the Council of Ministers, the democratic deficit could be reduced.
• The power of the European Parliament would have to be sacrificed in order to make up for the power of the national legislatures in every EU country.

• The EU countries are independent nation-states, each pursuing their own national interests.
• The EU's production of goods and services is not much smaller than that of the United States, so the member nations have found it in their interests to pool enough of their sovereignty to turn the EU into an economic superpower.

• Many European nations found it in their national interests to pool some of their sovereignty in the EU after the fall of communism.
• The neutral countries of Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EEC in 1995.
• The eastward expansion of the EU is likely to lead to difficult economic adjustments for both its old members and the newcomers, and to make it even more quarrelsome than before.
• The European nations see their future as one of community.

• The European nations did not want to pool their sovereignty to turn Europe into a military and political power.
• In return for being able to influence U.S. policy and save money on defense, they accepted U.S. leadership and military command.
• It was still in their interests.
• Without it, they wouldn't have been able to pursue their project of building their community and they wouldn't have been able to uphold their welfare states.
• Their influence on the world order of global civilization was second only to that of the United States, and that seemed to be a good reason for the United States to hold on to its end of the Cold War bargain.

• The era of rising hopes for a single international community was also an era of economic globalization.
• On an unprecedented scale, people, goods, money, and information moved across the world, and expectations grew for the reshaping of worldwide trade, industry, and finance into a single international economy.

• The globalization of the 1990s was the latest stage in an increase of worldwide travel and trade that had been going on for more than a thousand years.
• The first revolution in transport and communications, the invention of steamships, railroads, and the rise of Islam are some of the major achievements of this process.
• In the second half of the twentieth century, the increase of travel and trade passed another milestone, this time by commercial jet aircraft, new methods of handling cargo at seaports, and advanced technologies such as the Internet.

• The end of communism meant the end of any hope of finding prosperity in most countries of the world.
• Seeking prosperity within the Western-dominated worldwide capitalist system was the only path that remained open.
• The question was whether globalization would provide such a path.

• If all countries accepted globalization as quickly and completely as possible, it would bring worldwide prosperity.
• They need to privatize their economies, cut taxes and government spending so as to release money for businesses to invest and consumers to spend, and they need to abolish restrictions on movements of goods and money across their borders.
• Their economies, open to the increasing movement of people, goods, money, and information, would grow in step with the increase in travel and trade, and this would bring prosperity to their peoples.

• The Washington Consensus was shared by the U.S. Treasury and the Federal Reserve, which had considerable power to steer the global economy.

• The new and harsher U.S. economy grew faster than the EU economies in the 1990s.
• Since the end of the Second World War, Japan has grown into a mighty economic power partly because of deliberate government intervention--fostering exports, discouraging imports, helping companies identify markets and develop new products, and raising barriers to foreign ownership of companies.
• Many economists and business leaders came to speak of a Far Eastern model of capitalism, distinct from and more productive than the U.S. and European models, because these policies were successfully imitated by other Far Eastern countries.
• Japan's growth ended in a financial crash at the beginning of the 1990s.
• Japan still had the world's second largest economy and its people continued on the whole prosperous and secure, but the Far Eastern model of capitalism no longer seemed so impressive as before.

• It was the turn of the United States to be the economic model for the world, according to policymakers in Washington.
• The United States shared power with the EU countries and Japan in the World Bank.
• The U.S. belief that unfettered globalization was good for the world as a whole was shared by the leaders of the other countries.

• The North American Free Trade Agreement was signed in 1993 by President Clinton against the will of labor unions that supported his own party.
• The agreement provided for gradual elimination of barriers to the movement of goods and money among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.

• The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), an arrangement for mutually agreed reductions of tariffs that was first signed in 1947, was revised in 1993.
• After years of hard bargaining by the major trading powers, the latest round of cuts was expected to end tariffs on manufactured goods.
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established for the first time by the revised GATT.

• The Washington Consensus requires globalization to restrict the spread of capitalist prosperity.
• Rapid privatization allowed speculators to bribe government officials and buy up valuable industries at low prices, while workers in uncompetitive industries lost their jobs.
• The economic troubles of Russia and other postcommunist countries were caused by that.

• The Western countries and Japan did not apply the Washington Consensus to their own farmers.
• Many farmers in the rest of the world are locked out of the benefits of globalization because of tariffs and subsidies that were used to promote domestic and export sales of sugar, soybeans, and rice.
• There was little or no progress along the path to economic growth and capitalist prosperity in Africa and Latin America.
• In the first twenty-first century, resentment in the rest of the world against Western agricultural protectionism seemed to be growing.
• It seemed unlikely that a further round of worldwide tariffs would be completed on schedule after the WTO conference in Mexico broke down over this divisive issue.

• It was possible to send waves of money across the world with a few computer keystrokes because of the loosened currency controls.
• The countries in the Far East that had successfully followed the Japanese model of economic growth were vulnerable to international speculators because they depended heavily on foreign investment and credit.
• In 1997 several Far Eastern countries faced massive unemployment and business bankruptcies when speculators who had been scrambling to take advantage of the rise in value of their currencies against the U.S. dollar suddenly became nervous and pulled their money out.

• The crisis allowed the International Monetary Fund to try to dismantle the Far Eastern model of capitalism.
• Thailand, South Korea, and other countries had to cut many links between their governments and private corporations in order to get loans from the International Monetary Fund.
• Governments had to balance their budgets by cutting spending on things like keeping food prices down for the unemployed or helping companies in financial difficulties.
• The 1990s in many Far Eastern countries ended in hardship, even though there were no revolutions.

• Many countries benefited from globalization because they were large and powerful enough to ignore outside pressures to enforce the Washington Consensus.
• India and China had one-third of the world's population.

• Since independence, India has followed the Western model of the welfare state.

• The person is controlling the gaze.
• The Indonesian leader signs an agreement with the International Monetary Fund in 1998 in order to get a loan of billions of dollars.
• His mother had told him to fold his arms when standing in public, and that there was nowhere to sit.
• There was a lot of anger in the Far East at this rebroadcast TV image of an Asian country being insulted by the Western world.

• India's population was expected to reach one billion early in the twenty-first century, but these policies did not bring prosperity.
• As socialism was failing throughout the world, India's government began to privatize state-owned industries and loosen currency controls.
• The government made great efforts to promote education in advanced technical fields, even though it gave up fostering manufacturing industries.

• The Hindu nationalists continued their policies when they came to power in 1998.
• As Hindu believers, they were suspicious of Western religious and cultural influences, but as nationalists, they believed that India must build its prosperity and power within the Western capitalist world.
• As a result, the Indian economy boomed, a rising middle class enjoyed some of the fruits of capitalist prosperity, and the country became a more influential member of the international community.

• The communist challenge to the Western-dominated world order was once led by China.
• The rise to power of Deng Xiaoping, a veteran communist whom Mao had previously persecuted for his moderation, began the long march back to capitalism in 1976.

• Deng's first move was to return land ownership to individual farm families.
• Deng allowed greater flexibility and individual initiative in the management of state-owned industrial enterprises.
• The pace of change was controlled by the government.
• It allowed domestic and foreign investors to invest in new industries, but it took a long time to privatize existing ones.
• It held down the value of the Chinese currency in order to make Chinese products cheaper for foreigners to buy.
• Deng was the one who upheld the authority of the Communist party.
• A swelling "democracy movement," centered in the universities and supported by many workers dissatisfied with their pay and conditions, challenged the party's authority in 1989.
• The army attacked the demonstrators in Beijing's Tiananmen Square.
• The democracy movement collapsed after as many as 2,600 people were killed.

• The combination of political dictatorship and carefully managed economic liberalization was to channel the energy of the Chinese population into prosperity within the global economy.
• China's economy grew without a pause throughout the 1990s and into the twenty-first century, and in 2002 Jiang Zemin's government showed its confidence in the country's global future by joining the WTO.
• Millions of people began to enjoy modest fruits of capitalist prosperity in China.

• There were many millions of people in China and India who were poor, and there were bitter differences between the rich and poor.
• In both countries, the dream of wealth, leisure, and well-being for all had only been partially realized, and disappointed hopes could still lead to social conflict.

• Conflicts and disputes within Western countries were caused by economic globalization.
• It was supported by the main wielders of economic power.
• Many labor unions, churches, and charitable organizations, as well as a widespread, mostly youthful, international protest movement, criticized and opposed it.

• The opponents of globalization blamed it for many things.
• The loss of high-paying industrial jobs and the decline of union membership in the West, the desperate poverty of the global South, the ruthless exploitation in Asian sweatshops, and the destruction of the natural environment were all laid at the door of economic globalization.
• Massive protest demonstrations turned violent in 1999 when the annual meeting of the WTO was in Seattle.
• The meetings of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund as well as the WTO were accompanied by such demonstrations.

• Defending globalization said that the loss of industrial jobs was due to automation rather than free trade, and that cheap imports from overseas raised the standard of living of consumers.
• They claimed that Asian workers who found jobs in c hapter 17: western civilization in the world of today sweatshops, however badly they were exploited, were still taking a first step away from alternatives that were even worse.
• In tropical lands, peasants in need of farms to feed their families destroyed the rain forest just as much as multinational corporations did, they argued.

• The arguments on both sides were similar to those that raged in the 19th century over issues such as the growth of cities, conditions in the factories, and tariffs and trade.
• Many on both sides of the argument recognized that globalization was unstoppable.
• Who should manage and control it was one of the real questions.

• Outside the countries of the Western heartland, this last issue aroused more concern than any other.
• The biggest source of public indignation was the feeling that the leading countries of the West were exploiting the rest of the world.

• The West did not escape the effects of globalization, and many countries gained from it.
• In 1996, the G7 countries put into effect a policy of forgiving part of the billions of dollars owed them by the most indebted poor countries.

• The international community's richest citizens did not hesitate to use their power to solve their economic problems at the expense of the rest of the world when they saw a chance to do so.

• In the 1993 GATT negotiations, the West resisted free trade in farm products in order to expose Western farmers to the competition of other farmers.

• The Far Eastern financial crisis of 1997 threw millions of workers out of jobs and enabled Western investors to buy up businesses at bargain prices, but it also ensured that no Western bank went out of business.

• The Federal Reserve Bank helped organize a loan to Long Term Capital Management, a huge private financial company, when the Far Eastern financial crisis led to crises in North America and Europe.

• The stock market crash that would have thrown many U.S. workers out of their jobs if the company's failure had not been intervention by the Treasury.
• The International Monetary Fund forbidding to one Far Eastern government after another, regardless of the loss of Far Eastern jobs, was just the kind of action that was taken.

• The leaders of the international community would be more damaging to the legitimacy of the Western countries than their refusal to abide by the rules that they tried to impose on the global economy.

• In addition, the mistakes and failures of globalization under the leadership of the Western world contributed to the problems and conflicts in both the postcommunist countries of eastern Europe and the postcolonial world of Asia and Africa.

• Most of the ex-communist countries were outside of Western civilization, with religious and cultural identities not too different from those of the Western heartland.
• Their people wanted to join the world order on equal terms with their leading countries.
• The process was long and difficult in practice.

• For the people of eastern Europe, democratic freedom and capitalist prosperity were not possible unless they won national independence.
• They were not certain of achieving this simply by breaking their ties of subjection to their eastern neighbor, Russia, for they also had a western neighbor that had threatened their independence in the past.
• The eastern Europeans believed that they needed a structure that would protect them against Russia, prevent them from being dominated by Germany, and also suppress their own rivalries and conflicts which tempted their neighbors to intervene in their affairs.
• Most eastern European leaders believed they could find this structure as a NATO member.
• Germany was balanced by other powerful countries, including the United States, and NATO was stronger than Russia.

• All of the NATO countries were willing to do whatever was necessary to prevent the collapse of communism in eastern Europe.
• They decided in 1994 that NATO should expand eastward, and in 1999 the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland joined the alliance.
• Two countries that had been part of Yugoslavia were added to NATO five years later.

• The Baltic countries were part of the Soviet Union.

• The Czech Republic, Hun gary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia seem to be making successful political and economic transitions to Western-style democracy and capitalism.
• In many cases, the transitions involved cooperation and conflict among leaders of anticommunist resistance who now became national heroes, eager privatizers who wished to introduce free-market capitalism overnight, and Communist parties that changed their names to accept democracy.

• The adjustment to capitalism proved to be much harder than expected and this call had wide appeal.
• Massive unemployment was caused by many noncompetitive industries being closed down.
• Privatization led to corruption, stock market crashes, and sell-offs of assets to Western companies.
• While they were happy with democratic freedoms, people began to miss the economic security of communism.
• Government regulation and intervention made free markets less chaotic in the late 1990s, and the large number of well-educated and unemployed workers began to attract global corporations to build plants and offices.
• All five countries joined the European Union in 2003 as a sign of their continued confidence in the EU.

• The early medieval border between Catholic and Orthodox Europe was reached with this expansion.
• The problems of economic and political adjustment were worse beyond that line.
• The two countries were expected to join the EU in 2007.

• In Europe, the Caucasus, and central Asia, poverty and corruption are endemic, and former Communist party bosses have made successful transitions to become nationalist dictators.

• The first two Russian rulers were Peter the Great and Stalin.
• To seek equality of wealth and power with the West through a program of breakneck Westernization.

• Yeltsin presided over a lot of Russian misfortune.
• Even within the Communist party, there seemed to be general acceptance that traditional communism was dead and would never be resurrected, and a rough-and-tumble version of democratic politics seemed to have won legitimacy.

• In the ten years after the end of the Soviet Union, most Russians fell into poverty and squalor.
• Privatization led to the plundering of the country's assets by wealthy tycoons and mobsters, the spreading of the Far Eastern financial crisis to Russia, and an International Monetary Fund loan to prevent bankruptcy.
• The economy's production of goods and services fell to two-thirds of what it was in China.
• The newly independent Baltic republics made their way into NATO and the U.S. oil companies took over oil fields in central Asia as Russia fell far from its former status as a superpower.
• The Russian government was unable to collect taxes, the armed forces were in decline, and the space program was only kept going by U.S. subsidies.

• Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, was elected president in 2000 and wants to strengthen the state, rein in the tycoons and restore Russia's standard of living.
• Russia's economy had begun to grow again by 2004, after he had accomplished the first two objectives.

• Even though Putin's methods included manipulation of the mass media and intimidation of opponents, he was reelected president in a landslide even though he gained widespread trust and respect among the voters.

• Yeltsin and Putin had to deal with an ethnic and religious conflict in Russia after the fall of the Communist dictatorship.

• Chechnya, a territory within Russia with a long history of resistance to rule from Moscow, moved in 1995 to achieve complete independence.

• Yeltsin considered the matter to be a test of the strength of the Russian state and the effectiveness of his presidency.
• Chechnya appears to be set for independence after a bitter war between the Russians and Chechens in which the Russians suffered many setbacks and eventually withdrew.
• The conflict resumed in 1999 after Moscow provoked Islamic fundamentalist forces in Chechnya with raids on neighboring territories.
• The Russians were left with an apparently unwinnable guerrilla war on their hands after they reoccupied the territory.

• Russia was weakened by the Chechen war at a time when it needed to be turned into a prosperous and powerful modern country.
• The Western countries were careful to treat Russia respectfully because it had a world-destroying arsenal of nuclear weapons.
• Yeltsin was invited to the annual meeting of the G7 leaders in 1997.
• Russia was seen as a partner by NATO rather than an adversary.
• NATO's eastward expansion strained the partnership, but in 2002 a NATO-Russia Joint Council was established to deal with common threats.
• Russia is still a long way from truly joining the West on equal terms, as it is still in a state of resentful dependence on its former capitalist rivals.

• The fall of communism in eastern Europe unleashed many long-suppressed national conflicts, but they did not lead to war.
• The orgy of genocide and expulsions of national minorities during and after the Second World War released the most destructive national passions in the region.
• Most eastern European nations were content with their existing borders, and even dissatisfied ones knew that nationalist wars would lay them open to German or Russian interference and prevent them from fulfilling their ambition to join the West on equal terms.
• The United States and the EU countries were determined to damp down national conflicts.

• National ambitions were not satisfied in the Balkans.
• The territory has been made one of half a dozen small, mostly Slavic nations and of three religions by the early medieval barbarian invasions, the schism of the Greek and Latin churches, and the centuries of Turkish rule.
• Rival nationalisms, great power intervention, and two world wars turned these nations against each other.
• After the First World War, western civilization in the world of today united for the first time in their histories to form Yugoslavia, but their rivalries and disputes continued.

• The Communist party took over power after the Second World War.
• Ethnic persecutions and expulsions were avoided by Tito.
• There were strong minorities of other nations in all of the republics except for the northernmost one.

• After the death of Tito in 1980, Communism and federal ties weakened, and nationalist ambitions resurfaced in the Serb republic.
• The Serbs have a glorious medieval past and a recent history of resistance to foreign rule.
• Many of their nation lived as minorities in the neighboring republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina, along with Roman Catholic Croats and Muslim Bosnians, as well as in the main Croat territory, the republic of Croatia.
• The Serbian Communist leader, Slobodan Milosevic, reinvented himself as an extreme nationalist and revived the movement for a "Greater Serbia," to include the entire nation, that had precipitated the First World War in 1914.

• In order to fulfill their own national ambitions, most of the republics declared their independence in 1991, and at that point their hostilities exploded.
• Serbia was the inheritor of the former federal state.
• It formed a new Yugoslavia and tried to gain control of the territories of Serb minorities in Croatia and Bosnia.
• The only country that avoided massacres and ethnic cleansing was Slovenia, which joined less troubled eastern European countries on the path to EU membership.

• The UN established a war crimes tribunal in the Netherlands after sanctions against Serbia.
• NATO sent in western European troops after the European Union brokered cease-fires.
• The ethnic cleansing and massacres went on for four years despite all the measures.
• The armed forces of the EU countries were not strong enough to intimidate the warring parties, and the United States was unwilling to risk its own forces in this European dispute.

• An alliance of Bosnian Croats and Muslims and an army from the Croatian republic helped tip the balance against the Serbs.
• A U.S. initiative brought the parties to a peace agreement.
• The borders of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia were the same as they were in the old Yugoslavia.

• NATO forces and a NATO administrator were supposed to keep the peace in Bosnia, where a Muslim-Croat region and a Serb region were to be created.

• The main ethnic minority in the Serb republic, ethnic Albanians of Muslim faith, were attacked by the Serbs in 1999.

• The map shows the division of Yugoslavia to benefit the Croats, Macedonians, Serbs, and Slovenes.
• Serbians in Croatia and Albanians in Yugoslavia were discontented with their national minorities in the new states.
• NATO forces held together Bosnia, where there was no absolute majority.
• Kosovo gained independence under NATO protection in 1999.
• The lands of former Yugoslavia are balanced between nation building and further redrawing of borders.

• The Albanians were driven out of their province by the Yugoslav army.
• This ruthless example of ethnic cleansing shocked the world community.
• Russia sympathized with the Serbs as a Slav and Orthodox nation, so the United Nations failed to act for fear of a veto.
• The members agreed that the Serbian crimes must be stopped and the refugees allowed to return.

• The United States used its military power to enforce the deci sion.
• The Serbian army and targets were attacked by the air forces.
• Some Muslims fled to other countries after their homes were destroyed.

• The ousting of Milosevic as leader of Serbia was the result of this renewed disaster.
• When he tried to hold on to power despite the elections, he was forced out by massive street demonstrations in the capital city of Belgrade.
• The end of Serb efforts to unite their nation within a single state was welcomed by the NATO countries.

• The leaders of the various republics of the former Yugoslavia were encouraged by the United States and the EU to work together.
• They received financial help and were offered the hope of eventually joining the EU.
• The leaders of the various national groups within the republics were offered the same incentives to work together.

• The governments of the republics were expected to arrest suspected war criminals and send them for trial.
• Milosevic behaved in the courtroom as a victim of a Western conspiracy after the Serbs handed him over.
• Shelter, food, and help were given to victims of ethnic cleansing.
• The help came from NGOs based in western Europe and the United States that helped mobilize volunteers more efficiently than the government.

• Repairing Failed States is about nation building and civil society.
• The West faced an open challenge to its hopes for a harmonious world order in Yugoslavia.
• Lessons from the experience of western Europe during and after the Second World War were used to deal with the challenge.
• Military force would restore order and force warring nations apart.

• The task of reconstruction would be easier with financial help.
• Reconciliation and cooperation would bring prosperity and harmony so that national grievances wouldn't matter.
• The punishment of war criminals by legal trials would discourage vengeance and make nations repentance of their crimes.

• The approval of the United Nations would give legitimacy to these and other measures.
• The West was acting in the interests of peace and order in the international community, not just for the sake of its own interests and values.
• After due debate and consultation, the community should give its approval, in its own interest, as well as that of the former Yugoslav nations and of the West.

• It seemed that Yugoslavia, with its complex ethnic and religious mosaic and its peoples unfamiliar with modern democratic government, needed more than the experience of postwar western Europe to help solve its problems.
• Western leaders looked at the lessons of their past to come up with two promising theoretical concepts.

• The idea of applying the lessons of the Western nation-states to the decolonized nations was originally proposed by political scientists.
• A human group acquires the status of a nation in three ways.

• It develops economic links of trade, travel, and communication that overcome the isolation of the smaller communities that make it up, and it creates a powerful and effective government.
• An effective democratic government in which all members of the group participate helps to give them a sense of common national identity is one of the three processes that interact so as to push each other forward.

• Bosnia and Kosovo have obvious relevance to the concept of nation building.
• NATO administrators in those lands need to wield sticks and carrots, NATO troops need to stand guard, and Western NGOs need to provide disinterested help and advice to promote reconciliation and economic development.
• It is possible to turn the Muslims, Croats, and Serbs of Bosnia into Bosnians, and the Albanians and Serbs of Kosovo into Kosovans, without either destroying their ethnic and religious individualities or using force.

• Enlightenment beliefs about the social contract and rulers as agents of society were the basis of this idea.
• In the 1970s, it was revived by dissidents of communist rule in eastern European communist countries.
• Kolakowski believes that the direction of control should be exactly the opposite of what the state tried to do under communism.
• "Civil society" means grassroots networks of organizations and activities separate from the state but influencing and controlling it, which in their view form the foundation of democracy," said Kolakowski.
• Western government leaders and diplomats were inspired by this school of thought and believed that NATO administrators and NGOs should help develop civil societies in Bosnia and Kosovo.

• The combination of force, aid, processes of punishment and reconciliation, and grassroots reforms, all in the name of the international community, was successful.
• The massacres and ethnic cleansing were stopped by it.
• The former Yugoslav states cooperated with each other on matters of common concern.

• Efforts for reconciliation and grassroots rebuilding were not as successful as they could have been.
• The trials at The Hague were essential in the interests of justice, but caused more resentment than repentance among the nations to which the defendants belonged.
• National minorities within each state lived in their own enclaves, guarded by peacekeepers, and resented by the majority population.
• Albanians, Croats, and Serbs were not simply ethnic or religious groups, but members of nations that had already undergone lengthy processes of building.
• They were told to stop building nation-building processes in order to rebuild themselves as Bosnians or Kosovans.
• Many of the groups still see themselves as members of historic nations with the same right to fight for independence and unity as the Germans and Americans.

• The conflicts and rivalries that were unleashed by the end of colonialism in Africa and Asia continued after the fall of communism.
• The leaders of the international community had to take responsibility for the peace and order of the community when ethnic and religious disputes exploded or threatened to explode into war.
• Every postcolonial dispute was a challenge to the West.

• The Western countries were at a disadvantage in meeting these challenges.
• With so many challenges to deal with, Western governments had limited time to spend on any one of them, and they spent much of that time arguing among themselves over what was to be done and which government was to bear the burden of doing it.
• In any case, Western voters were reluctant to spend money and risk lives in interventions where their troops might actually have to fight.

• Western countries were interested in the disputes they claimed to adjudicate.
• The world is still too large and disorganized for anyone to easily steer it.

• Saddam Hussein was favored by the western countries against Iran.
• Saddam's first step to conquering Saudi Arabia was the occupation of Kuwait, a pro-Western Arab state with rich oil fields.

• A month later, in an unprecedented show of unity and determination, the United States led a coalition of powers within the United Nations (including many Arab countries as well as the Soviet Union) to declare and enforce a total trade embargo against Iraq.
• The UN Security Council authorized the coalition powers to resort to military action in January 1991, when it was clear that this measure was insufficient to compel Saddam to withdraw his army.

• The coalition forces, led by the United States, routed the Iraqis.
• Kuwait's independence was restored.
• The Kurds achieved self-government after the U.S. supported a rebellion against Saddam in the north of Iraq.

• Saddam's programs to develop atom bombs, poison gas, and killer germs should be dismantled.

• Hopes for developing effective means for providing global security were raised by this successful demonstration of collective action.
• It showed the limits of what collective action could do.
• Arab members of the Gulf coalition did not want a coalition to overthrow Saddam.
• As Sunni Muslims, they distrusted the Shiites of Iraq who had also rebelled--a feeling that the Western governments shared, since the Shiites were presumed to be proIranian fundamentalists.
• Saddam was able to stay in power because of these reasons.
• The U.S. had trade sanctions in place.

• The outlaw was able to show his defiance despite the international community's victory.

• The Republic of South Africa was the last outpost of colonial rule.
• The leaders of the Afrikaners tried to build a state and society based on the idea of separation of races in order to make whites a privileged ruling group.
• South Africa was isolated during the Cold War because both the rival blocs and the decolonized countries believed in racial harmony.

• The countries on South Africa's borders gained independence in the 70s.
• English-speaking South Africans saw themselves as part of a larger world that had mostly turned against them, even though they benefited from apartheid.
• Hundreds of deaths and imprisonments were caused by growing unrest in the black communities.
• Nelson Mandela, the leader of the banned African National Congress who was serving a life sentence for treason, was one of the most prominent black leaders.
• Both men gained a worldwide moral status like that of Gandhi or Martin Luther King because they preached racial harmony.

• South Africa's economic partners began to cut their commercial and financial ties with the country at the request of Tutu.
• African American leaders in the United States were successful in persuading financial institutions to stop giving loans to South African companies.
• South African business leaders joined the calls for an end to apartheid because they felt that the end was near and the regime was in danger.

• F. W. de Klerk, an Afrikaner and a strong supporter of apartheid who became prime minister in 1989, now believed that only one policy and one leader could save South Africa from civil war.
• Nelson Mandela was the leader of the policy to end apartheid.

• South Africa became a multiracial state over the next five years after de Klerk and Man dela agreed to end apartheid.
• After such a drastic regime change, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission headed by Tutu exposed the crimes of apartheid without putting anyone on trial, as well as the misdeeds of antiapartheid groups.

• There were a lot of problems in the restructured state.
• There was a lot of unemployment among blacks as well as hostility between the races.
• The problem of AIDS was ignored by the government for a long time, even though it was spreading disastrously.
• South Africa remained an advanced economy, a regional power, and an example of peaceful resolution of a historic conflict.

• There were also defeats.
• The international community was unable to prevent many conflicts in Africa and Asia from exploding into war, massacres, and ethnic cleansing.
• The international community could not resolve other postcolonial conflicts that smoldered on without actually bursting into fullscale war.

• The international community did not take action to stop a vicious ethnic war that took place between two former Soviet republics in Asia.
• At least half a million people were killed in central Africa in the summer of 1994 in ethnic fighting, and another hundred thousand died of disease in refugee camps.
• It was the worst act of genocide since the atrocities in Kampuchea in the 1970s, and the international community did nothing to stop it.

• Other African civil wars were more successfully ended by the intervention of the United Nations and sometimes by French or British troops.
• Food relief, medical aid, and help with reconstruction were often supplied by the United Nations and Western-based NGOs.
• The chaos in Africa showed the limits of the international community's ability to maintain peace and order, and of the West's ability and willingness to lead the community when its own vital interests were not involved.

• The end of the Cold War, the end of apartheid, and the united action of Arab states under U.S. leadership in the Gulf War all seemed to point to an end to another lengthy conflict, that of Israel and the Arabs.
• A leading Arab country, Egypt, had recognized the Jewish state a dozen years before, and it was clear that the Arabs could not destroy Israel by force.
• In Lebanon, the Israelis had learned.
• They weren't strong enough to force Arab states to make peace by invading and occupying them.

• The Jewish state could only hold on to these territories by force and oppression.
• The United States, Israel's main supporter and the backer of many Arab governments as well, was eager for a settlement that would help consolidate a harmonious international community under U.S. leadership.

• The key to the settlement of the conflict was a settlement between Israel and the Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza.
• A crucial agreement was concluded in 1993.
• The Palestine Liberation Organization was officially recognized by the Israeli government as the sole representative of the Palestinian people in return for the PLO's recognition of Israel.
• Arafat was elected president under an interim government that granted limited Palestinian self-rule in Gaza and the West Bank.
• An Israeli peace pact with Jordan followed.

• The beginning of a "peace process" that would require painful sacrifice from both sides was what the Israeli-Palestinian agreement was about.
• Most or all of the lands the Israelis had occupied in the West Bank would have to be given up.
• The Palestinians would have to give up hope of returning to the homes they lost in Israel.
• Jerusalem, which both sides claimed was their national capital and which was holy to both Judaism and Islam, would have to be agreed upon by the two sides.

• The official leaders of both sides were unwilling to challenge the opponents of compromise because of strong forces on both sides.
• There is no Israeli government that could stop the expansion of settlements in the West Bank and the oppression of Palestinians in Jerusalem.
• Arafat made only token efforts to stop terrorism by Islamic and nationalist groups, who now send suicide bombers to kill civilians inside Israel.

• Most large Arab towns in the West Bank were included in the Palestinian Authority's area of control in 1995.
• The countryside was under Israeli control.
• The Israeli prime minister, Ehud Barak, made a renewed effort for peace with all of Israel's neighbors.
• He withdrew Israeli forces from southern Lebanon and began negotiations for peace with Israel's other northern neighbor, Syria, as well as for a final settlement with the Palestinians.

• After intensive negotiations between the Israelis and Palestinians, face-to-face meetings of Barak, Arafat, and Clinton were held in the United States.
• Barak for the first time appeared willing to end the occupation of most of the West Bank, but Arafat could not make compromises over Jerusalem and the return of Palestinian refugees.

• The result was an outbreak of fierce fighting between Palestinians and the Israeli army and the election as Israeli prime minister of Ariel Sharon, a believer in the historic right of the Jews to make their homeland in all of the lands west of the Jordan and the main backer of the settlements.
• The death of the Syrian President after many years of power and disagreement over the removal of Israeli territory from Syria caused the negotiations to stall.

• The United States and the western Europeans supported the peace process as best they could because of their support for the Palestinian Authority.

• The peace process was halted because one party or both parties were unwilling to make compromises necessary for compromise.

• Western power was used to influence the conflict between India and Pakistan.
• The two countries had fought each other in the past, but in the postcommunist era, rival fundamentalisms drove them onto a collision course.

• There was an uneasy balance of power between the army and fundamentalist Muslim political parties in Pakistan.

• Army generals were able to overthrow politicians who they thought were corrupt or who tried to bring the military under civilian control.
• Challenging the growing power of fundamentalist Islam was one thing, but overthrowing politicians was another.
• The generals had to compromise with fundamentalism or risk revolution in the country.
• The army and Islamic fundamentalists collaborated to undermine Indian rule over a Muslim majority in the part of Kashmir that India controlled.

• There were two developments in India, one of which was the rise of Hindu nationalism.

• Hindu nationalism, like Islamic fundamentalism, is a movement that reestablishes traditional religious belief in a stricter form than was usual in the past, despises other religions, and is suspicious of cultural influences from the West.
• It is not an international movement but a nationalist one.
• Indian Hindu revivalists have made little effort to spread their influence to other Hindu peoples in southern Asia, but they have been intent on building up the power and prosperity of India.

• The secular Congress party had steered India to independence and had been the main governing party since then, but Hindu nationalist parties became an increasingly formidable threat during the 1990s.
• The rise of Hindu nationalism was accompanied by repeated bloody clashes with India's religious minorities--Sikhs, Christians, and above all the country's 140 million Muslims, who make up nearly onesixth of the population.
• Hindu extremists tried to turn Muslim shrines into Hindu temples.
• In 1998, the main Hindu nationalist party took over from the Congress as the largest party in the Indian parliament.

• After the United States imposed mild economic sanctions, the governing party decided to authorize underground tests of three atomic weapons and two more.
• In 1974 India tested a nuclear device, but since then Pakistan has been working on its own nuclear program.
• To show that India was a great Hindu nation that could not be trifled with was the main point of the tests.
• Two weeks later, the Pakistanis exploded their own atom bombs.
• The United States imposed mild sanctions again.

• The two South Asian nuclear powers almost went to war in 1999 after Muslim militant made incursions into Kashmir.
• The fact that two important non-Western members of the international community were able to ignore the wishes of the leading Western member did not make a difference.

• The hatreds resulting from these struggles helped nourish the one international ideology that still rejected and sought to overthrow the Western-dominated world order, Islamic fundamentalism.
• Fuel to the flames of many conflicts was added by fundamentalist Islam.
• Two of the threatening problems of the 1980s were made by the continuing conflicts.

• Islamic fundamentalism developed into an international movement opposed to the existing world order.
• There were countries where Islamic fundamentalism was in power, countries where it was a strong movement without actually being in power, and countries where it was repressed.
• Unlike communism, it had no worldwide appeal but affected only Muslim communities and even countries that suppressed it had to find a way to live with it.

• If anything, Islamic fundamentalism helped it to spread.

• Iran remained the leading Islamic fundamentalist country.
• The future of Islamic fundamentalism as a Muslim alternative world order did not look promising if Iran was any guide.
• Iran restored normal relations with most Western countries other than the United States after the disastrous war against Iraq in the 1980s.
• There were signs of a reaction against fundamentalism within the Iranian society.
• A struggle began between "reforming" and "conservative" groups after the election of a moderate president.
• The conservatives usually had the upper hand.
• The country seemed to be condemned to political and economic stagnation, even though the conservatives had lost their militancy.
• If the reformers were to win, the result would be a liberalized Islamic society but no longer a militant challenge to the world order.

• The lead in Islamic extremism went to Afghani stan after Iranian militancy died down.
• After years of civil war, the Taliban came to power in 1996, after the soviet troops had left.
• The new regime imposed the strictest version of Islamic law yet seen, including prohibitions on any kind of activity by women outside the home, in contrast to the Iranian fundamentalists who mobilized women for their own religious and political purposes.
• The Taliban regime was ostracized by most of the world, and had unfriendly relations with Iran because they were Sunni Muslims.

• It used many modern methods, such as political parties, TV stations, and Web sites, in addition to its appeal to religious tradition and resentment of the West.
• Christian missionary organizations and Western NGOs often bring food relief and medical help to impoverished Muslim regions such as Gaza or Shiite districts in Lebanon, performing the same tasks as fundamentalists.

• Islamic fundamentalism wanted to overthrow secular Arab nationalist governments like those of Iraq, Syria, or Algeria, and those that were supported by the United States.
• In Pakistan, the territories under the Palestinian Authority, Saudi Arabia, and Nigeria, fundamentalist movements had more or less freedom to operate and a larger or smaller share of government power.
• Some countries had to give the movement some room.
• They allowed radical propaganda against the United States, Israel, and the West in general.

• Nuclear weapons as a symbol of national power and a deterrent against attack were not the only things that India and Pakistan wanted.
• Some countries looked to new and deadly poison gases as well as to new and lethal strains ofbacteria as cheaper alternatives to the expensive and difficult to produce atom bombs.

• After the Gulf War, Iraq's efforts to make such weapons were stopped by the UN, and even after it expelled the inspectors, they were not successfully revived.
• After the fall of the Soviet Union in the 1980s, North Korea began to develop nuclear weapons.
• To solve the problem of making atom bombs in the 1990s, it exchanged nuclear technology with Pakistan and Iran, where both conservatives and reformers were eager for nuclear prestige and power against Israel and the United States.
• Libya and Syria, where the rulers wanted the reassurance of having weapons of mass destruction, concentrated on the more easily developed poison gas and killer germs.

• Most of the WMD efforts made slow progress in the 1990s.
• The attractions were kept as a way for unofficial groups to carry on conflicts against organized states and for weaker states to harass stronger ones.
• The Internet and e-mail made it easier for terrorist groups to spread their messages.
• Terrorist acts became more difficult to stop as perpetrators appeared to not have the desire to save their own lives.

• In the 1980s, suicide bombing was used by Syrian-backed Muslim groups against U.S., French, and Israeli troops in Lebanon.
• The use of suicide bombers against civilians increased in the 1990s.
• The Islamic Resistance Movement, a Palestinian fundamentalist organization, took up suicide bombing as a way of disrupting the peace process in order to annoy the Israelis and weaken the Palestinian Authority.

• Saddam Hussein knew that the families ofmartyrs received large gifts of money from both Syria and Iran.

• A new and formidable terrorist group or network of groups was emerging, which received little or no support from the traditional state backers of terrorism.
• Osama bin Laden was the son of a wealthy Saudi Arabian building contractor and had a lot of money.
• A Sunni Muslim fundamentalist who despised the secular dictatorships of Syria and Iraq as well as the no-longer-militant Shiite fundamentalism of Iran, bin Laden first "invested" his wealth in recruiting fighters against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.
• After arriving in that country, the recruits had to register in camps or "bases" financed by bin Laden, and soon he began calling his organization "The Base".

• After the Soviets left Afghanistan, bin Laden turned his organization into a global network of terrorist groups, first in Sudan and later in Afghanistan, under the rule of the Sunni fundamentalist Taliban movement.
• The United States was chosen as a new target because it was more dangerous to attack than Israel.

• The United States was the most deadly threat to Islam according to bin Laden.
• The puppetmaster of many Arab governments, including that of Saudi Arabia, was the backer of the Jewish state.
• The land of the holiest of mosques in the world, Saudi Arabia, was insulted by its stationing of unbelieving troops during and after the Gulf War.
• In 1995 and 1996 groups affiliated with Al Qaeda carried out truck bombings of U.S. installations in Saudi Arabia.

• It was a threat to the international community because of its inhumanity and because it was a kind of private violence on an international scale.

• The international community was against the development of WMDs.
• Treaties against the development of nuclear and biological weapons were negotiated in the 1970s, and a similar treaty went into effect against chemical weapons in 1993.
• The interests of the international community's leading Western members were against the interests of terrorism and the proliferation of WMDs.

• The wars in Yugoslavia and Africa killed many people, but the dangers of proliferation seemed remote.
• The bombing of a government building in Oklahoma City in 1995 made domestic terrorism an issue.
• In 1998, the bombing of the embassy in Kenya and the U.S. air raids on Al Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan preoccupied the public for a shorter time than the president's sex life.

• Bin Laden and his associates were making plans.
• None of their attacks have involved suicidal "martyrs," and most of them were far away from the United States.
• They had a plan to destroy the United States and unite Islam behind Al Qaeda.
• In 1993, a group of Muslims affiliated with Al Qaeda tried to destroy the World Trade Center in New York with a truck bomb, but were unsuccessful.
• Combining the old terrorist technique of airplane hijacking with the newer method of suicide bombing would be more effective.
• By the end of the 1990s, a terrible deed was about to be carried out that would cause more upheaval in the international community than any event since the fall of communism.

• Western thought and art continued to respond to and influence changes in the civilization of which they were part after the fall of communism.
• Postmodernism gave rise to bitter disputes because it was one of many competing schools of thought and art within Western civilization.
• As a general outlook and way of thinking, its influence has been felt in both the Western and non-Western world.

• The name of the movement came from the fact that it criticized some features of the first half of the twentieth century.

• Postmodernism attacked the claims of competing twentieth-century ideologies to control the lives and thoughts of individuals, the tendency to regard works of art as objects separate from and above the life of their times, and the assumption that the experience of Western civilization in thought, art, and every.

• The name Postmodernism suggested that the movement came after the first half of the twentieth century, and that the art and thought of the first half of the twentieth century had come to an end.
• Postmodernism took many of its basic features from secular ideologies and Modernist artistic styles that it criticized, as well as from earlier Western thinkers and artists back to the ancient Greeks.
• As the West encounters the rest of the world in the era of the birth of global civilization, Postmodernism is seen as a new phase of Modernism and of Western thought and art in general.

• There is an opposing Western tradition of denying the existence or the possibility of finding such a truth and questioning the motives of those who search for it.
• Postmodernism, the latest version of the tradition of doubt and denial, has arisen in opposition to recent developments in the tradition of searching for a single truth.

• Over the centuries, the Western search for truth has taken many different forms.
• The search of philosophers from Plato onward, the religious search of Jewish prophets and Christian saints, and the scientific search ofNewton and Darwin have all taken place.
• They have often debated whether they found it or not.
• All societies throughout the world should reflect and uphold a single truth that is valid for the world and the human race as a whole, and that all individuals should recognize and obey it.

• In ancient and medieval times, Western societies only had the power to force truth within their own territories.
• Western hopes grew high of spreading knowledge of truth and making individual human behavior conform to it throughout the world when exploration and empire building gave Western civilization worldwide reach.

• There were many different forms of efforts to bring this about.
• Enlightenment said that mankind must free itself from tyranny and superstition so as to progress.
• Conflicts among world orders inspired by these and other Western versions of truth have been a part of the history of modern global civilization.

• The search for truth and the enforcement of it in the name of individual behavior has been found to be undermined by many different ways of questioning.
• Doubting philosophers have argued that truth and moral standards vary for different individuals and communities, or that language cannot describe any truth beyond what we see and feel, or that there is no way to prove that the same causes will always be followed by the same effects.
• The theme of desire bursting through social constraints and group boundaries has been celebrated by writers and artists.
• They and their publics have been delighted in scenes of eager young couples courting at the back door while parents watch, Christian knights being carried away by passion for beautiful Muslim captives, or of the little love god amusing himself by driving gods and humans alike into helpless sexual frenzy.

• In the 19th and 20th century, with their highly structured mass soci eties and their secular ideologies proclaiming many competing versions of universal truth, philosophers such as Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Sartre turned doubt and denial into protest against the ideas of the search for truth and the enforcement The proclaimers of rival ideologies undermined each other's searches for truth by declaring them to be motivated by one form or another of the urge to power.
• Marxists claimed that the Enlightenment values of universal freedom and equality were disguises for bourgeois exploitation of the proletariat, while opponents of Marxism insisted that the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat actually meant the tyranny of self-appointed intellectuals.

• Science set limits to its own search for truth with the principles of c hapter 17: western civilization in the world of today and uncertainty, and Freudian psychoanalysts portrayed the human personality as a battleground between the conscious mind and formless urges.
• Postmodernism draws on all these sources to protest against the search for truth and the celebration of liberated desire.

• Postmodernism began in France in the 1960s.
• France had a capitalist-democratic social order that was supported by a consumer society.
• It had a powerful Communist party, but it was losing its zeal to revolution, and the heavy-handed Soviet dictatorship was tarnishing communism as an ideal.
• Massive student demonstrations in Paris almost overthrew the government in 1968, and there was also a thriving and widespread student counterculture.
• The Communist party joined forces with the government to suppress the movement when it was threatening to spread to workers who had been left behind.

• The events of 1968 confirmed the belief of some Marxists that capitalism was a means by which to manipulate the people, and that the soviet-led international communist movement was not overthrowing capitalist conformism.
• Postmodernism was born among French Marxists.

• Foucault was one of the most influential pioneers of Postmodern thought.
• Foucault found 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299

• The most radical criticism of this tradition in Western history was made by Foucault.
• One of the basic assumptions behind the Western scientific outlook is that if we perceive the truth about something, we can control it or at least predict how it will behave.
• Foucault assumed that how we perceive things depends on our need to control them.
• The world becomes subject to our power through general systems of interpreting it.

• According to Foucault, truth is something outside and apart from human beings and their needs.
• Human beings are able to acquire knowledge by observing each other and the world and standing outside and apart from each other.
• It is possible to claim that power is exercised in the name of known truth and that claim in turn justify power in the eyes of both those who wield it and those who are subjected to it.

• He said that the sciences did not accurately describe and predict true facts.

• He claimed that the "sciences of sex" were a way of controlling the most intimate aspects of human feeling and behavior, defining only one behavior as normal and all others as deviant.
• He believed that these urges are capable of taking many different shapes.
• Wanting to fulfill all its possibilities of expression is what true freedom is all about.

• Many of Foucault's basic ideas are shared by another leading Postmodern thinker, Jacques Derrida, but he focuses on one particular means of representation in thought and art, written language.
• He believes that the structure of language determines what we perceive, unlike Foucault who believes that language is an instrument with which we can perceive ourselves and the world exactly as they are.
• Language has a life of its own.
• Individual words have a long history and are used in many different ways, so that they evoke many different associations today.
• The associations of "thought" range from the deepest wisdom to "I tawt I a puddy tat", as in "I tawt I a puddy tat".

• All authors who compose written texts in any field of thought, art, or everyday life can't be sure that their words will have the same meanings and associations for their readers as for themselves.
• They don't know if readers will understand what they intend to say.
• Since their intentions are ultimately determined by shapeless desire, authors cannot know what they intend to say.
• The existence of written texts is not the product of a single definable intention on the part of an author, and they are ambiguous with multiple meanings.
• The concept of deconstruction has had a large influence on the work of writers.

• Jean-Francois Lyotard was the one who dealt with political and social issues the most.

• The Postmodern belief is that freedom is the release of desire to take what you want.

• The human race is reconstructed on the basis of truths discovered by reason.
• All grand narratives have been discredited in postmodern society, but large social structures such as governments, corporations, and the mass media can still control the production of knowledge and manipulate individuals.
• There is no violence or grand narratives to justify it.

• Small groups and individuals must insist on their own narratives.
• They should try to influence politics through coalitions of groups that unite for specific short-term purposes and then go their separate ways, or through larger movements that unite around a single issue.
• Many recent political movements, such as the antiglobalization campaign, have taken this form, though without bringing about basic changes in the economic or political order.
• In postmodern society, the mass power of governments, corporations, and the media can be caught off guard by political guerrilla warfare.

• The relationship between the Western heartland countries and the rest of the world is related to the themes of power and control and the normal One versus the deviant Other.
• Edward W. Said, a Palestinian American cultural historian and literary critic, was the most influential thinker to explore this relationship from a Postmodern viewpoint.
• What Foucault did for the study of criminality or madness is what Said did for the study of Islam.
• He attacked orientalism as a controlling discourse, which defined "West" and "East" as opposites, subjected the East to the West's controlling gaze, and described the features of both in such a way as to establish Western domination and Eastern subjection as the natural order of

• The Postcolonialists look for signs of both the Western and colonial gaze changing and merging as a result of their encounter.

• The social and cultural attitudes of the Western heartland are criticized by postcolonial thinkers.
• The Postcolonial ists do not agree with the Western narratives of nationalism, progress, and traditional Christianity, all of which have appeal in the non-Western world, as well as locally produced grand narratives such as Islamic fundamentalism.
• Postcolonialism has less influence on the non-Western world than it does on the Western heartland and Latin America.
• Edward Said was revered by some and despised by others in literary and cultural circles in the United States and other Western countries.
• The revolutionary nationalists and Islamic fundamentalists paid little attention to him.
• The main effect of Postcolonialism has been to change attitudes within Western civilization to the rest of the world.

• Few can escape the influence of modern thought in Western societies.
• Before the 1970s, there were no items of everyday speech.
• Postmodern thought has changed the way people think and speak.

• The Western doubters and deniers are not out of the woods yet.
• The battle rages more fiercely than ever before, and on many fronts.
• Conservatives accuse Postmodernists of suppressing individual freedom by defining knowledge and consciousness in terms of ethnic, gender, and sexual group identities.
• The German philosopher, who is a strong believer in the ideals of universal freedom and progress and the breaking down of barriers to communication among human beings, sees Postmodernism as conservative because it denies these ideals and erects barriers to communication.
• Postmodernism, with its rejection of grand narratives of "overthrow" and "revolution" in favor of little narratives of "subversion" and "transgression", is actually working to uphold capitalist oppression.
• Postmodernism is seen as a safety valve in conformist modern society, so as to prevent an explosion.

• Postmodernism's criticisms are variations on the traditional replies of search after truth to doubters and deniers.

• Feminism has felt the force of the arguments for and against Postmodernism more than any other.
• Postmodern ideas correspond in various ways to the hopes and experiences of many feminists.
• Feminism only brought about changes in the status and power of women in society by operating as a grand narrative.

• According to a leading French thinker, women should create their own "feminine symbolic order" similar to that of men.
• The Postmodern logic claims that since women are divided by factors such as class, race, and sexual orientation, there can't be a grand narrative for all of them.

• Feminism has sought to replace one set of social rules with another set of rules to ensure equal status and power for men and women.
• In the name of equality, freedom, and justice--standards recognized as true for both men and women by which male superiority is judged to be bad and gender equality is judged to be good--it has done so.

• These are the assumptions that inspire the work of women's organizations like the National Organization for Women in the United States when it campaigns for laws against sex discrimination in the workplace or for the election of women to public office.
• Many feminists reject Postmodernism because they believe that neither women nor men can ever be truly free if social rules are not respected.

• Post modern feminists have a dilemma between grand narratives and little narratives.

• Postmodernists can't do anything without the ideas of truth and order that they don't like.
• Western searchers after truth and enforcers of behavior cannot do without the humility that should come from thinking they may be mistaken.

• The emergence of postmodern forms of literature and art in the 1960s was due to the fact that the current Western social and cultural changes had outpaced the potential of the prevailing modern styles to express human experience.
• The changes in people's perception of the world brought by mass media or consumer culture, the horrors of totalitarianism and genocide, or the irrationality and chaos that haunt highly were not conveyed in 660-661, 664-668) as practiced in the middle of the twentieth century.

• Changing human experience within a changing society and culture has been depicted by writers and artists since the middle of the nineteenth century.
• The pioneers of Modernist literature and art continued to strive.

• Many writers and artists of the 1960s felt that Mod ernist literature and art had turned away from life.
• The status symbol of a privileged few, who looked down on the low pleasures of mass entertainment, had become "high art".
• It had become self-absorbed, concentrating on empty word play and experiments with visual form and color, instead of expressing or commenting on human experience.
• The mid-twentieth century seemed to have more information and less certainty than ever before, so it was time for art to depict life again.

• Many of the writers and artists who shared these beliefs took Postmodernism as their inspiration and guide, both in their critique of Western literature and art and in their own.
• Postmodern literature and art is a continuation of the modern Western quest to depict changing experience in a changing society and culture.

• In prose literature, traditional methods of telling stories proved equal to the task of conveying trauma and confusion of the twentieth century.
• In the 1950s, writers like Pasternak and Solzhenitsyn were able to depict the bitter experiences of the Russian Revolution.
• The chaos of eastern Europe just after the war was experienced by a Jewish prisoner.

• The rules of telling a story were stretched farther by other writers.

• The U.S. Air Force did not have the "Catch 22 of the title", which states that anyone who wants to leave the air force on the grounds of insanity must be sane.
• The logic of large organizations at war is conveyed by the invention.

• By breaking the flow of time and the rules of probability, this technique of "magic realism" ties together the past and the present, realities and illusions, to show the total experience of Latin America since the Spanish conquest.

• Rushdie's work was in line with the Postmodern belief that one way to weaken the power of fundamentalist Islam is to deconstruct grand narratives.

• It is a tale of the medieval past, set in a Benedectine monastery, with its routine of work and prayer, its mountaintop serenity disturbed by loves and hatreds among the monks, and its library, a vast and mysterious war.
• The novel is a detective story in which a peerless reasoner and his naive companion investigate a murder plot.
• The events in the monastery are linked to a clash between rival versions of ultimate truth, those of the Catholic Church and its heretic opponents.

• Readers who do not know or share the outlook and convictions that inspire these authors, as well as critics who are familiar with their ideas and literary techniques, have been able to claim the works of such writers as Eco.
• Postmodern writing is a new way of doing justice to the richness and strangeness of human experience, which is fiction's traditional task.

• Postmodern is a term used to describe the way in which the visual arts depict things as they appear to the eye.
• The general intent was to bridge the gap between art and life that appeared to have been opened by abstract thinking.
• The methods of bridging it, the views of life that artists have expressed, and the purposes of that gap have all changed under the influence of Postmodern thought.

• Pop Art began in Europe in the 1950s as a way to criticize the consumer culture of the time, and then spread to the United States, where it was used to celebrate the country's culture of mass entertainment.

• The painting shows a young woman weeping, but it isn't a depiction of hopelessness.
• Instead, it is an outsize (4-foot-by-4-foot) picture of a comic-book picture of a young woman weeping, accurate down to the dots of the color printing process, which are faithfully reproduced by the painter's brush.
• The way comic books depict teenage emotion is the subject of the painting.
• Lichtenstein is announcing the merger of popular art, which appeals to people on a level of basic entertainment, and high art, which is supposed to appeal to people on a more idealistic and intellectually demanding level.

• The merger of traditional painting and other media, as well as of mass entertain ment and artistic tradition, was carried farther still by a later school of painting, Superrealism.
• The American is an artist at this school.
• Some objects that symbolized the passage of time and the brevity of life were depicted in still lifes of that period.
• The painting does its best to look like a photograph since it is 8 feet by 8 feet.
• The painting commemorates a tragic event, involving an icon of mass entertainment, that has remained a media legend ever since the suicide of Marilyn Monroe.

• The desire to express the experiences and identities of human groups is one of the reasons for stepping back from the idea of abstract art.

• The term describes a stage of darkness before metals gain the brightness of the sun.
• The belief is a myth, but it symbolizes the horrible experiences of the 20th century and the hope of a better future.

• The black color in the foreground of the painting is indicative of both death and the transformation of substances by fire, in line with ancient scientific and mystical ideas.
• The painting is intended to evoke the experiences of the German nation in the recent past, which still haunt the present.

• reinventing artistic creation Mass entertainment and consumer culture, symbolism and different levels of meaning, and the collective experience of groups are themes of Postmodern thought.
• Postmodern criticism of the idea of human beings as standing apart from and objectively observing the rest of the world has been sought to express by many recent artists.

• They are trying to revise the process of artistic creation so as to create new kinds of art objects.

• Artists claim that the traditional process of artistic creation is similar to the idea of humans objectively observing the world.
• The process begins when an artist stands apart from human experience and imposes a pattern on it.
• The artist creates an object that is different from the experience and duplicate the pattern that he has imposed.
• The object is exposed to the gaze of the viewers so as to maintain the controlling discourse.
• If a work of art incorporates the discourse of a marginalized Other, it is marginalized by being placed in a museum.
• The purpose of the wardencurator is to separate art from the rest of society.
• Next is integration.

• The work doesn't accurately depict something different from itself.
• It is actually a jetty that is spiral in form.
• The play of earth forces that Smithson perceived in the scenery on the shoreline of the Great Salt Lake, Utah, where the jetty is located is what it is intended to express.

• The jetty is part of the scenery and part of a museum.
• It disappears beneath the water when the lake is full and reappears above water only in times of exceptional dry weather.
• The idea of a human depiction of nature as part of the nature that it depicts was part of an environmentalist discourse of humans as one with nature, as opposed to the discourse of humans separate from and controlling nature.

• Postmodern feminism sees the traditional artistic process as part of a con and looks for ways to replace it.
• An object that escapes the bonds of museum confinement and the viewer's gaze in the opposite way to an earthwork creates and encloses the scene, setting up an environment that1-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-6556

• The artwork and scene are a table set for dinner.
• The work is made by a process of women's work that is different from the traditional process of an artist observing experience.
• Needlework and china painting are some of the crafts traditionally assigned to women.
• There is a lot of symbolism.
• The triangular shape of the table is an ancient female symbol, the thirteen place settings on each side are the number of witches in a coven, and the plates are painted with patterns of butterflies and female sexual organs, standing for liberation and female sexuality.
• In Postmodern art, there is written text and a visual presentation, both of which count as text.
• The names of thirty-nine principal guests include the Egyptian pharaoh Hatshepsut, the U.S. women's rights activist Susan B. Anthony, and the British writer Virginia Woolf.
• At the place settings, the names of other distinguished women are engraved on the floor.

• The piece seeks to deconstruct old discourse and construct a new one in order to teach a social or moral lesson.
• The lesson is ambiguous.

• The themes of Smithson's earthwork and Chicago's installa tion are similar to those of western civilization in the world of today's Western art.

• It would seem impossible for a large building to be Postmodern.
• Postmodernism emphasizes indeterminacy and little narratives.
• The work of a highly organized society is what a large building needs to be.
• To build it, clients, real estate developers, local governments, architectural design bureaus, construction companies, trucking firms, and industrial manufacturers all have to work toward a single common end.
• Any large building is a grand narrative in steel and concrete.

• The word "postmodernism" was first used in the architectural field as a way of turning away from the style of art of the 1960's.
• Both attacked the "glass box" style of architecture, Jacobs for destroying the human scale and unplanned diversity of city life, and Venturi for frustrating the human need for variety and complexity.

• The hotel architecture of Las Vegas, for example, was designed by a practicing architect, but he also praised bigness so long as it was also playful and showy.
• Many of the most striking Postmodern buildings have been large.

• The way that Postmodern architects try to make large buildings interesting is by rejecting the idea that form should follow function and that the appearance of a building should reveal its structure.
• They follow a tradition of using the structure of a building to support an exterior that proclaims its own message.
• They are intended to impress worshipers with the beauty of the Roman Catholic Church.
• The way in which Postmodern buildings send messages is the same as in Baroque structures.

• Sometimes the message that Postmodern buildings are intended to send is simply one of subverting the grand narrative of Modernism and of freedom to choose among the decorative styles of the past.

• The AT&T Building forms an ironic contrast with the glass boxes in its neighborhood, so far as any 660-foot corporate skyscraper can be playful and ironical.

• Postmodern buildings celebrate chaos and confusion.

• Perhaps because it is hard for organizations to do business or people to live in structures that are designed to be confusing, most buildings of this kind are intended to be visited rather than lived and worked in.
• In spite of Postmodern distrust of places where art objects are subjected to the public gaze, galleries and museums tend to be.

• The museum's style is called the Deconstructivist, from the French philosopher's term for the process of revealing ambiguity and indeterminacy in texts.
• The ingenious design that stretched computer technology to the limit made this particular "mud pie" and fit it onto an internal load-bearing structure.
• The building's sleek and fluid lines are so complex that they seem almost to stretch the limits of three dimensions, making an unforgettable statement of the ancient idea that change governs all.

• The challenge of replacing a complex of buildings that had been a symbol of global capitalism in such a way as to revive that symbol is daunting and inspiring for architects influenced by Postmodernism.
• It seemed wrong to replace them with replicas that would never be the same as the originals.

• The twin towers were straight and straight against the sky.
• It is next to a cluster of buildings surrounding the memorial to the twin towers.
• The new World Trade Center will grow out of the city and disappear into the sky.
• It may be less assertive of wealth and power than the twin towers, but it may be suggestive of grief and hope.

• The project of an international community steered toward harmony, prosperity, and freedom by the West was a work in progress ten years after the fall of communism.
• The World Trade Center's skyscrapers were like Egyptian pyramids.
• The Statue of Liberty seems to be holding her torch high as if to illuminate them, but this doesn't bother them.

• The principal building of the World Trade Center will be a huge structure, but it won't be complete in itself.
• The architect's rendering shows the tower sloping away to the right but visually balanced by the trade center's lower buildings, while the broadcasting mast rising from its vertical left face seems to acknowledge the upraised arm of the Statue of Liberty.

• The Islamic fundamentalist challenge to the Western-dominated world order was mostly held down by repressive governments in the Muslim world, but had increasing popular support in Muslim countries where it was not in power.
• India and Pakistan were able to overcome the obstacles that the West had put in their way to develop nuclear weapons.
• Terrorist movements within the countries of the Western heartland were mostly losing steam, but Islamic terrorism was better organized than ever before.

• The World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington were badly damaged by Al Qaeda in 2001.

• The attacks were not only against the buildings that suffered, but against the whole idea of a harmonious international community with the West at the helm, and at first, the result seemed to be to reinforce the community's solidarity as Iraq's attack on Kuwait had.
• NATO and the United Nations helped the United States destroy the Taliban regime that harbored Al Qaeda in Afghanistan.
• According to the recipe for rebuilding failed states that had been devised in Bosnia and Kosovo, peacekeeping troops from Britain, France, Germany, and other NATO countries, UN advisers, and nongovernmental volunteers moved in to help the Afghans with the task of building a nation and a civil society.

• After twenty years of civil war and brutal oppression, millions of Afghan refugees returned to their homes and resumed their normal lives.
• Most of Afghanistan's ethnic and religious groups lived under the control of local warlords.
• Osama bin Laden lived in the wild lands on the border of Afghanistan and Pakistan despite the Taliban guerilla movement that troubled much of the country.
• The United States and its Western partners were working in harmony to accomplish Afghan nation building, and they had the support of the rest of the world.

• In the United States, September 11 caused a lot of national grief, pride, and anger, as well as a feeling of frustration at the way the world has operated since the fall of communism.
• The United States, a giant in a world full of dwarfs, had tried to operate by consensus for ten years, and the result was the first successful attack on its mainland territory since the British burned Washington during the War of 1812.

• Bush gained a stature as president that he had not enjoyed since he lost the popular vote but won the electoral college, thanks to a Supreme Court verdict that upheld his narrow victory in Florida.
• He invested the newly acquired political capital in an effort to change the way the international community operates.

• The Bush administration decided that in the future, the United States would use force against all the outlaw and rebel states and movements that had troubled the world since the fall of communism.
• Terrorist movements and states that aided them, states that tried to acquire nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction, Islamic fundamentalist states and movements are all liable to the U.S. attack.

• The Bush administration decided to act on the Clinton administration's decision to overthrow the Iraqi dictatorship of Saddam Hussein, the first step in applying the policy.
• The administration believed that this deed would achieve three things.
• It would end Iraq's efforts to develop WMDs.
• It would make a great example of Saddam.
• Saddam's tyranny would be replaced by a U.S. occupation that would remake Iraq into a secular democratic model for the Islamic world.

• The United States should accept no limits on its freedom of action and no resistance to its will according to the traditional U.S. conservative belief.
• It was influenced by the idea that Muslim resentments were the work of dictators from whom Islam must be freed, and that Islam had no legitimate grievances against the West.

• Both types of conservatives questioned the legitimacy of the international community.
• The UN Human Rights Commission was taken over by countries that were tyrannies and dictatorships, and in 2002 Libya was elected as the commission's president, where torture and imprisonment without trial were routine.

• In the course of heated arguments within the U.S. administration, international minded Republicans, notably Secretary of State Colin Powell, were able to make NATO collaboration and UN authorization part of the plan.
• The UN Security Council would issue an ultimatum to Iraq to readmit UN inspectors, who it had earlier expelled, to search for WMDs, as well as authorize the United States to go, if Iraq refused to cooperate with the inspectors.

• If the U.S. administration could not get cooperation from the international community, it was determined to act without them, and replace them with a coalition of the willing.
• One way or another, the United States would save the world.
• Either the institutions of the international community would follow its lead, or it would set those western civilization aside and dominate the community through a league of states directly headed by itself.

• The country was up to this task for three reasons according to the administration.
• It had so much military power and economic strength that it was able to fight wars and reconstruct countries without bloodshed, and without overburdening its taxpayers.
• Since the United States would be using its might to overthrow brutal dictatorships, end terror, and spread democracy and freedom, sooner or later its actions would command the assent of the world.

• The over throw of Saddam and the building of a secular democratic Iraq would shock the Islamic world and give it an attractive example to follow.
• The War on Terror would take a long time, like the Cold War.
• The Islamic fundamentalist challenge to the world order would collapse like the communist challenge before it.

• The early course of this one did not follow the most optimistic expectations of those who launched it.

• It was not certain what effect the undertaking would have on the organization of global civilization.

• In Afghanistan and Iraq, the U.S. won victories against conventional armies with very little bloodshed on either side.
• In both countries, it got involved in guerrilla wars.
• The Spanish victory against Napoleon and the Vietnam communists' victory against the U.S. were aided by massive outside aid.
• The United States is likely to defeat both insurgencies in the end, but the end is likely to be a long time coming.
• The United States had a third of its army tied up in two countries, and much of the rest was retraining and reequipping.

• The Iraq venture turned out to be much more expensive than Bush and his advisers had thought.
• According to the U.S. administration, the reconstruction of Iraq would be paid for out of the country's oil revenues.
• Iraq's basic equipment and services, including the oil industry, had been almost destroyed by years of war and sanctions, and it became clear that the United States would have to finance the rebuilding.
• The cost of the war and reconstruction went up to $150 billion.
• The U.S. administration's undertaking seemed to be straining the military and economic resources of the United States at the same time as it strained the relationship of the United States with the rest of the international community.

• Only a minority of governments and almost no peoples were prepared to accept the United States in the role it intended to fill, of reliable Trustee for the interests of the world.

• The United States felt that the international community was weak and hypocritical, so much so that it felt that the United States was its single leading citizen.

• The United States was the main target of resentment among "the Rest" against "the West" for its globalization policies.

• Issues that pitted the United States against its Western partners were also occurring.
• The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which 150 nations had already signed, was refused to be confirmed by the U.S. Senate in 1999.
• The divisive issues had become more common since the Bush administration came to power.

• The new administration went to great lengths, including threatening to veto the financing of UN peacekeeping operations, to get its armed forces exempted from the jurisdiction of a newly established Permanent War Crimes Tribunal in The Hague, which was intended to be ready in advance to do justice against any future perpetrators of atrocities like In 1997, the United States and many other nations agreed upon a protocol for reducing emissions of burned fuel suspected of causing global warming.
• The Kyoto Protocol was not submitted to the Senate by the Bush administration.

• There were many arguments in favor of the U.S. decisions.
• Whether global warming is taking place at all, how fast it is taking place, whether it is caused by humans, or both, is still uncer tain.
• Climatologists call it the "precautionary principle", which means that with global warning, it is better to be safe than sorry.
• Even though most of the nations of the world took the judgement about global warming seriously, the United States had the right to refuse to subject itself to painful economic constraints.

• The United States wanted the nations of the world to risk the lives of their troops in war on the basis of uncertainty about what might happen with Iraqi WMDs.
• The United States had refused to obey the will of the international community and now wanted the community to accept its judgement.
• The United States claimed that this was justified since it was correct about both global warming and Iraqi WMDs.
• Most of the community believed that the United States was wrong about global warming, and was wary of a leading citizen that intended to command but refused to obey.

• The United States did not lead a united international effort like it did in the Gulf War and against Afghanistan.
• The United States dragged the international community along with it, with some governments going farther and more eagerly, and others pulling back with all their might.
• Britain sent a third of its army to take part in the invasion of Iraq because of its special relationship with the United States.
• Other western European governments believed that they had a duty to take part in postwar peacekeeping.
• Eastern European governments looked to the United States for protection against their larger neighbors on the east and west.

• India and China, along with the leading non-Western powers, held away from both the war and postwar peacekeeping.
• Germany, which had a chancellor who believed he would lose an election if he did the United States' bidding, broke ranks with the Western partnership and refused to take part.

• France's tradition of accepting U.S. leadership only in times of clear and present danger is what pushed it to veto the Security Council resolution that would have authorized the invasion of Iraq.

• Iraq's possible WMDs seemed less threatening than the prospect of an international community that was dominated by the United States.
• The United States and its allies went to war.

• The resisters of the U.S. action all voted in favor of legitimizing and authorizing UN cooperation with the U.S.-led occupation administration in Iraq.
• The United States was able to get a measure of agreement from the international community by confronting them with an accomplished fact and daring them to oppose it.
• The agreement was not enthusiastic and to judge from opinion polls, the people of countries that stood by the United States were mostly against the war.
• The majority in the United States supported the war, but there were wide swings of opinion afterwards, influenced partly by the events of the occupation and partly by the revelation that on the eve of war, Iraq had not possessed WMDs, or active programs for developing them.

• In the short run, it might resent U.S. intervention, but in the long run, it would be integrated into a global civilization based on secular democracy.

• The project didn't make a lot of progress in the short run.
• Iran and Libya were intimidated by the United States into being more forthcoming about their nuclear ambitions.
• It was not possible to force the Palestinian Authority to act against terrorist groups or to force Arafat to give up his power.
• Instead, the Israelis began building a barrier against suicide bombers that took in part of the disputed West Bank territories, and they talked of evacuating their settlements in Gaza.
• They were preparing for a long struggle to defend themselves against Palestinian terrorism and to hold the most valuable gains that they had made.
• They didn't believe that the United States had the power to impose a settlement on the Palestinians or themselves after the Iraq war.

• Some undemocratic Muslim governments, including Kuwait and other states in the Persian Gulf, introduced or promised measures to increase popular participation in government.
• These measures were designed to make sure that Islamic religious parties wouldn't be able to control governments if they won a majority in the legislature.
• The governments in Muslim countries, such as the one in Tunisia, were confident that the United States would not bother them if they were pro-Western and fundamentalist Islam.

• Most of the people in the Muslim world were angry and dismayed by the war.
• They considered the U.S. effort to impose its values and will, gain control of Middle Eastern oil fields, and bully the Arabs into submission to Israel to be brazen.
• rebuilding Iraq as a prosperous, secular, and democratic state was the main U.S. hope of changing this mood.

• Iraq is being rebuilt.
• Journalists and scholars who were knowledgeable about the Middle East and sympathetic to the administration's plans often advised that Iraq follow the secular and democratic model of a neighboring Muslim country, Turkey.

• Turkey followed the path of Westernizing itself in order to achieve equality with the West after the fall of the Ottoman Empire.
• It had become a country with a free-market economy and political parties.
• Islam, practiced by millions of believers, was both subsidized but also supervised by the state, and was officially restricted in many ways from exercising the kind of open influence on society and politics that would be considered normal for all religions in Western countries.
• The army ousted elected politicians who were too influenced by Islam or left-wing ideologies.
• The leaders of the Islamic-influenced party made a point of proclaiming their belief in secular government and politics.
• The glue that held the state together was shared by all parties.

• The U.S. administration intended to rebuild Iraq on this pat tern.
• The administration believed that the United States would be the one to design the future Iraq, and that the Iraqi people would eagerly work to rebuild their country under U.S. direction.

• Not many people inside Iraq wanted it to be the kind of country that the United States intended for it to be, nor did they have their own vision of what kind of country they wanted to live in.
• The collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1920 led to the creation of Iraq.

• The Kurds did not want to be a part of Iraq because of the harsh treatment they received in Syria and Turkey.
• The Kurds wanted a semi-independent territory in the north of Iraq that would be the core round of a united and independent Kurdistan one day.

• The Shiite Muslims, Arabs living in the south of Iraq hoped for an Iraq where they would be the dominant force.
• They wanted to live in a democracy but didn't want it to be secular.
• They didn't want direct clerical rule as in Iran, but it was clear that the majority in Iraq would support Islamic values and the Shiite ayatollahs would have a lot of influence.

• The areas where the three main religious and national communities dominate are shown on the map.
• All three communities are part of larger groups.
• Iran is mostly Shiite, and Shiite Islam is spread across the Middle East.
• The religion of the Arab world is Sunni Islam.
• The Iraqi Kurds are a fragment of a large nation that lives mainly in Turkey, Iran and Syria.

• The Sunni Arabs had a good life under Saddam Hussein.
• Their territories in central Iraq were the scene of vicious guerrilla warfare against the U.S. occupation and terrorist attacks against Iraqis who cooperated with it.

• The Iraq occupation administration, run by the United States, faced a constant problem of how to impose its idea of a nation on groups that had definite and conflicting ideas of their own.

• This problem was attacked by the United States in many ways.
• Billions of dollars were poured into Iraq to rebuild the country's basic equipment and services.
• The Iraqi Governing Council's members were selected by the occupation administration, but mostly had independent standing in the Shiite, Sunni, and Kurdish com munities, as its Iraqi partner.
• The army and police force would not be controlled by one group.
• It involved its soldiers in many small-scale projects that were intended to win the trust of Iraqis.
• It sponsored elected city councils that made decisions.

• Although most Iraqis were overjoyed to be rid of Saddam Hussein, they didn't show much gratitude or devotion to their liberators.
• The Shiite majority began to lose patience with their status as wards of a non-Muslim and non-Arab occupation regime, which was more threatening to the U.S. project than the Sunni insurgency.
• The administration changed course in the face of growing tension and doubts among U.S. voters.
• The handover of power to the Iraqi government was announced in the middle of 2004, despite the plan to keep troops in Iraq.

• The United States still wanted to have a say in the new Iraq.
• It was intended that the new government wouldn't be elected, and that a new constitution would be drafted by an assembly of small local groups that were appointed by the occupation administration.
• There were administrative problems that made it difficult to hold elections.
• The United States believed that the longer the elections were delayed, the greater its chance of handing over power to an Iraqi government that would share its vision of a secular as well as democratic Iraq, and the greater the chance of Iraqis who shared this vision winning elections when they were finally held.

• The policy ran into trouble early in 2004, when the most influential Shiite cleric called for massive demonstrations against the U.S. caucus plan, on the grounds that any legitimate Iraqi government and constitution must reflect the will of the people as revealed by elections.
• If the UN confirmed that elections were not possible, the ayatollah would accept delayed elections.

• The United States turned to the international community that it had thought of setting aside.
• The difference between the occupiers and the ayatollah was split by a UN delegation.
• The United States wanted elections to be held early in 2005, but Caucuses were politically unacceptable.
• It seemed that the irresistible force of the world's only superpower had met an object in the form of a leader who wielded the power of Islam over the life and society of its believers in Iraq.
• Both submitted their dealings with each other to the verdict of the main institution of the international community.

• An interim constitution was produced by negotiations between the Iraqi Governing Council and the Coali tion Provisional Authority.
• One-quarter of the members of the National Assembly should be women, as well as declaring Islam the state's official religion and source of law, were provisions for democracy and human rights.
• The Shiite majority wanted a minority veto on the future definitive constitution and it was confirmed that the assembly must be elected by early 2005.

• The constitution met some wishes and denied others, including the occupying power.
• Without the US troops and money, the country would collapse.
• The United States was not the designer of the new Iraq, but the one player in a complex game that would determine the country's future.

• This state of affairs was not what President Bush and his advisers had in mind when they decided to attack Iraq.
• It didn't mean that their venture had failed.
• It could also happen that the game in Iraq would end well.
• Iraq might become a country where the values and social structures of Islam and those of the West would be carried on according to new rules, without either fundamentalist terrorism, brutal secular dictatorship, or the attempted exclusion of religious influence from democratic public life.
• Iraq would serve as an example, not just to Islam, but also to the United States, to the West, and to the world as a whole.
• It would show that global civilization must come about through negotiation and compromise, not only through conflict.

• Local and national communities have had to deal with basic issues regarding their structure and values in the past.

• There are many different answers to these questions within Western civilization, from democratic and oligarchic Greek city-states, to pagans and Christians in the Roman Empire, to nobles and peasants.
• Since the fall of communism, the U.S. undertaking in Iraq has raised issues for the international community.

• The answers to questions concerning the future of global civilization as a whole will be affected by the outcome of the undertaking.
• The questions are suggested by the experience of the past.

• Only the future can answer them.

• On the eve of the break up of Yugoslavia, the mood is conveyed in B.

• The Gulf War, the latest phases of the Arab-Israeli conflict, and all other aspects of recent Middle Eastern history are covered in W. L.

• Huntington thinks of a long period of conflict between cultures and values of different types of civilization, and Fukuyama thinks of a rise of a harmonious global civilization.

• The World History Resources Center at http://history.wadsworth.com/west_civ/ offers a variety of tools to help you succeed in this course.

• A page number is displayed in italics.
• There is no separate number for the text on the page.

• The years of reign are shown in parentheses.
• The years shown are for birth and death.

• Important historical terms are marked by the index entries.
• The text shown for that entry explains the meaning of each term.

• Alexander III, the Great, exploited the ancient world in the age of exploration.

• Bosnia was medieval, 295, modern, , Beijing,,,,, Turkish rule,,,,.

• Capitalist class: early modern, 304, 312, 318; medieval, in Marxist thought, 241-243.

• Donatello and David were from Israel and Judah.

• The church in, 229; compact of, 211, 227-228; and the crusades, 275-279, decline, 291-292, Fugger, Jacob.

• West, 622-622, 726-728, and postcommunist Judaea, 50 n. 2, 52, 158, 160.
• Religion and culture of Judah, 50 n. 2, 51, 52.

• Middle Ages: defined, 2,188, 144, and the middle class.

• Phoenicians, 41-42, 115; alphabet, 42, 64; influence, 70, 77, 90-91; and ships, 42, 66.

• English (Puritan), 446-450, fascist, Prussia, 413, 431-432, 458, 465, 475, 476, 480, 577, French (1789), 456-476, Iranian, 622.

• European barbarian, 56-57; and Egyptian, 36.

• Korean, 625-621; Kuwait, 710; Lebanon, 610-611; Postmodernism, 709-710, and Rome, 131, 135.

• Writing, development of, 20-21, 28, 34-35, 85, 224.

Document Outline

• Front Cover

• Title Page

• Copyright

• BRIEF CONTENTS

• CONTENTS

• PREFACE

• PROLOGUE: WHAT IS WESTERN CIVILIZATION?

• Part One: THE ANCIENT WORLD MIDDLE EASTERN AND MEDITERRANEAN CIVILIZATION CHAPTER 1 The Birth of Civilization in the Middle East OVERVIEW The Prehistoric Era The Earliest Cities: Mesopotamia Land of the Pharaohs: Egypt The First Universal Empires: Assyria and Persia The Jews and Monotheism (1200-330 B.C.) Recommended Reading CHAPTER 2 The Greek Beginnings of Western Civilization OVERVIEW The European Barbarians The Aegean Background The City-State Greek Religion The Founders of Western Philosophy Greek Literature Architecture and Sculpture The Decline of the Greek City-States Alexander the Great and the Wider Spread of Greek Culture Recommended Reading CHAPTER 3 The Roman Triumph and Fall OVERVIEW The Rise of Rome The Overthrow of the Republic The Imperial Foundations Approach to One World: Pax Romana Roman Character and Thought Roman Law Architecture and Engineering The End of Rome and the Beginning of Europe Recommended Reading CHAPTER 4 A Conquering New Faith: Christianity OVERVIEW Sources of Christianity The Life and Teachings of Jesus The Early Church and Its Expansion The Growth of Christian Organization and Doctrine The Worldly Victory of the Church Early Christian Monasticism Recommended Reading

• Part Two: MEDIEVAL CIVILIZATION CHAPTER 5 The Creation of Europe: Political and Social Foundations OVERVIEW The Germanic Kingdoms of the West Byzantium and Its Neighbors The Book and Sword of Islam The Carolingians Europe Takes Shape Feudalism Manorialism The Rise of Trade and Towns Recommended Reading CHAPTER 6 The Flowering of Medieval Culture OVERVIEW The Medieval Church Christian Art Thought and Education Language and Literature West and East: The Crusades Recommended Reading

• Part Three: THE REMAKING OF EUROPE CHAPTER 7 The Transformation and Expansion of Europe OVERVIEW Crises and Problems of the Late Middle Ages The New Economy The New Technology The New Politics The New Geography Recommended Reading CHAPTER 8 The Renaissance: Upsurge of Humanism OVERVIEW The Renaissance View of Human Nature The Revolution in Art Literature and Drama Recommended Reading CHAPTER 9 The Reformation: Division and Reform in the Church OVERVIEW Background of the Reformation The Revolt of Luther: "Justification by Faith" Calvin and the Elect: "Predestination" Henry VIII and the Church of England The Roman Catholic Response: Reform and Reaffirmation Art During the Reformation Religion, Politics, and War Recommended Reading

• Part Four: THE RISE OF THE MODERN WEST CHAPTER 10 Absolute Monarchy, Science, and Enlightenment OVERVIEW The Rise of Absolutism The Scientific Revolution of the Seventeenth Century The Impact of Science on Philosophy: The Enlightenment The Rational Spirit in Literature and Art The Classical Age of Music Recommended Reading CHAPTER 11 The First Modern Revolutions OVERVIEW The English Revolution: Parliamentary Supremacy and the Bill of Rights The American Revolution and Constitution The French Revolution: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" Recommended Reading CHAPTER 12 Conservatism, Liberalism and Nationalism OVERVIEW The Conservative Reaction The Romantic Spirit in Literature, Art, and Music The Spread of Liberal Democracy and Nationalism Recommended Reading CHAPTER 13 The Impact of the Machine OVERVIEW The Industrial Revolution The Business Corporation and Capitalist Expansion The Reaction of Labor and Government Urbanization and Standardization of Society The Development of Socialist Thought and Action The Accelerating Progress of Science Literature and Art in the Machine Age Recommended Reading

• Part Five: THE WEST AND THE WORLD IN THE ERA OF GLOBAL CIVILIZATION CHAPTER 14 The West Divided: Imperialism, World War, and Competing World Orders OVERVIEW Imperialism and Europe's World Dominion The First World War and the Decline of Europe Communism in Russia Fascism in Italy and Germany Democratic Collectivism: Evolution of the Welfare States The Second World War and Its Consequences Recommended Reading CHAPTER 15 The West Reunited: The Cold War, Decolonization, and the End of Communism OVERVIEW The Bipolar World Order The Liquidation of Imperial Rule The Third World and the West: Resistance, Cooperation, and Islamic Fundamentalism Worldwide Problems of the 1980s End of the Postwar (Cold War) Era Recommended Reading CHAPTER 16 The Revolution in Western Culture OVERVIEW The Onrush of Science and Technology Reconstruction in Western Philosophy and Religion The Shifting Ways of Society Modernism in Literature and the Arts Recommended Reading CHAPTER 17 Western Civilization in the World of Today OVERVIEW The West and the Postcommunist World: The Ideal of an International Community The West in the 1990s: Continuing Partnership, Evolving Partners The Global Economy: "The West and the Rest" The Former "East": Trying to Join the West The Postcolonial World: The Limits of Western Leadership Between Protest and Affirmation: The Postmodern Outlook Postmodern Literature and Art September 11, the West, and the World Recommended Reading

• Index