We can't learn unless we remember what happened the last time a situation arose, and that's the key to our survival.

Discuss how sleep, exercise, and diet affect recall and recognition.

It will be clear in this chapter that memory is a process and that it has a place in the brain as well.

Encoding is a set of mental operations that people perform to convert sensory information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems.

Sensory information can be turned into signals for the brain.

Depending on the system of memory being used, the period of time will be a set of mental operations.

When people perform on sensory information to one system of memory, they hold on to it for a long time so that they can convert it into a form.

In another system of memory, people hold onto information that is usable in the brain's storage more or less permanently.

The way information puter processes memory is the focus of this approach.

This model shows the processes of storage and retrieval.

The simultaneous processing allows people to retrieve many different aspects of a memory at the same time.

The information-processing model assumes that the length of time that a mem ory will be remembered depends on the stage of memory in which it is stored.

The effort made to understand the meaning of the information depends on the depth.

If those people were asked to use that word in a sentence, they would have to think about what a ball is and how it can be used.

Experiments have shown that thinking about the meaning of something leads to a longer retention of the word.

The "big picture" view of how the various memory systems relate to each other is provided by the information-processing model.

The strength of the parallel connections within each of the three memory systems can be addressed by the depth to which information is processed.

While the information-processing model is no longer the primary way researchers view the processes of memory, it is still important and provides a handy way to talk about how memory seems to work.

We're going to explore a lot of memory concepts in this chapter, and we're going to look at many of them in the framework of this older model, so it's a little easier to talk about them.

If you specialize in the study of memory, you will have a better grasp of the theories because you know the history of them.

Information-processing theory bases its model for human thought on the way that a computer works.

The computer stores that information on a disc, hard drive, or a memory stick, and then the data are retrieved out of storage as needed.

The information will enter and be stored in long-term memory if enough rehearsal is given.

Think of it as a door that is open for a short time.

The first stage of memory is where a lot of people and objects are, but only a few of them will actually make it through the door.

People have a "memory" for information that can be accessed if needed, if the neural messages are traveling through the system.

Imagine that Elaina is driving down the street, looking at the people and cars on either side of her vehicle.

Her eyes had already moved past the possibly pantless person, but some part of her brain must have just processed what she saw.

This is called a double take and can only be explained by a brief recollection of what she saw.

An example of how the visual sensory system works is seeing a possibly pantless person.

In his early studies, George Sperling found that if he presented a grid of letters using a machine that was very fast, his subjects could only remember about four or five of them.

The human tendency to read from top to bottom takes a long time, and the letters on the bottom of the grid may have faded from memory by the time the person had read the letters at the top.

They couldn't see just one row in advance because they didn't hear the tone until after the grid went away.

A grid of letters for Sperling's test of memory.

If Sperling delayed the tone for a short time after about a second, subjects could no longer remember letters from the grid any better than they had during the whole report procedure.

Having a good memory and eidetic imagery ability are different things.

People with eidetic imagery ability can look at a page in a book, then look at a blank wall or piece of paper to read the words from the image that is still in their brain.

It is not known why some people have this ability, but it is more common in children and tends to diminish by adolescence or young adulthood.

The visual system relies on the memory for important functions.

The visual system can see surroundings as continuous and stable despite the saccadic movements.

It allows the brain to decide if the information is important enough to be a creative artist of Picasso's time.

You didn't process the other person's ability to see a visual memory as he or she said it.

The capacity of echoic memory is limited to what can be heard at any one time and it lasts less than 2 seconds.

When a person wants to have meaningful conversations with others, echoic memory is very useful.

It allows people to hold on to the information for long enough for the lower brain centers to determine if processing by higher brain centers is needed.

echoic memory allows a musician to tune a musical instrument.

The memory of the tuning fork's tone is long enough for a person to match it on the instrument.

If the incoming sensory message is important enough to enter consciousness, it's time to tune.

echoic sensory memory is required for tuning a piano.

To be consciously analyzed for meaning in STM, you need a stimulus that is important enough to be determined by a kind of "pre-analysis" done by the attention centers in the brain stem.

It is difficult to explain the "cocktail-party effect" that has been established in studies of perception and attention.

If you've ever been at a party where there's a lot of noise and several conversations going on in the background but you are still able to notice when someone says your name, you have experienced this effect.

Even though you weren't consciously aware of it, the areas of the brain that are involved in attention were working.

You were not paying attention to the other background noise when your name appeared, but those areas were able to keep the information in your conscious awareness.

People tend to talk inside their heads.

Although some images are stored in a kind of visual "sketchpad", auditory storage accounts for a lot of short-term encoding.

An artist planning a painting certainly has visual informa Each person at this gathering is involved in a conversation in STM but may also keep up an internal dialogue that is primarily auditory.

It has been thought that short-term memory is a place where information is put.

The visual and auditory information are contained in short-term memory and the central executive acts as an interpreter.

When a person is reading a book, the sketchpad will contain images of the people and events of the particular passage being read, while the recorder plays the dialogue in the person's head.

The central executive pulls together the information from both systems.

While the files are on your desk, you can see them, read them, and work with them.

As long as they are on the desk, the "files" are conscious material.

Half of the people you test will slip up on the seven-digit span, but most of them will get past the first two sequence of numbers.

Research methods and knowledge of memory processes have improved since Miller's review of those early studies.

If a strategy is not being used, younger adults can hold three to five items of information at a time.

When the information is in the form of longer, similar- sounding, or unfamiliar words, the capacity reduces until it is only about four items.

If you can remember more than eight or nine digits in the digit-span test, you're most likely recoding the numbers into chunks.

Many of the memories formed in the hippocampus will be transferred to more permanent storage in other areas of the brain, but some will decay as new neural circuits are added to the already existing neural circuits.

This restaurant server is taking the woman's to be held in memory, and since attention is how that information got into the order without writing it down.

His capacity for items in this system may be greater than someone who doesn't rehearse.

Information may be pushed out to make term memory.

A better way to remember a person's name is to associate it with something about the person's appearance, a process that may help move the name from STM into more permanent storage.

The topic of the next section is the process of longterm memory.

Working memory is an important area of research and has implications for understand ing not only intelligence but also learning and attention disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and various dementia-related memory problems.

The ability to solve creative problems may be hurt by the fact that working memory is helpful in solving mathematical problems.

Creative problem solving seems to benefit from a less focused approach.

According to Bahrick, 1984 and Barnyard & Grayson, 1996, LTM seems to be unlimited for all practical purposes.

There might be a finite end to the capacity of LTM stores if humans lived longer.

When a memory is formed, there is a physical change in the brain.

It's like knowing that there is a certain item on the back of the kitchen cabinet but not having a ladder or step stool to get to it.

I used to memorize a poem by repeating it over and over until they could play their parts perfectly.

Information that has been practiced for a long time may be able to find its way into long-term memory.

It's not the most efficient way of putting information into long-term associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes that may or may not be in conscious storage, because to get the information back out, one has to remember it almost exactly as awareness.

Images, sounds, smells, and tastes are involved in studies of people with damage to the Hippocampal area of the brain.

Ltm can ories cannot be formed if STM is thought of as a desk.

According to meaning, one of the more famous anterogrades is in an organized fashion.

The meaning of the word ties in with something the person already knows.

It would be rare to find someone who lost amason who helped in remembering the French nondeclarative memory.

Conscious awareness is not easy to retrieve nondeclarative memories from.

One of the main criticisms of the "memory stores as boxes" idea is that it makes it seem as though there is nothing in ory, as they could solve the puzzle.

Information can be in people's memories because they use it, but they are often not aware of it because they don't pay attention.

elaborative rehearsal is a deeper kind of processing than maintenance is, as it is difficult to put into words.

The child learns how to tie shoes and rehearses, which leads to better long-term storage.

Some of it is about the planets in the solar system, that adding 2 and 2 makes 4 and that the loss of memory from the point of stuff I learned in school is more personal, like the first name of a person, place, or thing.

General facts and breakfast are included in long-term memories.

There are two types of long-term memory containing meaningful information.

Facts are things that are known and can be declared in this type of long-term memory.

Nondeclarative memories include emotional associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes that may or may not be in conscious awareness, which are often very strong memories.

The amygdala is the most probable location for emotional associations, such as fear, and the cerebellum in the hind-brain is responsible for storing memories of conditioned responses, skills, and habits.

H.M., one of the more famous anterograde amnesia patients, is discussed in detail later in this chapter.

A series of steps by moving one disk at a time is what people with Alzheimer's disease suffer from.

If there are other disks on top nondeclarative memory, someone who has lost can't be moved.

Nondeclarative memories are hard to retrieve into conscious awareness.

The subjects in the Tower of Hanoi study were able to solve the puzzle but had no idea how to do it.

Information and facts make up knowledge.

These are general facts, but people know about the injury or trauma that has happened to them personally.

You can probably remember what you 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 Although semantic and nondeclarative memories are useful, no one really needs to remember every detail of every day because the updating process is a kind of survival mechanism.

It is difficult to bring implicit memories into consciousness, like how to balance on a bicycle, and explicit memories, like naming all the planets.

Explicit memories can be forgotten but still have the potential to be conscious.

Declarative memories are divided into two categories: personal experiences and general knowledge.

Concepts that are related in meaning are thought to be stored near each other in the brain.

According to research, long-term memory is organized in terms of related mean ings and concepts.

To verify the statement "a canary is a bird", you need to move through two different locations, but "a canary is an animal" requires only one location.

The model discussed in this chapter can be used to explain how quickly different points on the networks can be accessed.

Brain connected to the Internet is the best way to think of how information is organized.

A person can go to one Web site and link to many other concepts that are related closer to each other than con *hierarchy: a ranked and ordered list or series.

This may be similar to the way in which the mind organizes information.

When people try to remember a piece of information by thinking of what it means and how it fits in with what they already know, they are giving themselves multiple cues for meaning in addition to sound.

elaborative rehearsal enhances the ability to retrieve information due to the fact that the more information is stored, the easier it will be to retrieve it.

The fact that almost anything in one's surroundings is capable of becoming a cue is not something that most people assume.

The next time you eat peanuts, you might think of the show you were watching.

The best place to take a chemistry test is in the room where you learned the material.

In order to remember something, you have to go back to the room you started in and use your surroundings as a cue.

When this bride and groom dance together later on in their marriage, they will be able to remember the moment when they were in the pool or under the water.

The subjects were asked to remember two lists of their happiness at that time.

When the subjects are out of the pool, words that were learned underwater are easier to remember, and words that were learned underwater are easier to retrieve.

There are other kinds of cues that can help in retrieving a memory.

The tendency for memory of one list of words while listening to sad music can be improved if related and another list of words while listening to happy music.

The researchers manipulated the mood of the subjects when they had to recall information.

The difference between these two methods makes some exams seem harder than others.

A word-search puzzle in which the words are already written down in the grid and need to be circled is an example of recognition.

The following section takes a closer look at the processes.

This is an example of recall, as are essay, short-answer, and fill-in-the-blank tests that are used to measure a person's memory for information.

Although people can say how long the word is or name letters that start or end the word, they can't retrieve the sound or spelling of it because it's not in the "recorder" of the STM.

Everyone seems to be pulled from memory with very few to know, so the best solution is to forget about it.

The brain continues external cues when you forget about it.

Maintenance rehearsal is when people repeat each word in their heads.

In the serial position effect, information at the beginning of a list will be recalled at a higher rate than information in the middle of the list.

There are many different kinds of information that the serial position effect works with.

Business schools often teach their students not to be in the middle for job interviews.

It's more likely that a person's interview will be more memorable if they go first or last.

Students can take advantage of the recency effect by skimming back over their notes.

The impression made by the actors who come in the middle will be less memorable because of the serial position effect.

The cue is the actual object, word, sound, and so on that one is simply trying to detect as familiar and known.

Human faces tend to be very accurate when it comes to recognition.

More than 2,500 photographs were shown to participants at the rate of one every 10 seconds.

The suspect in a series of armed robberies in Delaware may have been a priest.

Father Bernard Pagano was the only one in the lineup who was wearing a priest's collar.

The real bandit confessed to the crimes halfway through Father Pagano's trial.

See the following studies for more about the problems with witnesses.

One of the world's leading researchers in the area of memory has been Dr. Loftus for more than 30 years.

She was an expert witness or consultant in hundreds of trials, including that of Ted Bundy, the serial killer who was executed in Florida.

It has been shown time and again that memory is not an unchanging process but rather is constantly changing.

People continually update and revise their memories of events without being aware that they are doing so, and they incorporate information gained after the actual event, whether correct or incorrect.

Here is a summary of one of the classic studies about the ways in which Dr. Elizabeth Loftus can be influenced by information given after the event in question.

The subjects were shown a short video clip from the movie.

A group of demonstrators run into a classroom and leave after disrupting a professor's lecture.

The subjects who were previously asked the question incorrectly giving the number as "four" recalled an average of 6.4 people, whereas the subjects who were asked the question correctly recalling the number as "twelve" recalled an average of 8.9 people.

More than 300 people in the United States have been freed by this testing, and the average time they served in prison before release is 13 years.

People seem to remember a lot of things, such as the passage of time and physical space.

When an event or episode in a person's life has strong emotional associations, such as fear, horror, or joy, it's a special kind of automaticEncoding.

A person's memories of highly emotional events can seem vivid and detailed, as if the person's mind took a " flash picture" of the moment in time.

The news that President John F. Kennedy had been shot or the first person to step on the moon are remembered by people of the "baby boomer" generation.

Major positive or negative emotional events include the first date, graduation, an embarrassing event, or a particularly memorable birthday party.

At the time of the event, the emo tions were felt.

The release of hormones that enhance the formation of long-term memories can be stimulated by emotional reactions.

It has been shown that events like this are so emotional that they are less accurate than other memories.

After the passage of time, no memories are completely accurate.

If the mind next section discusses some of the reasons for faulty memories, the event will be stored automatically.

My brother and I often argue about things that happened when we were younger.

The more time that has strong emotional associations for passes, the more accurate memories are.

The process of memory is more similar to creating a story than it is to reading one.

He thought of memory as a problem-solving activity in which the person tries to retrieve the particulars of some past event by using current knowledge and inferring from evidence to create the memory.

As they apply hindsight to their memories of this game, these men may engage in "Monday or revised in some way to include new information or to exclude details that may be left morning quarterbacking."

People who do "Monday morning quarterbacking" by saying they knew who would win the game have fallen victim to hindsight bias.

Think about the last time you had an argument with a family member.

False memories are created when a person is exposed to information after an event.

mation can become part of the actual memory, which can affect its accuracy.

The slide presentation of the traffic accident was viewed by the subjects in the study.

One point made by the study is that newer information can cause memories to come of an event if it is written in a different format than visual.

According to research, hypnotism makes it easier to create false memories, even though it may make it easier to recall real memories.

When asked to remember which images were real or imagined, they were often unable to distinguish between the two.

It is clear that memories obtained through hypnotism should not be considered accurate.

People who are hypnotized remember being abused as children.

The fact that some people recover false memories under certain conditions doesn't mean that child molesting doesn't happen, or that a person who was molested doesn't push that unwanted memory away from conscious thought.

There are many therapists and psychological professionals who are skilled at helping clients remember events of the past without suggesting false memories, and they find that clients do remember information and events that were true and able to be verified but were previously unavailable to the client.

False-memory syndrome makes it more difficult for genuine victims of molestation to be believed when they recover their memories of the painful traumas of childhood.

How would investigators know if she was believable if she were to witness a crime?

The idea that only plausible events can become false memories runs contrary to the earlier work of Loftus and colleagues and to research concerning some very implausible false memories that have been successfully implanted, such as a memory for satanic rituals and alien abductions.

They found that if the experimenters gave false feedback to the participants, they could make implausible events more plausible.

The manipulation was so successful that participants were able to develop false memories for the events, even though they had denied having them in the past.

Information given to individuals helps them believe that the event could have happened to them.

It seems that the personality of the individual reporting such a memory also matters.

People who claimed to have been kidnapped by aliens were compared to a control group with no such memories on a measure of false-memory recall and false recognition.

Those who reported recovered memories of alien abduction were more likely to remember items that were false than were the controls.

susceptibility to hypnotism, symptoms of depression, and the tendency to exhibit odd behavior and unusual beliefs were some of the variables that predicted a higher false recall and recognition response.

Jaclynn accidentally left a grocery list at home.

At which point their essay questions rely on ____________, subjects were confused.

There are various supplements that promise to improve memory, ward off or even alleviate Alzheimer's, and prevent other forms of cognitive decline.

There are other reasons that people might continue to use a supplement that has little or nothing to do with health results.

The placebo effect can make people feel better if they take the supplement.

The only way to know if gingko biloba has a positive effect on memory is to look at the scientific research.

There are many studies that show the failure of gingko biloba supplements in improving memory in healthy people or in preventing dementia-related memory problems such as those found in Alzheimer's disease.

A large review of current research found that the extract may slow the decline in cognitive abilities, including memory, for people who already have symptoms of dementia.

Don't bother with this supplement unless you actually have dementia, and your doctor should be monitoring you for possible side effects.

This supplement can change your blood sugar levels, cause bleeding to be harder to stop, affect your sense of taste, and cause fluid retention.

This claim is based on the idea that people with Alzheimer's disease have brain cells that can't use blood sugar properly.

The scientific evidence has yielded mixed results when it comes to the use of coconut oil as an alternative energy source.

Results of a clinical trial in the United States will not be available until next year.

It is a saturated fat, and high cholesterol levels may occur with an increased risk of stroke, heart disease, and dementia.

If you don't have Alzheimer's or another dementia, taking coconut oil won't do much except affect your blood work on your next visit to the doctor.

Fish oil supplements have a slightly better track record for slowing the rate of cognitive decline in people with Alzheimer's disease but may do very little for healthy people.

Staying mentally active may be the best way to improve your memory and possibly prevent or delay symptoms of dementia.

At some point in our busy lives, most of us have trouble remembering events from the distant past.

A person with hyperthymesia has a rare ability to recall specific events from their past but also spends a lot of time thinking about it.

It would be great to be able to remember everything like Brad Williams.

He came up with a way to "forget" things by writing them on a piece of paper and burning it.

One of the first researchers to study forgetting was the author of the correct view of a stop sign.

Within the first hour after learning the lists, forgetting is the best because it fades off gradually.

In his early studies, Ebbinghaus found that it was important not to cram information into your brain.

Studying psychology for 3 hours may make you feel like you've done a lot of hard work.

Curve of Forgetting remembered by including breaks was found to have the greatest recall after between study periods.

If you didn't pay attention to what your friend said, it wouldn't get past sensory memory.

The memory trace decay theory is not likely to work because the man can remember the things shown in the pictures even after many years.

When a memory is formed, it would be similar to what happens when a num occurs.

If the answer is yes, you might have had trouble with the Spanish exam because of interference in two directions.

The French information studied first may interfere with the learning of the new reaching to the gearshift on the floor, if you grabbed at the wheel instead of taking the Spanish exam.

When someone gets a new cell phone number, it's an example of proactive interference.

The newer skill makes it hard for you to remember the old way of doing it.

People drive on the left side of the road when moving from the United States to England.

According to Ebbinghaus's now, 2 years later, Shantel feels she can no longer travel there curve of forgetting, how quickly will Raven forget about 40 per because she can barely remember a thing.

The problem was that he kept trying to "forgot," but in reality he wasn't paying attention to his mother at the tap icons on the new phone.

Evidence shows that the mem ories are stored in different places in the temporal and frontal lobes, but not in the same location as short-term memories.

Changes in synaptic function have to occur across collections of neurons as part of a larger circuit.

H.M.'s brain was removed in an experiment that the surgeon hoped would stop his seizures.

H.M.'s ability to form new memories was impaired when he was rolled to the operating room.

The hippocampus was not the source of his problem, but it was the source of his ability to consolidate and store any new factual information he encountered, because without either hippocampus, he was completely unable to remember new events or facts.

Although H.M.'s case was quite severe, his nondeclarative memory was still intact.

He agreed many years ago that his brain would be donated for further scientific study after he died.

It was cut into 2,401 slices, each about the width of a human hair, in preparation for further study.

H.M.'s contributions to science can be found at Suzanne Corkin's website.

There is some evidence that the same event may involve different areas of the brain.

The different areas seem to correspond to different degrees of memory detail for the event, such as remembering reading a specific text message from your partner before going to class, or recalling going out to eat after class.

This area of the brain is damaged in people with Alzheimer's disease.

It is involved in consolidation, as researchers have found evidence that the cingulate is activated when engaging in active rehearsal to first remember specific information.

Many people are familiar with the concept of repressed memories, a type of forgetting in which a person can't remember a traumatic event.

People who have been in accidents in which they have suffered a head injury are often unable to remember what happened.

They can't remember the last few hours before the accident.

A history paper is due tomorrow and you are working on your computer trying to finish it.

When the power comes back on, you find that your history paper is missing, because all the files you had already saved are still intact.

The loss of memory is a common side effect of this therapy.

The effects of the seizure seem to ease the depression, but the shock seems to disrupt the process of consolidation of memories.

Some researchers have found that the memory loss can go back as far as three years for certain types of information, but later research suggests that the loss may not be a permanent one.

H.M. had a temporary version of the kind of amnesia that can be caused by concussions.

If you lose a document in the computer because of injury or trauma, or a power loss, it's like discovering that your hard drive has become a memory for the past.

"Relating to the recent past" is what retrograde amnesia means.

A person with this type of amnesia can't remember a conversation or visit from the day before.

As long as you are looking at the data in your open computer window, you can access it, but as soon as you close that window, the information is lost, because it was never transferred to the hard drive.

This makes for some very repetitive conversations, such as being told the same story or being asked the same question multiple times.

It is the most common type of dementia found in both adults and the elderly.

Anterograde amnesia is the primary memory problem with Alzheimer's disease.

Over time, memory loss can become more severe, causing the person to become more and more forgetting about everyday tasks.

Taking extra doses of medication or leaving something cooking on the stove unattended can lead to more dangerous forgetting.

As Alzheimer's disease progresses, memories of the past seem to begin "erasing" as retrograde amnesia also takes hold.

It is a costly disease to care for, and caregivers often face severe emotional and financial burdens in caring for a loved one who is slowly becoming a stranger.

One of the neurotransmitters involved in the formation of memories in the hippocampus is acetylcholine, and the neurons that produce this chemical break down in the early stages of the disease.

Five drugs have been approved for treatment, but they only slow down the symptoms for an average of 6 to 12 months.

To track the cell death that occurs in high blood pressure, smoking, Obesity, Type II diabetes, and lack of exercise all contrib Alzheimer's disease, researchers used ute.

Keeping the brain mentallyMRI technology to scans both patients with active lifestyles is a way to prolong good cognitive health.

Alzheimer's disease and normal elderly subjects were found in one study.

The UCLA cate that continued everyday learning stimulates brain-derived neurotrophic factors team created color-coded maps that revealed a key protein involved in the formation of memories.

A new study suggests that a drug intended for use in treating diabetes can be used through brain-mapping methods.

The wave of gray matter loss was strong and another new drug, ORM-12741, also shows promise.

Other researchers have used a variety of methods to show the differences between a flu shot and a placebo.

A musician with brain damage from a bad case of encephalitis can no longer remember his past life, friends, or relatives and can no longer learn new information.

He can still play his cello, read music, and learn new pieces despite his brain injury.

A different area of the brain is involved in nondeclarative skills, and this type of memory is unaffected by amnesia.

Chances are you don't remember a lot of what happened before you were 3 years old.

When a person claims to remember an event from infancy, it is usually based on what family members have told them, and not a real memory at all.

In this chapter, it was stated that implicit memories are difficult to bring to consciousness.

Nelson gave credit to the social relationships that small children have with others.

When you can't remember when she was young, what type of amnesia do you have?

Getting enough sleep, moderate exercise, and a diet high in DHA are three important factors in improving or maintaining your memory's health.

In the chapter on consciousness, sleep is an important part of how the brain works.

During sleep and waking, memories are more likely to be consolidated and therefore remembered better later on.

The researchers found that by playing a characteristic sound back to the sleeping participants, the low value items were better recalled.

We need sleep to rehearse and consolidate the things we want to remember.

It has never worked out for a college student who has played a recording of a lecture while sleeping.

They were allowed to take a 90-minute nap, during which researchers presented one of the tunes they had practiced during slow-wave sleep, a stage of sleep associated with memory consolidation.

The hippocampus is the part of the brain that is important for forming new memories.

College students, doctors, nurses, and so on are doing their memories no favors because they live a lifestyle that is typically sleep deprived.

It should come as no surprise that sleep reduces the amount of interference.

Sleep may protect new memories by blocking dopamine in certain areas of the brain that is involved in forgetting.

People 50 to 85 years old were asked to look at pictures of animals and nature.

Half of the participants rode a bicycle for 6 minutes after viewing the pictures.

Participants were given a surprise recall test one hour later.

Norepinephrine is found in the brain and plays a role in the formation of memories.

When it comes to improving memory, it's probably brain food.

Salmon, albacore tuna, and swordfish have high levels of an Omega 3 fat called cal ed DHA.

In a recent study, researchers fed a high-DHA diet to lab animals and found that, when compared to lab animals not fed the special diet, there was a 30 percent increase in DHA levels in the hippocampus of the brain.

There are many fish oil supplements on the market, and other foods that are high in DHA include ground flax seeds, walnuts, grass-fed beef, and soybeans.

Retrieval cues are words, meanings, sounds, and other stimuli from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, that are encoded at the same time as a new memory.

People constantly update and fourth to one half second is what Loftus and others have found.

Adding information acquired later to a previous memory is part of this revision.

It holds a few items of little effort to store information.

It can be lost through failure to rehearse, decay, interference to the formation of flashbulb memories, and the intrusion of new information into vivid and detailed as if the person were looking at a snapshot of the event.

Declarative, or explicit, information that has been stored away in different places at the memories are memories for general facts and personal experiences in a process called constructive processing.

Explicit memories are more likely to bring into conscious awareness the true outcome of an event than implicit memories, which are more likely to include knowledge.

According to Pezdek and colleagues, false memories are more likely than implausible ones.

Most people can't remember events that happened before age 2, but memory trace decay theory assumes the presence of a physical.

It is most likely due to the implicit nature of infant memory.

The research shows that a diet high in Omega 3s and especially in the brain can help with memory.

The formation of a memory involves physical changes in the brain.

The hippocampus is believed to be responsible for the creation of new long-term memories.

During a family outing at the zoo, the visual sensory system was lost.

The chance of echoic memory relates to the sensory system.

When he is telling a lie, his father needs to back him up.

The cashier's inability to remember how much money he lost is a result of a type of memory which is difficult to best explain.

Her knowledge of Spanish makes it difficult for her to effectively learn the language.

In Godden and Baddeley's study, scuba divers who learned a set of words underwater showed better recall.

Kelly reads her notes until the very last second before the exam.

When a patient with Alzheimer's disease enters the examination hall, research has shown that there is a "still in her brain".

Kelly is using a strategy to help her remember symptoms, which is a possible cause of nomenon.

Some methods of measuring intelligence are compared and contrasted.

You can improve your cognitive health by identifying some methods.

System 1, which involves making quick decisions and using cognitive shortcuts, is guided by our innate abilities and personal experiences.

System 2 is dependent on our formal educational experiences.

The first person to shout out an answer usually has fewer windows in their house than the ones that take longer to respond.

They will say that they counted the windows as they walked through the image they created in their mind to determine the number.

In a 1978 study, participants were asked to look at a map of an imaginary island and see a hut, a lake, and a grassy area.

Participants were asked to imagine a specific place on the island, communicate information to the hut, and then to look for another place, like the lake, after viewing the map attempting to understand information and memorize it.

The participants looked at their mental image and scanned it as if it were a real map.

In Kosslyn's 1978 study, participants were 2004, they compared Kosslyn's Fictional Island tal imagery tasks to actual tasks involving visual perception.

The amount of activity in these areas is different from the picture shows.

The visual cortex's activity was stron times to complete the task when the perception was better than the imagery.

Explain how concepts and prototypes influence our thinking.

Concepts contain important features of objects and events that people want to think about, but also allow the identification of new objects and events that may fit the concept.

Dogs come in all shapes, sizes, colors, and lengths.

In spite of the fact that this dog is easily the size of a small pony, the ideas that represent a class or category author had no trouble recognizing it as a dog.

The concept of a square as a shape with four equal sides can be very strict.

An object must be a two-dimensional figure with four equal sides and four angles to be a square.

There are double-blind experiments, sleep stages, and conditioned stimuli in psychology.

To be considered true examples, each concept must fit very specific features.

People are surrounded by things that are not clearly defined.

A duck-billed platypus is a mammal that shares features with birds.

Natural concepts are fuzzy, like webbed feet and a bill, and they also lay eggs.

Natural concepts help people understand their surroundings.

The basis for Watts, Nature Picture Library is due to a less structured manner than school-taught formal concepts.

Unless the person comes from a tropical area, it's less likely that they'll say "guava" or "papaya" first.

Fruit is sweet, grows on trees, and usually has apples-like qualities.

Many people in the Northern Hemisphere have never seen a coconut tree.

A person has to objects in that category to develop prototypes.

A person who grew up in an area with a lot of coconut trees would think of coconuts as more prototypical than apples, whereas a person who grew up in the northwest would think of apples as a Prototyp.

Concepts are one of the ways people deal with the bombarding of their senses every day, allowing them to organize their perception of the world around them.

Problem solving is a big part of college life.

Think about it as you read and solve the following: Put a coin in a bottle and then cork until you find the piece that fits.

Images and concepts are mental tools that can be used to solve problems and make decisions.

You are probably trying to reach a goal by creating an image of a bottle with a coin in it.

There are many different ways in which people can think in order to solve problems.

Bombards say trial and error is trying one solution after another after a problem-solving method.

In grade school, word problems were solved this way.

If you follow a set of steps, you can always solve the puzzle.

Humans aren't as fast as computers and need some other way to narrow down possible solutions.

A heuristic is an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem.

Clicking on the appropriate word will help with similar problems.

If you want to know the shortest way to get to the new coffee shop in town, you already know the goal, which is finding the coffee shop.

If you have the address of the store, it's a good idea to look up the location on an internet map, a gps, or a phone and compare the different routes by the means of travel.

Writing a term paper can seem overwhelming if it is broken down into steps: Choose a topic, research the topic, organize what has been gathered, write one section at a time, and so on.

Making diagrams to help organize the information concerning the problem or testing possible solutions to the problem one by one and eliminating those that don't work are other examples of heuristics.

Sometimes I have to find a solution to a problem one step at a time, but in other cases the answer seems to pop into my head all at once.

Insight is the solution to a problem that suddenly comes to mind.

Kohler's work with Sultan the Chimpanzees demonstrated that animals can solve problems by means of sudden insight.

A person may realize that this problem is similar to another one that he or she already knows how to solve, like using a dime as a screwdriver, or that an object can be used for a different purpose than its original one.

Sometimes the mind reorganizes a problem while the person is thinking about something else.

Marsha and Marjorie were born on the same day in the same year to the same mother and father, yet they are not twins.

Look for the answer in the section on Mental sets if you think about it.

Thinkers use mental imagery and different types of concepts to organize the events of daily life.

The ways of thinking that affect attempts to solve problems are automatic.

Functional fixedness, mental sets, and confirmation bias are three of the most common barriers to successful problem solving.

A butter knife, a key, or even a dime in your pocket can be used to tighten a screw.

We tend to think of those objects in terms of spending and cooking, but the less obvious uses can be overlooked.

The pair of pliers is often seen as useless until Can you draw four straight lines so that they realize it can be used as a weight.

The tried and true method won't help with the dot problem.

The solution involves drawing the lines beyond the dots.

There are a few studies that seem to support ESP's beliefs and psychic predictions from thinking about objects in terms that worked out while at the same time "forgetting" the cases in which studies found of only their typical functions.

People who believe that they are good multitasking and use problem-solving patterns that can safely drive a motor vehicle while talking or texting on their cell phones may have worked for them in the past.

Researchers found that when faced with a very demanding visual task, participants lost the ability to detect sound.

More than 97 percent of individuals are unable to perform successfully on two attention-demanding tasks when tested on a driving simulation.

According to research, the people who are most likely to talk on their cell phone while driving are the worst at multitasking.

According to the National Safety Council, at least 27 percent of all traffic crashes are caused by drivers using their cell phones.

The driver of this train was texting before he crashed, killing 25 people and injuring more than 130 others.

Not every problem can be solved by using information already at hand and the rules of logic.

In convergent thinking, a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer by using previous knowledge and logic.

A person starts at one point and comes up with a lot of different ideas.

The automatic tasks take up some of the attention, leaving the rest for creative thinking.

The fact that all of one's attention is not focused on the problem is a benefit, because it allows the thinker to make links and connections at a level of consciousness just below alert awareness, so that ideas can flow freely.

It is said that having part of one's attention devoted to walking allows the rest of the mind to "sneak up on" more creative solutions and ideas.

Functional fixedness is one of the barriers to solving problems.

In the education of young people, creative thinking is often neglected.

A correct solution for a research paper is something that many students have trouble with.

The Japanese and Omaha Solution to the Dot Problem Native American cultures can't be taught the same way that divergent thinking and problem-solving skills can be taught in other cultures.

When people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as normally prized, and the preference is to hold to well-established cultural traditions, representing a box, and they try to draw the line for some ways while staying in the box.

Start with a central idea and draw a "map" with lines from the center to type of thinking in which a person other related ideas, forming a visual representation of the concepts and comes up their connections.

It was blocked from conscious awareness as unacceptable thoughts.

Creative people are good at using mental imagery and have a wide range of knowledge about a lot of subjects.

People think of a sports car when asked about the ocean.

He imagined a fun, fast form of travel when he looked for information on the Internet.

Ask a dozen people and you will get a lot of different answers.

In order to survive in their culture, individuals need these characteristics.

Although we have defined intelligence in a general way, there are different abilities and knowledge that make up the concept.

A traditional IQ test would most likely measure g factor, the ability to reason and solve problems, but Spearman believed that superiority in one type of intelligence predicts general intelligence.

The existence of several kinds of intelligence was proposed by Howard Gardner.

He originally listed seven different types of intelligence, but later added an eighth and proposed a ninth.

The idea of multiple intelligences is appealing to many people.

Some people like to call this type of intelligence "book smarts", because it is measured by intelligence tests and academic achievement tests.

People with a high degree of practical intelligence know how to be tactful, how to manipulate situations to their advantage, and how to use inside information to increase their odds of success.

When planning and completing an experiment, all three might come into play.

Studies have found that college, high school, and elementary school programs benefit in a variety of areas due to the diverse range of individuals being included.

John Horn expanded on Cattell's work and added other abilities based on the ability to break problems down visual and auditory processing, memory, speed of processing, reaction time, quantita into component parts, or analysis, for tive skills, and reading-writing skills.

Other abilities are tied to sensory systems and their respective primary and association areas of the cortex.

The researchers suggested that other areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex, insular cortex, and specific subcortical areas also play critical roles.

A variety of higher cognitive functions can be attributed to working memory.

Individual differences in working memory components such as capacity, attention control, and ability to retrieve items from long-term memory appear to be most influential, and that overall, the ability to reliably preserve relevant information for successful cognitive processing appears to be vital.

Some methods of measuring intelligence are compared and contrasted.

The history of intelligence testing has been marked by controversy and misuse.

If a way could be found to identify these students more in need, they could be given a different kind of education.

Alfred Binet, a French psychologist, was asked by the French Ministry of Education to design a test of intelligence that would help identify children who were unable to learn as quickly or as well as others.

He and Theodore Simon came up with a test that distinguished between fast and slow learners, as well as between children of different age groups.

The fast learners gave answers to questions that older children might give, whereas the slow learners gave answers that were more typical of a younger child.

The quotient makes it possible to compare the intelligence of people of different ages.

The method works well for children, but as they get older, their IQ scores become meaningless.

The age-group comparison norms are used instead of the Roid and Wechsler tests.

The division of one's mental age by one's SB5 yields an overall estimate of intelligence, verbal and nonverbal domain scores, all chronological age and then multiply composed of five primary areas of cognitive ability.

Test items include things such as being able to repeat four digits backwards and being able to insert correct shapes into a form board.

The original test, which is in its fifth edition, is not the only one that is popular today.

David Wechsler was the first to come up with a series of tests.

The earlier editions of these tests had a verbal and performance scale, as well as an overall score of intelligence, which was different from the original Stanford- Binet.

You can recall a mixed list of numbers in correct ascending order.

Scan a group of symbols to identify specific targets.

If you want to learn a different symbol for specific numbers, fill in the blank under the number with the correct symbol.

It is possible for others to not give the same results on different occasions for the same person.

We hope that someone who passes his or her test for a driver's license will be able to safely operate a motor vehicle when they are actually on the road.

Professor Stumpwater believes that intelligence is related to a person's golf scores.

He develops an adult intelligence test based on golf scores.

The professor would have his sample members play the same number of rounds of golf on the same course under the same weather conditions.

The comparison group's scores will be used to compare individual test results.

All samples must be representative of the population that the test is intended for.

A large sample of randomly selected children would be given a test.

The standard deviation is the average variation of a test's score.

The normal curve is used to represent scores on intelligence tests.

The dotted vertical lines represent one standard deviation from the mean.

34.13 percent of the population falls between 100 and 115 on this test, and an IQ of 115 on the Wechsler represents one standard deviation above the mean.

The figure shows the mean and standard deviation.

An IQ of 130 would be two standard deviations above the mean, whereas an IQ of 70 would be two standard deviations below the mean, and in each case the person's score is being compared to the population's average score.

The professor's test does not fare well with respect to validity and reliability.

If Professor Stump water decided to use height as a measure of intelligence, an adult's score on the test would always be the same, as height does not change much after the late teens.

Intelligence is the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems.

People raised in a different culture, or even a different economic situation, are not likely to perform well on an IQ test if it is written in an unfamiliar language.

In the early days of immigration, people from non-English-speaking countries would score poorly on intelligence tests in order to be denied entry to the United States.

Many items on the test might not make sense to people raised in an Asian culture.

Adrian Dove designed an intelligence test to show the problem of cul tural bias.

The Dove Counterbalance General Intelligence Test was created by an African-American sociologist to demonstrate that a language/dialect barrier exists among children of different background.

African-American people from other geographical regions will score poorly on this test if they are not knowledgeable of this culture.

The point is that tests are created by people from different cultures.

Questions and answers that test creators think are common knowledge may not relate to the experiences of other people.

Attempts have been made to create intelligence tests that are free of cultural influ ences.

The tests use questions that don't create a disadvantage for people with different cultures.

Non verbal abilities, such as rotating objects, are required for many items on a culture-fair test.

The test of abstract reasoning is called Raven's Progressive Matrices.

The test consists of a series of items containing abstract patterns, either in a 2 * 2 or 2 * 3 matrix, from which test takers have to identify a missing portion that best completes a pattern, although once believed to be largely culture free, or at least fair.

IQ tests can be used to predict academic success and job performance.

For those who score at the higher and lower ends of the curve, this may be true.

Skills in self-regulation or levels of motivation may impact IQ measures and raises concerns about situations or circumstances in which IQ scores may not be impartial predictors of academic or job success.

Intelligence tests and other forms of cognitive and behavioral testing are used by spe cially trained psychologists to assess the effects of brain injury or brain malfunction on cognitive and behavior.

People with traumatic brain injury are often treated by psychiatrists.

It is possible for traumatic brain injuries to be permanent, impacting the day-to-day functioning of both individuals and their loved ones for the rest of their lives.

Difficult thinking, memory problems, reduced attention span, headaches, sleep disturbances, frustration, mood swings, and personality changes are possible outcomes depending on the area of the brain injured and the severity of the trauma.

The consequences of these injuries can have a negative impact on the formal tests of intelligence.

After a head injury, there is an impairment of brain function that lasts for minutes to hours.

Symptoms of a concussion include a loss of consciousness for up to 30 minutes, "seeing stars," headaches, dizziness, and sometimes nausea or vomiting.

It's a primary symptom for the events immediately before or after the accident and it's more likely to be anterograde in nature.

American football is a sport in which athletes can extend their playing careers.

The possibility of an increased risk for depression, dementia, or other neurological risks for these athletes after they have quit playing has spawned ongoing research with professional football players.

It was found that former players who had three or more concussions were three times more likely to have significant memory problems and five times more likely to be diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment.

A recent study found that 21 brains from people who had participated in contact sports had brain changes and pathology consistent with chronic traumatic encephalopathy.

No signs of chronic traumatic encephalopathy were found in the brains of 33 individuals that had suffered a single traumatic brain injury.

IQ tests can be used to identify people who are different from average intelligence.

The other group is made up of people who are considered intellectually disabled and whose IQ scores fall well below the mean.

Deficits in mental abilities are associated with an IQ score of less than 70 on a test with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.

The cognitive and ioral skills must begin in the developmental period.

Intellectual disability is more common in the 1 percent of the population.

As one approaches the lower end of the IQ range and the importance of adaptive living skills in multiple life areas, levels of severity are now based on the level of adaptive functioning and level of support the individual requires.

Conceptual, reasoning, language, reading, writing, math, and other academic skills are included in the domain.

They are at risk of being manipulated in the social domain as they are immature compared to their peers.

They are capable of living independently with proper supports in place but will need assistance with more complex life skills such as health care decisions, legal issues, or raising a family.

The vast majority of people with intellectual disabilities are in this category.

Conceptually, individuals with profound intellectual disability have a limited ability to learn beyond simple matching and sorting tasks and have poor communication skills, although they may interact with well-known family members and other caretakers.

They may be able to participate by watching or assisting, but are dependent on others for all areas of their care, according to the American Psychiatric Association.

Multiple physical or sensory impairments are likely to be the cause of these skill deficits.

Exposure to PCBs, lead poisoning from eating paint chips, as well as other toxicants are examples of such conditions.

Deficits may be caused by factors such as brain development or health risks associated with poverty.

Malnutrition, health consequences, and lack of mental stimulation are examples.

He is loved by alcohol and intelligence levels can range from below average to levels associated with and respected and leads a full and happy life.

Intelligence is only one of many characteristics; warmth, friendliness, caring, and compassion should not be underestimated.

People who are gifted are more likely to suffer from mental illnesses.

The "mad scientist" of the cinema and the "evil geniuses" of literature come from these beliefs.

The beliefs were shattered by a study that was started in 1921 by Lewis M. Terman, who was responsible for the development of the test.

1,528 children were selected by Terman to participate in the longitudinal study.

The early findings of this major study showed that the gifted were socially well adjusted and skilled leaders.

The myth of the weakling genius was ended when they were above average in height, weight, and physical attractiveness.

Some Terman's gifted people were examined to see if their identity formation as adolescents was related to later occupational success.

The more successfulTermites achieved a consistent sense of self, whereas the less successful did not.

One of the more interesting findings from this study is that gifted children who are pushed to achieve at younger and younger ages, sitting for exams long before their peers would do so, often grow up to be disappointed, somewhat unhappy adults.

The 2 percent of the population falling adjustment and well-being is a factor in the success of gifted people.

Many of them earned advanced degrees after graduating from college.

Doctors, lawyers, business executives, university professors, scientists, and even one famous science fiction writer and an Oscar-winning director were their occupations.

The study was marred by several flaws, but it still remains one of the most important and rich sources of data on an entire generation.

Terman's study was the first longitudinal study ever to be done, and scientists have gotten data about the effects of phenomena such as World War II and the influence of personality traits on how long one lives from the questionnaires filled out by the participants.

The differences in success in life had to be caused by something other than the IQ scores.

Terman and Oden found that the successful adults were more goal oriented, more persistent in pursuing those goals, and were more self- confident than the less successful Termites.

Terman got recom mendations from teachers and principals so that there was room for bias in the pool of participants from the start.

In 1921, the teachers and principals were less likely to recommend students who were different from the majority.

Terman's original group consisted of almost entirely white, urban, and middle-class children, with the majority being male.

The investigator should not become personally involved in the lives of the participants in the study to reduce the chance of biasing the results.

Terman's study did accomplish his original goal of putting to rest the myths that existed about genius in the early part of the twentieth century.

Children and adults who are gifted are no more prone to mental illnesses or odd behavior than any other group, and they also have their share of failures as well as successes.

Personality and experiences are strong factors that influence success in life.

The homes of the children in the top 2 percent of Terman's group had an average of 450 books in their libraries, a sign that the parents of these children valued books and learning, and these parents were also more likely to be teachers, professionals, doctors, and lawyers.

The experiences of these gifted children would have been vastly different from those in homes with less emphasis on reading.

There is more to success in life than intelligence and high academic achievement for gifted students and adults according to a longitudinal study.

It was found that liking one's work, having a sense of purpose in life, a high energy level, and persistence were important factors.

Terman found in his original study that the belief that being gifted will always lead to success is a myth.

The concept of emotional intelligence was popularized by Dan Goleman.

While Goleman originally suggested emotional intelligence was a more powerful influence on success in life than more traditional views of intelligence, his work and the work of others used the term in a variety of different ways than originally proposed, and claims by some were not backed by scientific evidence.

Studies have been criticized for their lack of validity and applicability.

The participants who more age one's own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain goals, as well as rectly judged the writers' emotional experiences, agreed with a group consensus and the non A review found that people with higher emotional intelligence were more likely to have better social relationships, were more successful at work, and were perceived more positively by others.

Research supports the role of emotional intelligence in real life.

Studies show that medical listening to her patient's problems and also school students with higher emotional intelligence tend to perform better in courses.

There is evidence that emotional intelligence is related to physician competence and areas of improved physician-patient interactions.

Intelligence is one of the personality traits that has been studied closely in the field of human development.

The problem with trying to separate the roles of genes and environment is that controlled, perfect experiments are not practical or ethical.

The same genetic inheritance is shared by identical twins who came from the same fertilized egg.

Fraternal twins come from two different eggs, each fertilized by a different sperm, and share only the amount of genetic material that any two siblings would share.

Researchers can get a general idea of how much influence heredity has over the trait of intelligence by paring the IQs of these two types of twins.

With increasing age, the effects of the change in IQ within a population become larger.

The degree of genetic relatedness seems to determine the correlation between IQ scores of different comparisons.

When raised in the same environment, identical twins who share 100 percent of their genes are more similar in their IQ than the other way around.

Twins who are reared apart, as seen in adoption studies, are usually placed in homes that are similar in background and socio-economic status.

Similar environmental influences become less important over time, accounting for only 20% of the variance in intelligence by age 11 or 12.

With the increasing impact of genetic factors, it has been suggested that heritability of intelligence might be as high as 91 percent by the age of 65.

Each person has different experiences, education, and other nongenetic factors that can't be predicted by a single set of genes.

Extreme environments can modify even heritable traits, like in the case of a severely malnourished child's growth pattern, because genes always interact with environmental factors.

The concept of race is one of the factors that has been examined for possible differences in performance on IQ tests.

The authors imply that people from lower economic levels are poor because they are unintelligent.

The effects of environment and culture were ignored in Herrnstein and Murray's book.

They assumed that IQ tests measure intelligence.

They assumed that intelligence is influenced by genetics with a heritability factor of about.80.

Estimates of heritability can only be made from a group that was exposed to the same environment.

The book's authors overlook the cultural influence of intense focus on education and achievement by influence of cultural values, because they seem Americans are genetically superior in intelligence.

A series of studies, using blood-group testing for racial grouping, found no correlation between ethnicity and IQ.

What should be the goal of every test is likely to be high in intelligence.

In chapter six, we talked about how language can affect our memory.

In this section, we will look at how language affects cognitive function.

It is possible for people to communicate with one another but also to represent their own mental activity.

Language is an important part of how people think.

The children were able to match the language they heard against this schema because of a well- researched sequence.

Recent research supports Chomsky's ideas with evidence of both the development of language comprehension and the underlying brain processes.

A simple mix-up can cause sentences to be completely misunderstood.

It involves knowing how to take turns in a conversation, the use of gestures to emphasize a point or indicate a need for more information, and different ways in which one speaks to different people.

Both adults and children use higher-pitched voices and many repeated phrases when talking to infants; child-directed speech plays an important role in the development of language in children.

Some languages, such as Japanese, are sensitive to intonation, meaning that changing the stress or pitch of a word can change its meaning completely.

The Japanese name Yoshiko should be pronounced YO-she-koh with the accent or stress on the first syllable.

This type of speech creates learning words and phrases to form correct sentences for infants and toddlers.

Babies seem to understand more than adults when it comes to words and sentences.

Babies begin to make sounds around 2 months of age.

After 6 months, hearing children decrease their babbling while increasing their use of primitive hand signs and gestures.

At around a year and a half, toddlers begin to string words together to form short, simple sentences.

"Doggie go bye-bye" and "Baby eat" are examples of telegraphic speech.

By the age of 6 or so, children are able to use more words in their sentences, but they still have a limited amount of vocabulary compared to adults.

The relationship between language and thought has been debated for a long time.

The relationship of language and thought was debated by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.

According to Piaget, concepts preceded and aided the development of language.

The preschool children seemed to spend a lot of time talking to themselves, even when playing with another child.

The "private speech" was a way for children to plan their behavior and organize their actions so that they could achieve their goals.

Vygotsky believed that private speech would increase as children became more socially active in the preschool years, since socializing with other children would demand much more self-control and behavioral regulation on the part of the preschool child.

The evidence seems to support Vygotsky's view that bright children tend to use more private speech when learning how to socialize with other children or when working on a difficult task.

Edward Sapir and his student, Benjamin Lee Whorf, were the two theorists who developed the hypothesis.

The way in which people think about the world around them is determined by the words they use.

Breakfast in an Ethiopia restaurant is one of the most famous examples of this idea.

The anecdotal evidence has turned out to be false, being more myth than reality.

A series of studies of the perception of colors by Eleanor Rosch-Heider and others had already found the opposite effect.

Although the linguistic relativity hypothesis may not work for fine perceptual discriminations such as those in the Rosch-Heider studies, it may be an appropriate explanation for concepts of a higher level.

Researchers showed pictures of two animals to preschool children.

They were shown a picture of a blackbird that looked similar to a bat.

Research continues to investigate how language affects our thoughts about space, time, colors, and objects.

The influence of language on problem solving, cogni and memory can't be denied by psychologists.

One phrase is less flattering than the other, and the image brought to mind is different for the two terms.

It's like trying to determine which came first, the chicken or the egg, in the end.

They use sounds such as the growl of an angry dog or the rattle of a rattlesnake.

The "dance" of honeybees that tells the other bees where a source of pollen is is one of the physical behaviors.

In human language, symbols are used deliberately and voluntarily, not by instinct, and abstract symbols have no meaning until people assign meaning to them.

The most successful of these experiments has been with a bonobo, Kanzi, who has been trained to use a computer keyboard.

Matata, Kanzi's mother, was the original subject of the study.

Kanzi watched his mother use the keyboard and appeared to learn how to use the symbols through that observation.

He followed the correct instructions up to the level of a 2-year-old child.

There are anecdotal reports based on video recordings, but little to no data has been offered in published studies.

A study with Kanzi suggests he makes sounds that seem to have a consistent meaning.

The level of language development of a 3-year-old human child is comparable to that of animals that have achieved success so far.

There is no conclusive evidence that any of the animals have been trained in language.

Individuals who speak more than one language have greater cognitive reserves, are less prone to some age related decreases in functioning, and are even less susceptible to some types of egocentric biases.

Their ability to successfully manage the activities of more than one language is one of the advantages.

Multiple enhanced executive functions, including better inhibitory control, better conflict monitoring, and more efficient mental set shifting, are believed to result in better cognitive performance overall.

Some studies have failed to replicate previous results or have no benefits for those who are bilingual.

Poor methodology, small samples, and even publication bias are cited as reasons for positive results related to the bilingual cognitive advantage.

Some methods for improving cognitive health can be identified.

You may have heard the saying "use it or lose it" and think of it in terms of maintaining physical fitness.

The saying is applicable to our ability to maintain cognitive fitness.

Several computerized brain-training programs and devices have hit the market in the last few years.

A lot of attention has been given to the benefits of computer-based brain exercises to improve cognitive fitness.

If you choose the right exercises, you may be able to improve some higher-level cognitive functions.

One study found that for a group of individuals with schizophrenia, computerized cognitive exercises that placed increasing demands on auditory perception were beneficial.

Significant progress was shown in verbal working memory and global cognitive tasks by those same individuals.

The researchers found that some of the gains were still visible six months later, even though the cognitive exercise group only received daily training for 10 weeks.

According to a recent study, computerized attention, memory, and executive training for individuals with schizophrenia may improve performance on training tasks, but these improvements do not transfer to other measures or real-life situations.

According to some research, challenging, adaptive training in working memory may improve cognitive skills and fluid intelligence in both young and older adults.

There is still a lot of debate about the efficacy of cognitive training.

Despite some studies being supportive of such efforts, conflicting findings suggest working memory training is not effective, and little evidence exists that any such training improves intelligence.

Aerobic fitness and physical activity have been shown to improve cognitive function across the life span.

Better executive control and memory processes in preadolescent children can be attributed to a physically active lifestyle and greater aerobic fitness.

It is possible that regular aerobic activity can promote or maintain func tional connections among key brain areas of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.

The benefits include increased levels of mood-related neurotransmitters, along with the creation of new brain areas such as the hippocampus.

A group of middle-aged adults were found to have increased myelination after only 6 weeks of aerobic exercise.

After 6 weeks of not exercising, the results were back to pre-exercise levels.

General intelligence, or g factor, was proposed by Spearman as the abil.

Mental images have a picture-like quality and represent objects or events.

The intelligence test yields an IQ score that can be used to reach a goal.

A rule of thumb is a strategy that narrows down intelligence.

Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve, defining different, and functional fixedness is the tendency to perceive objects as having levels of intelligence based on the deviation of scores from their intended use.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for evidence that is not true.

It involves coming up with as many different answers as possible.

Symptoms must be present in the early stages of the child's development.

Mild, moderate, severe, and profound are the levels of intellectual disability.

Intelligence is the ability to understand the world, think ratio, and causes of intellectual disability include deprived environment or logically, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges.

The stages of language development are cooing, babbling, and one is emotional intelligence.

A longitudinal study conducted by Terman showed that gifted children grow up to be successful adults.

Terman's study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity because he became too involved in the lives of several people.

Chimpanzees, parrots, and dolphins have been found to have relatedness increases.

Aerobic fitness is extremely important for optimal cogni and includes the rules for using phonemes, morphemes, and, while specific mental exercises (such as those involving working memory) may have some limited benefit, physical exercise pro.

Mental images on the floor show where walls will go and rooms will be.

The way we interact with problem solving is known as physical objects.

When comparing the pictures, I used part of a pencil eraser to make the earring in almost all circles look the same.

Intelligence scores are decreasing because of an overreliance on the psychology test.

Edward and Benjamin believed that a modern test of intelligence use.

Many of them have been exposed to a variety of environmental toxins and have multiple infections without adequate or timely health care.

Each of us is headed down a path of change that is influenced by our biology, environment, and social interactions, to a final destination that is the same for all of us.

The influences that help determine our path through life will be looked at in this chapter.

The research methods used to study puberty had physical changes.

The health issues associated with inheritance of disorders are identified.

Define death and dying, and identify some autism spectrum disorder, using the theories of cognitive development and death and dying.

There are differences in views of death concept in infancy and childhood.

The topics will be studied in the context of changes that occur as a result of human development.

The problem of age affects research in human development.

The age of the people in the study should always be an independent variable, but they cannot be randomly assigned to differ from conception until death.

Disadvantages of this method are the lengthy amount of time, money, and effort involved in following participants over different age groups, as well as the loss of participants when they move away, lose interest, or die.

If comparing a cross-sectional design but also IQ scores of 30-year-olds to 80-year-olds to see how aging affects intelligence, questions followed and assessed longitudinally.

The issue of nature versus nurture is one of the areas of contro the influence of our inherited versy.

Most developmental psychologists agree that the most likely explanation for most of human development is an interaction between nature and nurture.

Intelligence is still a hot topic with regard to how much is inherited and how much is learned, and this does not mean that the nature versus nurture controversy no longer exists.

Many others believe that culture, economics, nutrition in early childhood, and that some researchers and theorists assume a large genetic influence.

We will discuss how the processes of conception and the development of the infant within the womb take place after discussing the basic building blocks of life.

A few basic terms are involved in defining how genes transmit human characteristics.

The genetic codes for build that make up organic life are contained in the amines.

The er's egg and the father's sperm are contained in the special molecule of the moths.

The sex of the person is determined by the last pair.

The 46 chromosomes can be arranged in pairs, with one member from the mother and the other from the father.

If a person gets a blond-hair-color genes from their parents, they will show up as a trait.

The patterns of genetic transmission are usually more compli cated.

There are genes involved in red and blond hair.

A strawberry-blond mix can be formed when a child's genes blend together to inherit one of their parents.

Suppressive genes carry several genetically determined disorders.

When a child is born with two genes from each parent, diseases can be passed on.

The figure shows the variation of one or two parents and the result of this in their offspring.

The missing or extra chromosomes can cause mild to severe problems in development if either of these cells survive to mate.

Almond-shaped eyes, intellectual disability, and an increased risk of organ failure are some of the symptoms.

These females are short, infertile, and sexually underdeveloped.

A single cell becomes a complete infant during a period of approximately 9 months after conception.

There are many things that can have a positive or negative influence on a developing infant.

The other type of twin of cells, each of which is an accident of timing, is more common in women who are older and who are separate embryo.

Two likely to happen to women who are taking fertility drugs to help them get pregnant because of this.

Some of the babies may not survive, or the study of ethical and moral issues may actually recommend the removal of some of the babies, due to new advances in biology and medicine.

Each develops into a fetus with bution of nature and nurture to human devel single egg is fertilized by one sperm.

Two fetuses form if both are fertilized by separate sperm.

Twins are called monozygotic because they come from the same fertilized egg.

9 months of a typical pregnant woman's life involve a lot of changes.

This process takes about a week, followed by about a week during which the mass of cells, now forming a hollow ball, firmly attach itself to the wall of the uterus.

The baby's waste products are filters away by the placenta, a specialized organ.

Stem cells found in the umbilical cord can be used to grow new organs and tissues for transplant or to repair neurological damage.

The embryo is about 1 inch long and has a name for it, which is primitive eyes, nose, lips, teeth, and little arms and legs.

The development of the infant's central nervous system can be affected by other mental influences.

Exposure to alcohol in early pregnancy is the leading cause of birth defects.

The central nervous system is vulnerable throughout the fetal period, as are the eyes and the external sexual organs.

The last few months have seen the development of fat and the growth of the body.

The fetus is considered full term at 38 weeks.

If the baby weighs less than 5 1/2 pounds at birth, this is even more true.

A pregnant woman is getting an at which it is possible for an infant to survive outside the womb.

The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of sonogram allows doctors to see any Biomedical and Behavioral when they use high-frequency 26 weeks, with the odds of survival increasing from 10 percent at 22 weeks up to about sound waves to create a picture.

The odds will increase if the infant has physical defects and is in a facility with advanced health care.

Some 15 to 20 percent of all pregnancies end in stillbirths, many so early that the mother may not have even known she was pregnant (Doubilet et al., 2013; Hill, 1998; Medical Economics Staff, 1994; Nelson et al., 2015).

A genetic defect in the way the embryo or fetus is developing is the most likely cause of a miscarriage.

The first 2 weeks of a baby's life are referred to as the __________ period.

When the respiratory system starts to function, it fills the lungs with air and puts oxygen into the blood.

The baby's blood can't circulate because the cord has been cut.

The stomach takes the longest to adjust to life outside the womb.

Babies lose weight in the first week after birth.

Babies who were still very sleepy after being given general anesthesia during labor were the focus of early research.

Researchers have been studying what infants can't say in words since those early days.

Habituation is the tendency for infants and adults to stop paying attention to something.

By exposing the infant to an unchanging sound or picture, researchers can wait for the baby to habituate and then change the sound or picture.

reflexes help the baby survive until it learns more complex means of interaction.

These and other reflexes are used to determine if a newborn's nervous system is functioning properly.

If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it could be a sign of brain damage.

From birth to about 2 years of age, infants have a lot of motor skills development.

The age ranges listed are averages based on large samples of infants.

An infant may reach these milestones earlier or later than the average and still be considered to be developing normally.

New dendrites, axon terminals, and increasing numbers of synaptic connections are caused by rapid and extensive growth of these neurons as the brain triples in weight from birth to age 3 years.

You take out the weeds to make room for the plants that you want.

Babies can't see or hear much at birth.

Six Motor Milestones shown here are raising head and chest, rolling over, sitting up with support, and sitting up without support.

As the infant gains voluntary control over the muscles in its body, the motor milestones develop.

The sense of touch is the most developed part of the brain, which makes perfect sense when you realize how much skin-to-womb contact the baby has had in the last months of pregnancy.

At birth, infants show a preference for sweets and by 4 months have developed a preference for salty tastes, which may come from exposure to the salty taste of their mother's skin.

The making of horrible faces and spitting up of sour and bitter taste sensations can be experienced.

After the baby is born, hearing may take a little while to reach its full potential.

The womb's fluids must leave the canals completely.

The rods, which see in black and white and have little visual acuity, are fairly well developed at birth, but the cones, which see color and provide sharpness of vision, will take about another 6 months to fully develop.

When compared to sharply contrasting lights and darks until about 2 months of age, the newborn has fairly "fuzzy" vision, much as a nearsighted person would have.

Newborns have visual preferences as discovered by researchers using preferential looking, measures of the time that infants spent looking at certain visual stimuli.

They found that infants prefer to look at complex patterns rather than simple ones, three dimensions rather than two, and that the most preferred visual stimulation was a human face.

Babies prefer to see things in three dimensions.

Evidence for that assumption was provided by the following classic experiment.

Eleanor and Michael Walk wondered if infants could see the world in three dimensions, so they created a way to test babies for depth perception.

The surface of the table on the top and the drop to the floor was covered in a patterned tablecloth so that the different size of the patterns would be a cue for depth.

A baby could be placed on or crawl across the "deep" side of the table if it was covered by a clear glass top.

The little girl is very reluctant to cross over the deep side of the table, gesturing to be picked up instead.

Even though they could touch it with their hands, most babies wouldn't crawl over the deep side.

By the time an infant is a year old, it has tripled its birth weight and added another foot to its height.

The work of Jean Piaget is one of the ways that we will discuss in this chapter.

Jean Piaget's theory was developed from detailed observations of his own children.

Changing or adjusting old schemes to fit new information is the process.

As their sensory and motor development progresses, they begin to interact with objects by grasping, pushing, senses and motor abilities to interact tasting, and so on.

Children are born to 2 years old with senses and ability to move.

They understand that concepts and mental images represent objects, people, and events.

Young children can mentally represent and refer to objects and events with words or pictures.

They can't consider many characteristics of an object at the same time.

The game of "peek-a-boo" is important in teaching infants that their mother's face is always behind her hands.

This is a crucial step in the development of language and abstract thought, as words themselves are symbols of things that are not present.

By the end of this stage, children at 2 years old are capable of thinking in simple symbols and planning out actions, which makes symbolic thought possible.

Children no longer have to rely on senses and motor skills but can ask questions and explore their surroundings more fully now that they can move freely in their world.

Children at this stage can understand that a line of wooden blocks can "stand in" for a train.

Everyone else has to see what the means of exploring the world are for the preoperational child.

He focused on the number of pieces, not the amount of the pie.

The child's inability to imagine pouring the liquid back into the tall, thin glass causes the volume of liquid to take on a different shape.

Similar reasoning causes children of this age to think that a ball of clay is now larger in mass.

Children are able to consider all the relevant features of any object.

They begin to think more logically about the beliefs of Santa Claus and the Tooth Fairy, and eventually come to their own more rational conclusions.

They are in school, learning all sorts of science and math, and are convinced that they know more than their parents.

Teenagers get involved in hypothetical thinking and even impossibilities when they understand concepts that have no physical reality.

According to studies, only about half of adults in the United States reach the formal operations stage.

Adults who do not achieve formal operations tend to use a more practical, down-to-earth kind of intelligence.

Most college classes require critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and abstract thinking in order for successful college students to succeed.

A stage beyond formal operations has been proposed for young adults who have found their old ways of thinking in "black and white" terms challenged by the diversity they encounter in the college environment.

According to Vygotsky's view of cognitive development, the evaluation of Piaget's tHeory Piaget saw children as active explorers of their surroundings, the help of skilled others aids in making engaged in the discovery of the properties of objects and organisms within those surrounding cognitive advances such as The third stage of cognitive development has been criticized by Piaget's theory.

The idea of distinct stages of opment, in which the school-age child cognitive development is not completely correct and that changes in thought are more gradual rather than abruptly jumping from one stage to another, is believed to be incorrect by some researchers.

Russian psychologist Lev opment's influence on Vygotsky's work in developmental psychology has become capable of abstract thinking.

Vygotsky differed from Piaget in his emphasis on the role of others in cognitive development.

In scaffolding, the more highly skilled person gives the learner more help at the beginning of the learning process and then begins to withdraw help as the learner's skills improve.

If Suzi can only work up to fifth- grade math problems with the teacher's help, her ZPD is only comparable to Jenny's.

Both girls are smart, but Jenny could be seen as a higher potential intelligence.

Vygotsky's social focus on learning has been applied to the development of a child's memory for personal (autobiographical) events, finding evidence that children learn the culturally determined structures and purposes of personal stories from the early conversations they have with their parents.

An excellent example of scaffolding is when the child creates their own personal story at around 5 or 6 years old.

Vygotsky thought that private speech was a way for a child to think out loud and advance their cognitive abilities.

Vygotsky's ideas have been put into practice in education through the use of cooperative learning, in which children work together in groups to achieve a common goal, and in reciprocal teaching, in which teachers lead students through the basic strategies of reading until the students themselves become capable of teaching the There is a topic that has been making the news recently: the causes of autism spectrum disorder.

One of the main problems for people with Vygotsky's concept of the difference is that they don't have a theory of mind, failing to understand that other people have their own points of view.

The main source of misinformation began in 1998 when British gastroenterologist Dr. Andrew Wakefield published the results of two studies that seemed to link the vaccine to diseases in children.

The studies were denounced as inadequate and dangerous after experts reviewed the quality of his research.

Measles epidemics were caused by parents refusing the vaccine for their children.

The revocation of his medical license in May of 2010 came after it was discovered that he had fudged his data.

These processes will continue well into adulthood even though they begin in infancy.

Babies are easy to change because of their regular schedules of waking, sleeping, and eating.

Difficult babies don't like change and are very upset about it.

Babies who are less grumpy, quieter, and more regular than difficult children are associated with this kind of temperament.

Babies will warm up to new people if change is gradual.

Chess and Thomas discovered that some babies may be a mix of two or even all three patterns of behavior.

A poor fit can make it hard to form an attachment.

The infants were calm when the stranger came in, as long as their mother was nearby.

They didn't look at the stranger or the mother and seemed to have no interest in her absence or her return.

When the mother left, the babies in the study were very upset and unwilling to explore, and were hard to soothe.

The babies would want to be picked up but at the same time push the mother away or kick her.

Some babies seemed unable to decide how to react to the mother's return, according to other researchers.

The infants seemed fearful and showed a confused environment, instead clinging to her father's leg.

Depressed look on their faces can be a result of clinging behavior.

In interactions with the infants, mothers of disorganized-disoriented babies were found to be abusive or neglectful.

An infant with a difficult temperament is hard to soothe.

The results of other research support the findings of Ainsworth in home-based assessments of attachment.

There is support for the idea of attachment styles and stability over the first 6 years of life.

The attachment style of the adult can be seen as influencing adult relationships, as those who are avoidant tend to have shallow and brief relationships with different partners.

Jay Belsky and colleagues studied the attachment of infants in day care and concluded that higher quality of day care did not correlate with higher attachment.

The need to consider attachment as an important first step in forming relationships with others, one that may set the stage for all relationships that follow, is demonstrated by the fact that similar attachment styles are found in other cultures.

As psychologists began to study the development of attachment, they assumed that attachment occurred because the mother was associated with satisfaction of primary drives such as hunger and thirst.

Harry Harlow felt that attachment had to be more than just food.

The surrogates were heated from within and were covered in soft padding and terry cloth.

Learning theory predicts that monkeys will spend more time with whichever surrogate is being used to feed them if time spent with the surrogate is taken as an indicator of attachment.

All of the infant monkeys spent more time with the soft, cloth-covered surrogate.

Even if this was the one with the bottle, all monkeys spent very little time with the wire surrogate.

According to Harlow and his colleagues, contact comfort was an important basic affectional or love variable.

Do you think the wire surrogate mother provides the food for the monkeys raised in this way would behave?

Babies are separated from their surroundings and other people in their social world at an early age.

The rouge test is a way to show a child's growing awareness of themselves.

At about 15 to 18 months of age, the infant begins to touch his or her own nose when he or she sees the image in the mirror, indicating an awareness that the image in the mirror is his or her own.

A lot of people have acted on this advice by ignoring an infant's crying, which is a very bad thing for babies.

In the early months of life, babies who cry frequently are more likely to be fed when hungry, changed when wet, and so on, than babies who cry less frequently.

Allowing an infant who has been fed, changed, burped, and checked to cry on occasion will not damage attachment is not something that a psychodynamic theorist would disagree with.

The relationship of the infant and child to their parents, teachers and even peers was the focus of the study.

If babies' needs for food, comfort, and Birth to 1 year basic sense of trust are not met, they develop an old their needs are met.

Toddlers who are successful in being 1 to 3 years old are able to control their own actions because they have been blocked from doing so.

Adolescents have to decide who they are, their values, goals, and beliefs, and what they want to develop a stable sense of identity.

The adulthood task is to find a way to nurture the next generation and leave a legacy for self 40s and 50s who are creative and productive.

Adulthood in this stage involves coming to terms to terms with their lives, things they to achieve identity or intimacy or 60s and beyond with the end of life, reaching a sense of have done and left undone, and able generativity, who cannot let go of their wholeness and acceptance There is still a problem with people failing to immunize their children against deadly diseases because they have been listening to the wrong people and reading the wrong information.

In December of 2015, news outlets reported that an Australian elementary school had an outbreak of chicken pox, which was known for its tolerance of parents who do not want to vaccine their children.

About 25% of the students were affected, including some who had been vaccine, but they would get only mild cases of chicken pox.

The population lost its "herd immunity" because so many unvaccinated children attend the school.

Chapter One of this text has a section called Applying Psychology.

The people involved in the antivaccine movement get their information from anecdotes and the Internet.

In the famous case of "Typhoid Mary," a woman who carried the disease spread it to a large number of employers and their families.

The spread of disease begins to diminish as more people are immunized.

The third criterion, which is often forgotten, is that even if someone is considered to be an authority or has a lot of expertise, it doesn't mean everything they say is true.

In the case of immunizations, the evidence is clear, and that is important.

The end of adolescence may come earlier or later for different individuals, even though there is a 13 to the early 20s.

Puberty is caused by a series of activities stimulated by the "master" or "pituitary" glands when the correct age is reached.

The growth of body hair, muscle tissue in males, and the menstrual cycle in girls can be stimulated by the growth of the sex glands.

Physical characteristics related to being male or female undergo rapid and dramatic change in addition to an increase in height.

The prefrontal cortex of the brain, which is responsible for impulse control, decision making, and the organization and understanding of information, does not complete its development until about 25 years old.

It's easy to understand why adolescents engage in risky behavior.

The cognitive development of adolescents is less visible than the physical development, but still represents a major change in the way adolescents think about themselves, their peers and the world around them.

The final stage of formal opera is unique to adolescents because they feel that they are so formal a high school education that bad things will not happen to them.

A picture of what an ideal world would be like can be caused by teenagers thinking about hypothetical situations.

Children in different cultures come to understand the world in the same way that Piaget described, although the age at which this understanding comes varies from one child to another.

Although headed into an adult style of thinking, adolescents are still not completely free of egocentric thought.

The personal fable and the imaginary audience are two ways in which this adolescent egocentrism emerges.

"You cents in which young people don't understand me, I'm different from you" is a common feeling of teens.

"It can't happen to me, I'm special" is a common thought.

The adolescent was laughed at by the grasshopper, who preferred to play and be lazy.

A cold and hungry person came to the ant and begged for food and shelter.

A psychologist who was influenced by Piaget and others outlined a theory of the development of moral thinking through looking at how people of various ages responded to stories about people caught up in moral dilemmas.

The knowledge of right and wrong behavior is the third level of moral development.

A juvenile delinquent is preconventional in moral thinking.

Men and women tend to judge the actions that lead to a fair or just end differently.

More recent research suggests that males are more willing than females to accept the idea of committing a harmful actions when it is in the interest of the greater good.

One criticism is that the assessment of moral development involves asking people what they think should be done.

When faced with a real dilemma, what people say they will do is often two different things.

A child who takes money from a parent's wallet and does things that get rewarded is right and those that don't get caught are wrong.

If a child scolds a parent for littering because there is a sign that it is wrong, it is morally right.

A husband helps his dying wife commit suicide to end her life, even if that judgement disagrees with her pain, even though society considers that action to be population.

The term conventional refers to general standards of behavior for a particular society, which will vary from one social group to another.

The teenager has many options for values in life and beliefs concerning things such as political issues, career options, and marriage in this stage.

Teens who have successfully resolved the conflicts of the earlier four stages are better equipped to resist peer pressure to engage in illegal activities and find their own identity during the adolescent years.

Teens who are not as successful have a lack of trust in others, feelings of guilt and shame, low self-esteem, and dependency on others.

Young people start demanding in the peer group.

They play the part of the model child for the parents, smoking because their friends talk them good student for the teachers, and the "cool" juvenile delinquent to their friends and will into doing so, thinking it will make them be confused about which of the many roles they play really represents their Even for the majority of adolescents who end up other choices, there will be conflicts with their parents.

Most parents and teens wouldn't know that they are in agreement on moral issues.

The period of life from the early 20s until old age and death is known as adulthood.

A person can become self-sufficient with a job and a home separate from his or her parents.

With the downturn in the economy, many young people who would have been working and raising families a few decades ago now find that they cannot leave the nest so easily.

The good news is that even in the early 20s, the 20s referring to those who are signs of aging are already beginning.

Oil glands in the neck and around the eyes begin childless, do not live in their own home, and are not earning enough to malfunction, which contributes to wrinkling in those areas near the end of the 20s and money to be independent, mainly beginning of the 30s.

In the 40s, while most adults are able to experience some security and stability without the worries and concerns of adolescence and young adulthood, physical aging continues: Skin begins to show morewrinkles, hair turns gray or falls out, vision and hearing decline, and physical strength may begin to decline At some point in their 30s or 40s, about half an inch of height is lost for every decade past age 40, although people with osteoporosis may lose the lens hardens and lose its ability up to 8 inches or more.

Middle-age romance can be affected by children, mortgages, and career worries.

In a woman's 40s, the levels of the female hormone estrogen decline as the body's reproductive system ceases to function.

A sudden sensation of heat and sweating can keep women awake at night.

Hot flashes are almost always absent in cultures where the diet contains high amounts of soy products.

One study suggests soy intake isn't a primary factor.

Adler et al., Hvas, 2001 and Leon et al., 2007, show that many women look forward to the freedom from monthly menstruation.

Sexual changes for men are less dramatic than for women.

There are physical symptoms that are more troubling, such as fatigue, possible problems in sexual functioning, and reduced sperm count.

All reproductive ability is rarely lost by males.

Many health problems first occur in middle age, although their true cause may have begun in the young adulthood years.

High blood pressure, skin cancer, heart problems, and arthritis are some of the common health problems that may show up in middle age.

Intellectual abilities do not decline, although the speed of processing does slow down.

A middle-aged person has more life experience and knowledge to counter the lack of speed.

The older stenographers had developed a skill of looking farther ahead in the document they were typing so that they could type more continuously without looking at the document.

People can't remember a word or someone's name.

A middle-aged person's stress and the sheer amount of information that a person of middle years must try to keep straight is likely to be the cause of the difficulty in retrieving.

The areas of the brain that are linked to processing emotional content seem to have a strong connection to the areas of the brain responsible for memory formation.

One way to keep the brain healthy and fit is by doing mental exercises, which are less likely to cause memory problems.

It is possible to maintain a healthy level of cognitive functioning by working challenging crossword puzzles.

Concerns in adulthood include career, relationships, family and approaching old age.

The late teens and early 20s may be college years for many, although other young people go to work directly from high school.

The task of choosing and entering a career is difficult for many young adults.

A college student may change majors more than once during the first few years of college, and even after obtaining a bachelor's degree, many may either get a job in an unrelated field or go on to a different type of career choice in graduate school.

People who are working may change careers several times and experience periods of unemployment while between jobs.

The primary task in young adulthood was to find a mate.

Young adults who trust, share, and care while still main have difficulty trusting others and who are unsure of their own identities may find it difficult to retain a sense of self.

Many marriages end in divorce within a few years, with one partner leaving the relationship, and even the responsibilities of parenting, to explore personal concerns and unfinished issues of identity.

In middle adulthood, people who have found intimacy can turn their focus to others.

People who frequently hand the care of their children to grandparents or other relatives so that they can go out and have fun may be unable to focus on anyone else's needs but their own.

Most people's middle adulthood involves parenting their children.

Diana Baumrind outlined three basic styles of parenting, each of which may be related to a certain personality trait in the child raised by that style of parenting.

The well-being of the next generation parent is stern, rigid, controlling, and uncompromising, and has through career or volunteer work.

Teenagers will often rebel against their parents in negative and self-destructive ways, such as drug use, premarital sex, and criminal acts.

Children from both kinds of permissive parenting tend to be selfish, immature, dependent, and unpopular with their peers.

The child can have some input into the formation of rules but the final decision is still made by the parent.

Nonphysical punishments include restrictions, time-out, or loss of privileges.

When a child crosses the limits set by the parents, they allow an explanation and agree on the right way to handle the situation.

Children raised in this style of parenting tend to be independent.

As people enter the stage known as late adulthood, life becomes more urgent as the realities of physical aging and the approaching end of life become harder and harder to ignore.

People have to deal with mistakes, regrets, and unfinished business in the life review.

If people have a lot of unfinished business, they feel despair, a sense that time has run out, and few, if any, demands on deep regret over things that will never be accomplished because time has run out.

Some theories of physical are so involved that children are aging point to biological changes in cellular structure, whereas others focus on the influ allowed to behave without set limits.

Cells are limited in the number of times they can combine warmth and affection with reproduce to repair damage.

The effects of aging are caused by damaged tissues.

They bounce around the cell, stealing electrons and damaging the structures inside.

The effects of aging are caused by more and more free radicals.

This allows him to be useful and also helps the person adjust to aging in a positive way.

The withdrawal of many elderly people from activities is not voluntary at all, because others stop inviting elderly people to social activities and including them in their lives.

One of the more well-known theories is that of Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, who conducted extensive interviews with dying persons and their caregivers.

When faced with death, people go through five stages of reaction.

Some people don't have time to go through all of these stages, or even go through them in the listed order.

Some theorists don't agree with the idea of dying as a series of ups and downs, with hope on the rise at times and then falling, to be replaced by a rise in despair or disbelief.

In Native American cultures, a person who is clearly alive is mourned as dead, as is the case in the Western world.

Let's take a look at three different cultures and their views on death and dying, remembering to contrast them with what you know of death and funeral rituals in your own culture.

The funeral period can take nearly two weeks and is begun once the person has passed away.

The body of the deceased is placed on the floor until the day of the funeral, and all but the very old and infirm are expected to sleep there.

The body of a Hindu man is being carried to bers who will wash it and then his family will prepare a crematorium.

Depending on how the person lived his or her life, it is believed that the dead person's soul will be reincarnated at either a higher level or a lower level.

Death is considered the end of the physical body in the culture of the Northern Cheyenne Native American tribe.

The Hindi believes in reincarnation and so many infants are seen to be descendants of ancestors.

Death is a long process, with various aspects of one's spirit leaving at different times.

The second leads to loss of senses, consciousness, and breathing.

Until the bones begin to fall into dust, this life principle stays in the skeleton.

A dying person is usually taken to a place away from others, with only one or two very close relatives staying with them, because to do so is to risk exposure to evil spirits.

At the time of death, two men prepare the body for burial, but prior to that ritual they must cover themselves in ashes, which protects them from the evil spirits.

The men warn others to stay away from the grave as they carry the body on their shoulders.

The dirt is returned to the grave, the footprints are swept away, and the deceased is buried with all his or her belongings.

The sensorimotor stage of sensory and the dominant genes determine the expression of a trait, whereas physical interaction with the world is only expressed when coupled with which language becomes a tool of exploration.

The result of combinations of genes working together in operations which abstract concepts are understood and hypo a process called polygenic inheritance is almost all ations in which logical thought becomes possible.

Vysky believed that children learn best when being helped syndrome and Turner's syndrome, whereas genetic disorders by a more highly skilled peer or adult in a process called scaf include PKU.

Parents and others who fear immunizing their children against diseases have failed to understand the basic princi cells, eventually forming the baby.

The three basic infant temperaments are easy, adapt, and dizygotic twins are formed when the mother's body releases able, and happy.

Harlow's classic research with infant rhesus monkeys demon ends at 8 weeks, and the embryo begins at 2 weeks after conception.

The vital organs and structures of the baby were important during this period, making it a critical one when terato process occurs, contrary to the earlier view that attachment was only a function of association with the mother.

The fetal period is from the beginning of the 9th week until the baby is born.

During the fetal period, tremendous growth ability and trust in caregivers or risk developing a mistrustful occurs, length and weight increase, and organs continue to nature; in autonomy versus shame and doubt, the toddler needs become fully functional.

The adolescence period from about 13 to the early ing, rooting, Moro, grasping, and stepping is known as the suck.

Puberty is a period of about 4 years during which the sexual Vision is blurry and lacking in full color perception until about 6 organs and systems are fully mature and during the secondary months of age.

During infancy and early childhood, sex characteristics such as body hair, breasts, and menstruation can affect gross and fine motor skills.

Gilligan suggested that Kohlberg's ideas were consistent and strict to males.

The job of the older adult must come to terms with mortality in the final crisis of Erikson.

The idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce is the basis of the cellular-clock theory.

The wear-and-tear theory of physical aging states that as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body's tissues cause it.

The dead are believed to move to the under in which the young adult must establish an intimate relation world, and contact with the body is strictly limited for fear of ship.

A group of children are studied for their eating habits.

An egg and a sperm unite in the process of meeting their needs.

Children begin to feel capable and develop a sense of initiative.