ChAPTER 2 The Rise of Civilization in the Middle

• A Neolithic woman puts a dried plant under a fire-starting stick and spins it against a wall to create heat that will start a fire.

• The Neolithic kits send us messages about early world history.
• Men and women were tool users.
• They deliberately selected branches, stones, and other natural objects from the environment to make weapons, utensils, and tools that could be used to ward off animal and human enemies, hunt, trap, fish, prepare food, and construct shelters.
• A number of other animals, including apes, are tool users, but only human beings invent and craft their tools.
• Humans have known how to make and use fire for thousands of years.
• The use of fire for cooking allowed early humans to eat a wide variety of food.

• The toolmakers of the southwest were far from Africa.
• It was thought that the first humans migrated from northeast Asia to Alaska 12,000 years ago.

• Our ancestors could talk.
• In some places, Neolithic humans were poised to introduce some more fundamental changes, but they had already experienced a number of fundamental changes.

• The survival of early humans and the development of ever-larger communities depended on the creation of fire-starters and other tools.
• The chapter that follows will show the progression of material and social development of the human species.
• We will look at the technological and organizational innovations that made it possible for the majority of humans to move from tiny bands of wander ing hunters and gatherers to sedentary village dwellers and then the builders of walled cities with populations in the thousands.
• The development of agriculture that increased and made more secure the supply of food by which more and more humans could be sustained was more than any other factor.

• The domestication of animals and the shift to agriculture resulted in major changes in the roles and relationships between men and women.
• They led to more lethal ways of war, as well as increasing social stratification, new forms of political organization, and more elaborate means of artistic expression.
• The transition farm ing communities only occupied small pockets of the earth's land area and rarely ventured out on the sea or large rivers.
• The history of the spe cies and the planet has an uneasy balance between the people who followed the two main adaptation to the diverse eco systems in which humans proved able to survive.

• The human economies helped propel migration over most of the lands experience is only a brief moment in the larger history of the earth.

• A discussion of when and how the human species emerged and what impact it would have over time on the physical environment is included in Big History.

• Humans had evolved in physical appearance and mental capacity roughly the same level as today.
• The humanoid spe was competing with other humanlike creatures that emerged as the most successful for nearly 100,000 years.

• Stone Age humans and related humanoids freed their hands as shown in Figure 1.2.
• Different human species were able to make and use tools and weapons because of the combination of free hands and opposable thumbs.
• The implements helped to offset the humans' lack of strength and speed in comparison to other animals, such as wolves and wild cats.
• Humans were able to transform cries and grunts into sounds that make up language thanks to a more developed brain.
• The small bands that were the main form of human social organization were greatly enhanced by language.

• One interesting change occurred during the course of human evolution.
• Human children did not develop mature teeth until after weaning.
• For human children to survive, they had to 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 Family structures had to evolve.

• Human groups survived by hunting and fishing with wild fruits, grains, and roots.
• The tools shown in Figure 1.3 were created for these purposes.
• Stone tools are our main evidence of the technology of this age, as the tools of wood and bone have perished.
• The sites where early tools were found are over 2 mil years old.
• These early species made tools by breaking off the edges of stones.
• By the late Paleolithic Age, their descendants were better at working stone.

• They became less fit for life in the tree canopy.
• They preferred the open grassland areas because of their improved eyesight and ability to walk or run ever greater distances.

• These chips could be used to make knife blades, arrow points, or choppers, which were used for a wide range of purposes, from hunting and warfare to skinning animal carcasses and harvesting wild plants.
• Humans had also mastered fire, as many as half a mil lion years ago.

• Evidence of artistic creativity was left behind by early human groups.
• The late Paleolithic was a time of intense artistic production.
• Miniature sculpture, beads and other forms of jewelry, and carved bones have been found in abundance at sites dating from this period.
• The cave paintings that have been discovered in areas as diverse as southern France, the plains of Africa, and the Middle East are the most striking works from this period.
• Some of the paintings have religious significance.
• It is possible that they were intended to depict deities or promote fertility.
• Some paintings may represent early counting systems or primitive calendars.
• Humans were becoming more interested in leaving lasting images of their activities and concerns according to the art of the Old Stone Age.

• Animists believe that the natural world is alive with supernatural forces that can be found in groves of trees or revered animals.
• In early human societies, there were a lot of animist beliefs and practices, and they are still pervasive today.

• When hunting-and-gathering populations expanded, the spread of human Culture Migration was essential, and it led to the peopling of the world's major land mass.
• This is the main theme of the first stage of the human experience.

• We now call the continents North and South America.
• Warming waters eliminated the land bridge and further migration by 10,000 b.c.e.
• Human colonies were found in the south and west of Australia by 12,000 b.c.

• Thanks to a larger land mass and lower ocean levels, the island chain of Southeast Asia extended closer to Australia.

• Recent archeological research has shown that in some places, human ingenuity and natu ral conditions allowed some groups to establish settlements, where they lived for much of the year and in some cases for generation after generation.
• The settled communities harvest wild grains that grow in abundance.
• Some communities made the transition to true farming by domesticating plants and animals near their permanent vil lage sites after surviving for centu ries in this way.
• There was no single pattern among those who reverted to migration.

• Few could support a band larger than 20 to 30 men, women, and children.
• Human population densities were low because early human groups had a variety of stone selves.

• Stone Age peoples lived in caves and the tools shown here include weapon points and scrapers.
• There have been recent peeling off animal hides.

• There are shelters of skins and leaves for cattle and sheep.
• Their flimsy campsites could be readily abandoned societies that were normally found on the fringes of civilized societies.
• It is possible that bands developed a sense of territoriality, but boundaries were vague.

• Because they became skilled in the use of weapons in the hunt, they are more likely to protect the band from animal attacks and raids by other human groups.
• As the cave paint people, nomadic hunters and gather ings featured in the Document section suggest, animal hunts were major events in the annual cycle ers.

• Women and children prepared and preserved the meat after the hunting parties.
• Women's roles were less aggressive than men's, but they were still critical to the survival of the band.

• When hunting parties were unsuccessful, women gathered the food that provided the basic sustenance of the band.
• Medici nal plants were the only way Paleolithic peoples could treat disease.

• They created more intensive hunting-and-gathering patterns.

• 10,000 b.c.e.
• is when the spread of Human Populations began.

• The most spectacular settlements are in central Russia.
• Some 20,000 years ago, there was an abundance of large but slow woolly mammoths in that region.
• The local peoples were able to live in the same place throughout much of the year because of the meat supplied by these animals.
• The large number of mammoth bones found in the garbage pits at the settlement sites suggest that they were dependent on the mammoths.
• The use of the bones of these huge mammals in building dwellings is vividly demonstrated by this reliance.

• Remnants found in food storage pits and other artifacts from the central Russian settlements show that these people participated in trading networks with other peoples as far away as the Black Sea.
• There are clear status differences among the groups that lived in the settlements.
• The bone communities lasted from about 18,000 to 10,000 b.c.e.

• The col changes between 12,000 and 11,000 b.c.e.
• were practiced by Jordan.
• Wild grains were sufficient to support many densely populated settlements on a permanent basis when supplemented with nuts and meat.

• The Natufian culture flourished between 10,500 and 8000 b.c.e.
• The population densities were as high as seven to six times that of other Neolithic communities.
• The Natufians used sophisticated techniques to store and prepare grain for meals.
• They built stone dwellings that were occupied for centuries.

• Natufian society was different from the mammoth-hunting societies of central Russia.
• Grand burial ceremonies marked the death of the brides' families as young men went to live to have been used to distinguish their rank.

• The female line may be explained by the fact that women gathered food crops in the wild.

• We can't be certain of the meanings that the paintings were trying to convey because writing wouldn't be created by any human 3300 BCE group for many millennia to come.
• Some may have been done for the purpose of artistic expression.
• Some of the depictions of animals in flight, depicted by human hunters, were painted to commemorate actual incidents in successful hunting expeditions.
• The locations deep in cave complexes and the consistent choice of game animals suggest that they served a ritual purpose.
• The images of animals in art were seen as a way of assisting future hunting parties in the wild.
• It is possible that those who painted the animal figures wanted to improve their chances in the hunt and ward off animals that preyed on humans.
• The first conscious historical accounts of the human experience were created by those who created these early works of art.

• New tools or production techniques were not part of the Natufian strategy for survival.
• Improvement of storage techniques and intensive gathering of wild grains were the main focus.
• The culture was vul nerable because of the Natufians' concentration on grain, meat and nuts.
• The climate of the region where the Natufian settlements were located grew more arid after 9000 b.c.e.
• Grains and game that they depended on were not present in many places.
• The Natufian sites were abandoned one thousand years later.

• Until the late Paleolithic, advances in human technology and social organization were much slower than they have been since 8000 b.c.e.
• Around 8 million people lived on the eve of agriculture.
• The lives of these humans were short and violent.
• They were afraid of animal and human enemies.
• They were powerless in the face of injury or disease because they were at the mercy of the elements.
• Their nomadic existence reflected their dependence on the feeding cycles of migrating animals, with a few crude tools and weap ons.

• Smaller human groups that lived in permanent settlements had better shelters, a more secure food supply, and larger communities on which to draw in their relentless struggle for survival.
• The earlier versions of the species had improved greatly.
• There was no evidence that they would change their way of life in a few thousand years.

• There wasn't anything natural about the development of agriculture.

• The Bushmen of southwest Africa still follow them.
• Between 8500 and 3500 b.c.e., the number of humans shifted to dependence on crops and animals for their sustenance.
• By about 7000 b.c.e., their tools and skills had advanced enough to enable cultivating peoples to support towns with more than 1000 people.
• The Middle East could support enough non-farmers to give rise to the first civilizations.
• The character of most human lives and the history of the species were fundamentally changed as this pattern spread to other parts of the world.
• The Big History approach calls attention to a long "agricultural period" of the human experience that ran from the Neolithic until about 300 years ago.

• There are no written records of the transition period between 8500 and 3500 b.c.e., so we don't know why some people adopted these new ways of producing food and other necessities of life.
• Many big game animals migrated to new pastures in the north.
• They left a supply of game for human hunters in the Middle East, where agriculture first arose and many animals were first domesticated.
• Changes in the distribution of wild grains and other crops on which hunters and gatherers depended were caused by Climatic shifts.

• The shift to sedentary farming is likely due to an increase in human populations in certain areas.
• Population growth may have been caused by changes in the climate.
• It is1-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-65561-6556 People such as the Natu fians found that they could grow a lot of their own food.
• As the population grew, more and more attention was given to the grain harvest, which eventually led to the conscious and systematic cultivation of plants.

• The peoples who first cultivated cereals had seen them grow in the wild as they gathered other plants for their leaves and roots.
• In the Middle East, wheat and wild barley were grown in the late Paleolithic times.

• The practice of agriculture caught on slowly.
• TheArcheological evi dence suggests that the first agriculturists retained their hunting-and-gathering activities as a hedge against the ever-present threat of starvation.
• As Stone Age peoples became more proficient at culti vating a growing range of crops, such as olives and peas, the effort they spent on activities outside agriculture diminished.

• The earliest farmers probably sowed wild seeds in order to cut down on labor.

• Several animals may have been domesticated before the discovery of agriculture, and the two on the natural ecology are typical of processes combined to make up the critical transformation in human culture called the Neo rainforest cultivators.

• Stone found that wolf pups could be trained to track and the origin and spread of agriculture was discovered as early as 12,000 b.c.e.
• The strains of dogs that gradually developed were good at controlling the herd.
• Asian dogs were useful in hunting and herding, which is why they were included in the later migrations to the Americas.
• Once their leaders had been captured, defenseless herds of sheep could be domesticated.
• The first domesticated animals in the Middle East were sheep, goats, and pigs.
• The tamed horned cattle were better able to defend themselves than the wild sheep.

• New Stone Age humans had additional sources of meat and milk from domesticated animals.
• The materials from which clothes, containers, shelters, and crude boats could be made were greatly expanded by the use of animal hides and wool.

• The horns and bones of animals could be used.
• When stone tools and weapons were replaced by metal ones, most Neolithic peoples made little use of animal power for farming, transportation, or travel.
• People in the north and south use tamed reindeer and camels to pull sleds.
• Neolithic peoples used domesticated herd animals as a steady source of manure to enrich the soil and improve the yield of the crops that were gradually becoming the basis of their livelihood.

• In the same era as sed entary agriculture was being developed, groups of humans moved into the grassland of central Asia and the Middle East, where they bred and tended herds of cattle, sheep, and goats.
• They were provided with a steady supply of meat and milk, their staple foods, as well as hides for clothing and housing and bones that could be fashioned into tools and weapons.
• In some cases, pastoral peoples were able to control larger herds of domesticated animals and hunt wild animals, such as bison and deer, in order to expand their food supply.
• In the early stages of pastoralism and the domestication of ani mals, contact with humans increased the incidence of disease for all of the species involved.
• According to experts, up to 80% of human diseases came from ani mals.
• Improvements in food supply and mobility made the tradeoff worthwhile, but agricultural societies and pastoral societies were also saddled with new kinds of problems.

• Many bands stayed with long-tested subsistence societies because of the greater labor involved in cultivating and the fact that it did not greatly improve living standards.
• Through most of the Neolithic Age, sedentary agricultural communities coexisted with more numerous bands of hunters and gatherers.
• After sedentary agriculture became the basis for the majority of humans, hunters and gatherers held out in many areas of the globe.
• The nomadic herding way of life has thrived in areas that have been domesticated, such as central Asia, the Middle East, the Sudanic belt south of the Sahara desert in Africa, and the animal herds that feed on the natural savanna zone of east and south Africa.
• The regions environment is typically more popu than dense or large populations, but they have produced hardy and independent populations.

• The military skills needed to challenge more heavily populated societies have been developed by nomadic people.
• Horse-riding nomads who herded sheep or cattle have destroyed powerful kingdoms and laid the foundations for vast empires.
• The rise of Islamic civilization was influenced by the camel nomads of Arabia.
• Some of the most formidable preindustrial military organizations were produced by the cattle-herding peoples of central, east, and south Africa.
• herding nomads and agricultural peoples have been a theme in world history since about 500 years ago.

• Those who adopted agriculture gained a stable base for survival.
• They gave their production techniques to other people.
• Map 1.2 shows the spread of key crops.
• oats and rye were added later in Europe, where these crops spread northward.
• From Egypt, the culti vation of grain crops and fibers, such as cotton used for clothing, spread to peoples along the Nile in the interior of Africa, along the north African coast, and across the vast savanna zone south of the Sahara desert.

• During the Neolithic Age, a millet-based agricultural system was used along the Yellow River basin.
• In the last millennium, it spread from this core region.
• The rice revolution began in main land southeast Asia before 5000 b.c.e.
• In the Americas, systems based on maize, manioc, and sweet potatoes arose.

• Agriculture has spread in ways similar to human populations, but from a Middle Eastern epicenter.
• Columbus's voyage in the late-15th century brought together the civilizations of the Americas and Afro-Euroasia, and in some cases, a wide range of staple crops were only known in some parts of the world.

• All the inhabited continents except Australia had different patterns of agricultural production, which was spread to nearly all the regions of the globe.

• Humans began to change the environments in which they lived with the development of agriculture.
• A growing portion of humans became sedentary farmers who cleared the lands around their settlements and took care of the animals that grazed on them.
• The growing size and number of settlements showed the presence of humans.
• These were found in areas where humans had been for a long time and in new areas where farming allowed them to settle.
• The Neolithic Age saw a leap in human population due to the increase in the number of sedentary farmers.
• Between 5 and 8 million humans had fluc tuated for tens of thousands of years before agriculture was developed.
• After four or five millennia of farming, their numbers had risen to 60 or 70 million.
• Hunting-and-gathering bands continued to fight and trade with sedentary peoples in the zones between cultivated areas.
• The areas devoted to pastoralism became even more important.
• Villages and cultivated fields became the main features of human habitation over the globe.

• One of the great turning points in human history was the surge in invention and social complexity in the Neolithic Age.
• Increased reliance on sedentary cultivation led to the development of a wide variety of agricultural tools, such as digging sticks used to break up the soil, axes to clear forested areas, and the plow.
• Seed selection, planting, fertilization, and weeding techniques improved over time.
• By the end of the Neolithic Age, human societies in several areas had come up with ways to store and re- channel river water.
• Humans' ability to remake their environment was one of the major advances made by the water storage and control canals.

• Larger, more elaborate housing and community ritual centers came about because of better tools and settlements.
• In construction, houses were usually uniform.
• Sun-dried bricks, wattle, and stone structures were assocated with early agricultural communities.
• Improved techniques of food storage are essential.
• Baskets and leather containers were first used.
• Pottery, which was used to protect food from dust and water, was already used in the Middle East.

• The Neolithic revolution was made possible by the surplus production that agriculture made possible.
• Human communities were reconstructed at skara Brae in coastal scotland.
• Grain, water, and other essentials are stored by political and religious leaders.
• Most emerged and formed elite classes.
• In the Neolithic Age, there were clay or stone hearths that were built into the walls or a hole in the roof.
• The production of stone tools, weapons, and pottery was demarcated and there were raised sleeping areas along the walls.
• The formation of elites was greatly enhanced by the development of agriculture and varied food supplies.
• Tools security and comfort were created by each household.
• These conditions spurred and weapons it needed, just as it wove its own baskets and produced its higher birth rates and lower mortality rates.
• Families or individuals who proved crop yields were high over time.

• Some regions produce materials that are in demand in other areas.
• flint was the preferred material for axe blades.
• It was necessary to clear the forest for the extension of cultivation in Europe.
• The demand was so great that vil agers who lived near flint deposits could support themselves by mining the flint or crafting the flint heads and trading with people who lived far from the sources of production.
• Exchanges set precedents for regional trade.

• Other early sites include mia.
• Evidence shows that women are depicted as goddesses.
• At Hacilar, the history of human life in the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages comes mainly from surviving artifacts from campsites and early figurines that may have served as towns.
• Stone tools, bits of pottery or cloth, and the remains of images of cult veneration and paintings that suggest they may be Stone Age dwellings can now be dated.
• When they were oracles or cult priestesses.
• As in the Laussel Venus, the objects from the same site and time period give us a good sense of the daily activities of women and their roles in reproduction and nurturing.

• As we have seen in the Document on cave paintings, the material remains of the Stone Age era have not been found with animal heads.
• Many of these insights into the social organization and thinking of early ettes may have been intended to depict goddesses and humans than works of art.
• We know a lot about gender.

• It is difficult to know what impact the shift to agriculture had on the social structure of the communities.
• Well-defined social stratification, such as that which produces class iden tity, was not present.
• Village alliances may have existed in some areas.
• It is possible that all households in the community were given access to village lands and water in Neolithic times.

• Women played a critical part in the domestication of plants because of their key roles as food gatherers.
• Their position declined in many agricultural communities.
• They have continued to work the fields in most cultures.
• Heavy labor such as clearing land, hoeing, and plowing were taken over by men.

• The irrigation systems that developed in most early centers of agriculture were controlled by men because they were monopolized by them.
• Men took the lead in raising large animals associated with both farming and pastoral communities.
• The social and economic position of women began to decline with the shift to sedentary agriculture, despite the fact that Neolithic art suggests that earth and fertility cults, which focused on feminine deities, retained their appeal.

• Over time some of the early sedentary communities grew into larger and larger concentrations of cities and crafts that depended on human populations with ever more specialized craftspeople and differentiated social groups that on trade emerged in the Middle.

• With a population of 2000 and 5000 people, the two towns would be seen as little more than large villages or small towns today.
• They were the first stirrings of urban life.
• The introduction in the 4th millennium b.c.e.
• was made possible by their elites and craft specialists.

• There were round houses of mud and brick in the early walled city.
• Most early houses were based on sedentary agriculture and only a single room with mud plaster floors and a domed ceiling, but some houses had as many as three in modern Israeli occupied rooms.
• The entry to these dwel ings was provided by a doorway and steps near the Jordan River.

• The building of wal s for protection from external enemies was made necessary by the expansion of its wealth.
• The town had a ditch cut into the rocky soil and a wall that was almost 12 feet high.
• The people who undertook the construction had no shovels or picks.
• The riverbed was nearly a mile away from where the stones for the wall were dragged.
• The labor force was well organized and disciplined.

• The fortifications included a stone tower that was at least 25 feet high.
• The area around the town grew.
• Round houses were replaced by rectangular ones through larger and more elaborately decorated wooden doorways.
• Houses were made of improved bricks and provided with plaster and stone for grinding.
• They had storage baskets and straw mats.
• The small buildings were used as religious shrines during the later stages of the town's history.

• There is evidence of reliance on hunting and trade in the economy of Jericho.
• Meat and milk were provided by domesticated goats and birds were hunted for their hides and feathers.
• The town had large supplies of salt, sulfur, and pitch.

• The ruins indicate that the town was ruled by a powerful ruling group that was allied to the keepers of the shrine centers.
• There was a small merchant class.
• In addition to fertility figurines and animal carvings like those found at many other sites, the inhabitants of Jericho sculpted life-sized, highly naturalistic human figures and heads.
• The sculptures give us a good idea of the physical features of the people who enjoyed the wealth and security of Jericho.

• The town that grew up at this site was located in modern southern Turkey and had a larger and more diverse population.
• The most advanced human center of the Neolithic Age was Catal.
• The city occupied 32 acres and contained as many as 6000 people at its peak.

• They had windows that were high in their walls.
• The entryways were also used as chimneys.
• The houses in early towns were attractive to nomadic bands because of the stored food.
• They were fortified for that reason, as shown in Figure 1.5.

• The ruling group at Jericho is more imposing than that found at Catal Huyuk.
• There are many religious shrines at the site.
• The shrines were built in the same way as ordinary houses, but they had sanctuaries that were surrounded by rooms related to the ceremonies of the shrine's cult.
• The walls of these religious centers were filled with paintings of bulls and car rion eaters, suggesting fertility cults and rituals associated with death.
• According to the surviv ing statuary, the chief deity of the Catal Huyuk peoples was a goddess.

• The fine jewelry, mirrors, and weapons found buried with the dead attest to the high level of material culture and artistic ability of these town dwellers.

• Excavations show that the economic base was much richer than that of Jericho.
• The breeding of goats, sheep, and cattle was more important than hunting.

• Grains, peas, ber ries, berry wine, and vegetable oils made from nuts were some of the foods the inhabitants of Huyuk consumed.
• Trade was extensive with the peoples in the surrounding area and also in places as far away as Syria and the Mediter ranean region.
• The center of production for artisans was called Catal Huyuk.
• In what is now southern Turkey, there is an excavation of an ancient settlement.

• There was mostly movement across the roofs and terraces of the houses.
• The settlement was often the target of attacks by Neolithic Age because it had a large storeroom for food.
• The complex was turned into a fortress when it became clear that the inhabitants had barricaded their entrances.

• Civilization in World Historical Perspective believes that there are fundamental differences between barbarians and civilized peoples, and that ranged from the lowest to the highest.

• For thousands of years the Chinese set themselves Peoples such as the Chinese and the Arabs, who had created great off from cattle- and sheep-herding peoples of the vast plains to cities, monumental architecture, writing, advanced technology, the north and west of China proper.
• Being civilized was not biological to the Chinese.
• If barbarians learned the Chinese language and adopted cattle and sheep-herding peoples, they were classified as barbarians.
• They were regarded as civilized.

• The American Indian peoples of present-day North America and Australia were 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- Europeans believed that they had not advanced beyond interior, so they settled in the valleys of the mountainous Asia, where they built the most primitive stages of society.

• In keeping moved down from the desert regions of with a growing emphasis in European north Mexico into the fertile central valleys in search of game thinking and social interaction on racial or biological differences, and settlements to pillage.
• No one had developed there.

• The material culture of defeated peoples was argued to be more inventive by European writers.

• The Romans came up with the term.

• They used it to distinguish between themselves and their cos.
• The civilized peoples lived in the forests and deserts of the Mediterranean, while the "inferior" peoples lived in the city.

• Many prominent historians sought the rise of Roman civilization, but they made a similar distinction between reserve for whites and outsiders.
• As in the thousands of years of human change and adaptation, the boundaries between civilized are fixed in time.
• The Greeks and Romans were lit and barbarians, not biolog tle effect on the rankings of different human groups.

• The swearing of al egiance to the polis or the emperor is perceived to be a correspondence between race and level of Roman customs.

• Until the 17th and 18th centuries, the priority given to civilized and "inferior" peoples affected more than intel cultural attributes.

• European imperialist expan was rarely challenged because of these beliefs.
• The two major changes that occurred in those centuries were seen as a "civilizing mission" aimed at uplifting.
• Efforts were barbaric and savage.

• All peoples, from small bands of hunters and gatherers to equipped to govern lesser breeds of humans.

• Not all societies and savage peoples have been discarded by most historians and other cultures.
• There are a number of 20th-century developments that distinguish the revolt of colonized peoples and the crimes committed by other modes of social organization.
• Before and during World War II, all peoples were the Nazis in the name of race, but many have lacked purification, discredited racist thinking.
• The resource base, historical circumstances and desire to do so are included.

• The invention and dissemination of new tools and production tech tion was dependent on the level of specialization and political organization that developed in early towns.

• The use of the plow greatly increased crop yields, and wheeled vehicles made it possible to carry more food and other raw materials over greater distances.
• Both developments made it possible for larger populations to be supported and concentrated in certain places.
• When copper was mixed with other metals, such as tin, it formed bronze, a harder and more durable material.
• The development of larger and more lethal military forces was aided by the bronze tools that were forged from bronze.
• The new technol ogies--the wheel, the plow, bronze--began to spread in Afro-Eurasia in the centuries after 3500 b.c.e.

• The rise of more cen tralized and expansive states was made possible by better tools and weapons.
• These new political units, which were usually centered on fortified towns and cities, greatly increased contacts between farming and nomadic peoples in everything from war and conquest to trade and religious expression.
• The first enduring links between the urban centers of different states and civilizations were created by merchant groups in farming societies.

• New modes of transportation, state patronage and protection, and a growing inventory of products to exchange made it possible to extend these networks across continents.

• The societies that participated in cross-cultural exchanges became more complex.
• The development of writing in Mesopotamia and later in India, China, and other centers of agrarian production improved communications and exchange within these commercial networks and regional state systems.
• The power of the political elites was enhanced by writing.
• The emergence of each of the transcultural religions was aided by writing.

• The Neolithic revolution's innovative technologies and modes of agricultural production became the basis for an unparal spread and increase of human societies, and are the focus of world history.
• The most isolated societies were immune to influences from the outside once these processes were in motion.

• The major alternative to seden include in the Neolithic revolution was Pastoralism, which has proved to be the most important way to develop tary agriculture through most of recorded history.
• As a result, it dispersed and isolated human groups, and the options it offered for world history have been more limited.
• In contrast to pastoralism, farming made it possible to concentrate and technology.
• The number of humans in towns and later cities has grown due to the spread of initial foods.
• Asia, Africa, and Europe were some of the areas where surplus food production could be found.
• Some developments, like the domestication of groups like full-time blacksmiths, traders, or pottery-makers, could be supported by nomadic herding groups.
• The dogs spread quickly and widely.
• The emergence of non-farming elite groups was made possible by the development of sedentary pluses, which made it possible for larger numbers of humans to rule larger amounts of land.

• Stuart developments can be found in virtually all regions of the world.
• This reliable treatment of technology in this era can be found in vol process in key regions over much of the globe.

• The key ways in which the human species 3 are.

What advantages were there?