22.1 - General Properties of Nonmetals

Metalloids are a tiny category of elements that have properties that are similar to both metals and nonmetals.
- Semiconducting elements include boron, silicon, germanium, and arsenic.
The electronnegativity of elements increases in any group in the periodic table from left to right across every period, from bottom to top.
Except hydrogen in the upper-right corner of the periodic table the nonmetals are concentrated.
A combination of metals and non-metals is generally formed by ionic compounds which have a metal cation and a non-metallic anion.

22.2 - Hydrogen

Binary hydrides are compounds made up of hydrogen and another element, which can be either a metal or nonmetal.
- These hydrides are classified into three groups based on their structure and properties: (1) ionic hydrides, (2) covalent hydrides, and (3) interstitial hydrides.
When molecular hydrogen reacts directly with any alkali metal or the alkaline earth metals Ca, Sr, or Ba, ionic hydrides occur.
The hydrogen atom is covalently bound to an atom of another element in covalent hydrides.
- Covalent hydrides are divided into two types: those with discrete molecular units, such as CH4 and NH3, and those with complicated polymeric structures, such as (BeH2)x and (AlH3)x, where x is a large number.
With transition metals, molecular hydrogen produces a multitude of hydrides.
- The ratio of hydrogen atoms to metal atoms in several of these compounds is not constant.
- Interstitial hydrides are the name for such compounds.

Properties

The addition of hydrogen to compounds with numerous bonds, particularly CC and CC bonds, is known as hydrogenation.

22.3 - Carbon

Carbon is the only element capable of forming long chains and stable rings of five or six members. Catenation, or the joining of similar atoms, is the name given to this occurrence.
Carbon, in the form of C2 2 or C4 ions, interacts with metals to produce ionic compounds termed carbides, such as CaC2 and Be2C.
The anion group :CN: is found in cyanides.
- Because they bind nearly irreversibly to the Fe(III) ion in cytochrome oxidase, a critical enzyme in metabolic processes, cyanide ions are exceedingly poisonous.

22.4 - Nitrogen and Phosphorus

One of the most well-known nitrogen compounds is ammonia. The Haber method is used to make it industrially from nitrogen and hydrogen.
The triple bond in the N2 molecule makes it extremely resistant to breakdown into atomic species.
- Nitrogen, on the other hand, produces a huge number of compounds with hydrogen and oxygen, with oxidation numbers ranging from 3 to +5.
Phosphorus is, like nitrogen, a member of the family of group 5A.
- Phosphorus is similar in some ways to nitrogen chemistry.
The most frequent ingredients for phosphorus are phosphate rocks, Ca3(PO4)2, Ca5(PO4)3F and fluoroapathic, Ca5(PO4)3F

22.5 - Oxygen and Sulfur

Oxygen is the most plentiful element in the Earth's crust, accounting for over half of its mass.
- The atmosphere contains around 21% molecular oxygen by volume.
Molecular oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and one of the most extensively utilized industrial compounds.
- Steelmaking and sewage treatment are two of their primary applications.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) are two major oxides of sulfur.
- When sulfur is burned in the air, sulfur dioxide is produced.
Sulfuric acid is the most important industrial chemical on the planet.
- It's made in a factory by first burning sulfur in the air.

22.6 - The Halogens

The Chlor-alkali processresultsh involves the electrolysis of a concentrated aqueous NaCl solution, is used to produce chlorine gas, Cl2.
The chloride ion is the main anion in intracellular and extracellular fluids, hence chlorine plays a significant biological role in the human body.
- Chlorine is frequently utilized in the paper and textile industries as a bleaching agent.
A large number of compounds are formed by the halogens.
- They form diatomic molecules, X2, in the elementary state.
In nature, halogens are always found in combination with other elements because of their high reactivity.
Chlorine, bromine, and iodine are present in seawater halides, and fluorine is present in fluorite (CaF2) and criolite minerals (Na3AlF6).

Home

Science

Chemistry

22.1 - General Properties of Nonmetals

Metalloids are a tiny category of elements that have properties that are similar to both metals and nonmetals.
- Semiconducting elements include boron, silicon, germanium, and arsenic.
The electronnegativity of elements increases in any group in the periodic table from left to right across every period, from bottom to top.
Except hydrogen in the upper-right corner of the periodic table the nonmetals are concentrated.
A combination of metals and non-metals is generally formed by ionic compounds which have a metal cation and a non-metallic anion.

22.2 - Hydrogen

Binary hydrides are compounds made up of hydrogen and another element, which can be either a metal or nonmetal.
- These hydrides are classified into three groups based on their structure and properties: (1) ionic hydrides, (2) covalent hydrides, and (3) interstitial hydrides.
When molecular hydrogen reacts directly with any alkali metal or the alkaline earth metals Ca, Sr, or Ba, ionic hydrides occur.
The hydrogen atom is covalently bound to an atom of another element in covalent hydrides.
- Covalent hydrides are divided into two types: those with discrete molecular units, such as CH4 and NH3, and those with complicated polymeric structures, such as (BeH2)x and (AlH3)x, where x is a large number.
With transition metals, molecular hydrogen produces a multitude of hydrides.
- The ratio of hydrogen atoms to metal atoms in several of these compounds is not constant.
- Interstitial hydrides are the name for such compounds.

Properties

The addition of hydrogen to compounds with numerous bonds, particularly CC and CC bonds, is known as hydrogenation.

22.3 - Carbon

Carbon is the only element capable of forming long chains and stable rings of five or six members. Catenation, or the joining of similar atoms, is the name given to this occurrence.
Carbon, in the form of C2 2 or C4 ions, interacts with metals to produce ionic compounds termed carbides, such as CaC2 and Be2C.
The anion group :CN: is found in cyanides.
- Because they bind nearly irreversibly to the Fe(III) ion in cytochrome oxidase, a critical enzyme in metabolic processes, cyanide ions are exceedingly poisonous.

22.4 - Nitrogen and Phosphorus

One of the most well-known nitrogen compounds is ammonia. The Haber method is used to make it industrially from nitrogen and hydrogen.
The triple bond in the N2 molecule makes it extremely resistant to breakdown into atomic species.
- Nitrogen, on the other hand, produces a huge number of compounds with hydrogen and oxygen, with oxidation numbers ranging from 3 to +5.
Phosphorus is, like nitrogen, a member of the family of group 5A.
- Phosphorus is similar in some ways to nitrogen chemistry.
The most frequent ingredients for phosphorus are phosphate rocks, Ca3(PO4)2, Ca5(PO4)3F and fluoroapathic, Ca5(PO4)3F

22.5 - Oxygen and Sulfur

Oxygen is the most plentiful element in the Earth's crust, accounting for over half of its mass.
- The atmosphere contains around 21% molecular oxygen by volume.
Molecular oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and one of the most extensively utilized industrial compounds.
- Steelmaking and sewage treatment are two of their primary applications.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) are two major oxides of sulfur.
- When sulfur is burned in the air, sulfur dioxide is produced.
Sulfuric acid is the most important industrial chemical on the planet.
- It's made in a factory by first burning sulfur in the air.

22.6 - The Halogens

The Chlor-alkali processresultsh involves the electrolysis of a concentrated aqueous NaCl solution, is used to produce chlorine gas, Cl2.
The chloride ion is the main anion in intracellular and extracellular fluids, hence chlorine plays a significant biological role in the human body.
- Chlorine is frequently utilized in the paper and textile industries as a bleaching agent.
A large number of compounds are formed by the halogens.
- They form diatomic molecules, X2, in the elementary state.
In nature, halogens are always found in combination with other elements because of their high reactivity.
Chlorine, bromine, and iodine are present in seawater halides, and fluorine is present in fluorite (CaF2) and criolite minerals (Na3AlF6).