Chapter 10

• The study of how an individual's The Biology of Sex biological sex and a culture's gender expectations affect development is now our focus.

• Although the biology of sex is the same throughout the world, culture Transgender Issues can affect how individuals react to their biological sex by declaring cer Gender differences in Sexual tain behaviors and roles to be more consistent with one sex than with the other.
• Sex and gender have implications, ranging from what the development of gender roles people view as appropriate occupations to the type of education they receive to how they are treated on the job.

• We rely on physical features such as sex and race to categorize people when we meet them.
• We are most likely to notice if a person is male or female.

• Expectations about how males and females should act are what may lead to the answers to these questions.
• The biological factors that determine whether we are male or female are discussed in this chapter.
• Our perception of others and our own behaviors are influenced by our beliefs about what behaviors are appropriate for males and females.

• The colors of the hats or blankets encourage us to treat an infant as a social and psychological boy or girl rather than as a generic human.
• The difference between these words is very important.

• Imagine that you and your spouse are the parents of a newborn child.

• Sigmund Freud suggested that our biological makeup is the major determinant of our behavior.
• Men and women behave differently because of their genetics.

• Most orchestras are made up of men.
• Women are said to be good at performing delicate tasks with their hands.

• Only a small number of neurosurgeons in the United States are female.

• Blue or pink caps, booties, blankets, or Individual and cultural expectations about feminine signal observers to react and masculine roles are significant influences on our behavior.
• Suppose to children in different ways.

• If you knew your friend's father, you would assume he was a dentist.
• Depending on where you live, your answer could be different.
• Most dentists in the United States are men.

• A human embryo has the potential to be either male or female.
• Errors in sexual development can occur at the earliest stages.
• They are born with a mixture of male and female characteristics.
• Approximately 1 to 2 out of every 1,000 births, there is a combination of male and female internal and external sexual characteristics.

• The genes contained in the chromosomes of the ovum and sperm help establish the genetic blueprint that directs a person's Individual who has both ovarian and testicular tissue development.
• The sex chromosomes are on the other side of the chromosomes.
• The sex of the child is determined by the X or Y chromosomes that the individual who has two ovum contributes.

• The baby female chromosomal makeup will be a girl if the father contributes an X chromosomes to the embryo.
• The baby will be a boy if the father contributes a Y chromosome.
• The primary determinant of a person's sex is the chromosomes contributed that do not match his or her father's sperm cell, although other factors, including hormones, also play a role.

• These genes break down the embryo that would lead to internal female organs in males.
• During the 13th week after fertilization, if no Y chromosomes are present, the gonad develops as an ovary.

• Major implications for later development can be found in genetic abnormality that occur at conception.
• Sex chromosomes are involved in some genetic abnormali ties.

• The second X chromosomes are either missing or defects, and they are referred to as the X chromosomes.
• Short stature, a webbed neck, eyelid folds, and a shieldlike chest are some of the characteristics of these individuals.
• They may have a normal verbal IQ, but they have deficits in visual memory, perceptual skills, and visual-motor integration.
• They are more likely to meet the criteria for attention deficit hyperac tivity disorder if they have this con dition.
• They don't produce estrogen because their ovaries don't function properly.

• They don't menstruate or develop breasts without hormonal treatment.

• Sometimes a single X chromosomes from the mother and father unite.
• The resulting individual is likely to be male and tall.
• Initial reports of an association between the XYY pattern and a tendency to commit violent crimes were not supported by subsequent research.
• The XYY pattern may be more likely to be caught because of their below average intelligence.
• The percentage of XYY individuals in prison is higher than the general population.
• The amount of crime associated with this pattern is small.

• Sex-linked genetic disorders, such as color blindness, are more likely to occur in males than females.
• The Y chromosome has less genes than the X chromosome because it is small.
• Disorders carried on the X chromosomes may not be countered by normal genes on the Y chromosomes.

• More boys than girls are conceived, but at birth the ratio narrows to 106 boys for every 100 girls because more male embryos are miscarried.
• Mental retarda tion, which occurs at a higher rate among males than among females, is associated with longer mater nal labor for boys.
• The incidence of enuresis is higher in males than in females.
• The death rate for infant boys is higher than for infant girls, but males make up more than 50% of the population before 30.
• The US Bureau of the Census shows that females outnumber males by 3 to 1 among people aged 90 to 99 and by 5 to 1 among people 100 years old and over.
• The death rate among males is higher than that among females throughout the lifespan, and men are more likely than women to die from 9 of the 10 leading causes of death in the United States.

• Males have a higher chance of developing problems such as reading problems and delayed speech, as well as environmental health problems such as cancer caused by exposure to a toxic substance.
• Women have more doctor visits and surgical procedures than men.
• Chapter ten is more likely to be admitted to hospitals and use more days of hospital care due to labor and delivery.

• Heart disease is one of the leading causes of death in the United States, and it is one of the critical illnesses that men tend to develop.
• There are risks associated with smoking, alcohol consumption, and job related dangers that can lead to deaths from accidents, homicides, suicide, and AIDS.
• Men's vulnerability begins early in life and may be genetically based.

• Women's biological and environmental advantages seem to help protect them from many physical illnesses and accidents.
• The rate of heart disease in industrialized countries is lower for females than for males.
• Heart disease is the leading cause of death for both men and women, but women are more likely to die from heart disease at a later age than men.

• Some of the possible causes are biological factors, social roles, differing stressors, gender differences in behavioral risk factors, and gender differences in personality.

• In contrast to other living organisms, human sexual behavior is func and is not dependent on hormones.
• They can become aroused by a range of stimuli, from smells to sights to biology of sex.

• In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Kinsey and his colleagues conducted influential research on sexual behavior that addressed many of these issues.
• A person is either heterosexual or homosexual on this scale.

• The erotic and emotional feelings of a person are covered by this term.

• Research people are studying sexual orientation rather than being restricted to heterosexuality or homosexuality.

• Permission was granted by The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Inc.

• Sexual orientation can be seen as either heterosexual or homosexual.
• Kinsey developed this idea for his studies of sexual behavior.

• People who have a sexual orientation toward a person who moves away from their own gender are more likely to identify as gay or lesbian.
• The abbrevia has been used to encompass behaviors of the other gender.

• Researchers have had a difficult time defining sexual orientation because it is composed of several aspects, such as sexual attraction, sexual behavior, and sexual identity.
• The results of the comparisons are interesting despite the definitional dif ficulties.
• Lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals are more likely to experience depression and attempt suicide.
• This finding is likely due to the stress of coming out, Stereo types, prejudice, and LGBTQ discrimination that individuals experience, not to any long-term mental illness or deviancy.
• Children raised by straight couples are just as likely to grow up to be straight as those raised by gay couples.

• Trans people are the biggest challenge to traditional conceptions of gender.
• Our historical understanding of gender and gender roles is tied to the long and complicated history of trans issues.
• Dressing in the clothing of the other gender can be done by taking hormones and changing one's body to have the genitals and other sex characteristics of the other gender.
• It is important to note that the two concepts of sexual orientation and being trans are not related to one another.

• Many people are uncomfortable with people who are different from them.

• Knowing the gender of another person is important to make sense of that individual.
• Women who look feminine and men who look masculine are more comfortable with each other.
• We are less comfortable with women who look masculine or men who act feminine.
• It becomes less comfortable for many people when a person is not sure of their sex or gender.
• A biological man who looks, dresses, and acts as a woman, but still possesses all of the male reproductive organs, has no intention of undergoing sex reassignment surgery.
• The limits of our culturally defined gender expectations begin to be pushed by these individu as they begin to move beyond the idea of being either male or female.
• Our legal, political, and health systems all assume that an individual has only one gender.
• All government-issued IDs require an individual to choose "male" or "female" on the form.
• Secular marriages require the individuals to be male and female.
• Our medical community assumes that it's best to have one gender.

• One of the biggest issues in the community is whether or not being trans qualifies as a mental disorder.

• There are two basic beliefs about being trans: 1) the person was born into the wrong body and experiences considerable mental distress due to this and 2) the person is simply being.
• The Human Rights Campaign estimates that about 1% of the popula tion is trans.
• GID is character ized by a strong and persistent cross- gender identification with a desire to become the opposite sex and to take on the traditional gender roles of the opposite sex and that these experiences and desires create significant psychological distress.

• This diagnosis pathologizes the desire to take on non-normative gender roles.
• Many in the transgen dered community are offended by the thought that they are categorized as being disordered and instead see themselves as a different type of Playboy.

• In the United States, an individual who wishes to undergo sex reassignment surgery must be diagnosed with GID and live as the other gender for at least a year.
• Health insurance won't pay for sexual reassignment surgery because it's seen as cosmetic and experimental.
• Homosexuality isn't viewed as a disorder by the field of psychology, it's simply a variation in the wide range of human sexual behaviors.

• The human sexual response cycle goes through several stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
• Humans can become sexually aroused by a wide range of stimuli, including smells, pictures, physical touch, and sound.
• Human sexual behavior is not controlled by hormones as much as lower animals.
• Two significant changes occur when a person's sexual interest is piqued.

• There are differences in the sexual response cycle between men and women.
• The experience of an orgasm is one of the most interesting findings.
• It appears that the descriptions of orgasm are similar in men and women, based on research and analysis.

• Young people are bombarded with messages.
• Images of sexual behavior are very common.
• It is not surprising that a lot of people daydream about sexual activity.
• Masturbation becomes a common sexual outlet with puberty and sexual maturity.
• The rate of masturbation in boys is higher than in girls.

• Recent surveys of sexual activity among adolescents show a number of trends, including earlier initiation of intercourse, increased premarital intercourse, a greater number of partners, and ineffective and inconsistent use of contraceptives.
• The arteries carrying blood to the penis become dilated.
• Men with injuries to their spine may still be able to have an erection, even though they can't see it.

• The vaginal walls become engorged with blood and they excrete drops of fluid.
• After the start of sexual stimulation, vaginal lubrication may occur within 10 to 30 seconds.
• Changes to the labia make the vagina ready for a penis.
• The nipples become erect when the clitoris is engorged with blood.

• Beneath the outer tissue, the clitoris pulls back.

• Muscular contractions are the key to orgasm.
• The urethra is closed, preventing urine flow.
• There is an ejaculation.

• The testicles move away from the body, the erection is lost, and the testicle size is reduced.

• More women are capable of multiple orgasms than are men.

• touching and/or kissing in a way that makes you feel good.

• It is accompanied by an abnormal vaginal discharge, a fishlike odor, pain, itching around the outside of the vagina, and burning during urination.
• It is the most common vaginal disease in women.

• The bacterium can enter the urethra in women.
• Women with symptoms may have a burning sensation when urinating.
• Lower abdominal pain, low back pain, nausea, and pain during intercourse are some of the symptoms that women may experience when the infection spreads to the fallopian tubes.
• A discharge from the penis is what men experience when urinating.

• There are two types ofviruses that cause genital herpes, type 1 and type 2.
• The most common cause of genital herpes is HSV-2.
• There are no signs or symptoms for most people with genital herpes.
• When signs occur, they are usually blisters on the genitals or rectum.

• It may take two to four weeks for the blisters to heal after they break.
• The number of infections tends to decrease over time, although the infection can stay in the body indefinitely.

• It can grow in the mouth, throat, eyes, and anus.
• Many men with gonorrhea don't have any symptoms.
• Symptoms can take as long as 30 days to appear and include a burning sensation when urinating or a white, yellow, or green discharge from the penis.

• The symptoms are often mild in women, but most of them have no symptoms.
• When urinating, vaginal discharge, or vaginal bleeding are the initial symptoms.

• Many of the signs and symptoms are indistinguishable from other diseases, which makes it the "great imitator".
• Most people with syphilis have no symptoms for years, yet they are still at risk for late complications if they are not treated.

• There is a skin rash in the secondary stage.
• Secondary symptoms disappear in the later stages.
• Even though there are no signs of the disease, the person with it will continue to have it.
• Damage to internal organs can occur in the final stage.
• It is possible that the damage will cause death.

• Differences in ages at which boys and girls reach sexual maturity may be reflected in the median age.
• Many adolescents do not consider the consequences of their actions when they are young.
• Approximately 1 million teenage girls become pregnant in the United States each year.
• The birth rate among teens in the United States is higher than in most other countries.
• Teenagers are vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections, including STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STDs like STD The behaviors that put people at risk for sexually transmitted infections are not limited to young people.

• Sex differences have been found in surveys when it comes to sexual attitudes and behavior.
• Men are more promiscuous and are more likely to enjoy sex.
• Men are more liberal in their attitudes towards sex, especially when it is casual, according to an analysis of sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors.
• Men are more accepting of extramarital sex, more likely to have had extramarital sex, and more likely to have had a larger number of sexual partners.
• There is a large difference in the incidence of masturbation among males and females.

• The mass media tends to focus on high rates of sexual activity in the United States.
• One-third of adults have sex with a partner a few times a year or not at all, another third have sex once or several times a month, and the remaining third have sex with a partner two or more times a week.
• In the next section, we will see that not all people are satisfied with their sexual activity.

• These impairments can occur as a result of other psychological disorders or physical conditions.
• Per sonality factors, lack of information about sexual behavior, and sexual trauma are some of the common causes.
• Stress, depression, and the use of alcohol and other drugs can cause sexual problems.

• When penetration is attempted, there is a persistent or recurrent contraction of muscles surrounding the outer third of the vagina.

• The figure 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 The most common problem among women was lack of interest, with about a third saying that they did not want to.
• About a third of men had problems climaxing too early, while 12% said they had no interest in sex, and 8% said they derived no pleasure from sex.

• Table 10-4 contains a listing of sexual problems.
• The disorders listed in this table are often treated with a variety of techniques.
• Many of the treatments pioneered by Masters and Johnson are still in use today.

• A variety of attitudes and behaviors are expressed on the topic of human sexual behavior.

• Children in the US know the traditional expectations for males and females.

• Children's letters to Santa reveal that they have a clear idea of what toys are appropriate for boys and girls.
• Their requests are related to career and domestic activities.
• Boys and girls at an early age ask for guns and race cars.
• A study of children's letters to Santa found that some toy preferences have changed over the years.
• Boys and girls enjoy arts-and-crafts activities.

• Some occupations are reserved for men and women between the ages of 4 and 5.
• Feelings of vulner ability and dependency are not appropriate for males and desires for auton omy and power are not appropriate for females.

• Three theories have been proposed to explain the development of gender roles, each with a slightly different focus.

• The principles of learning were discussed in Chapter 6.
• Write down your answer before you read it.
• The gifts were requested by boys and girls.

• Observational learning the explanation for the learning of gender ory is used to explain the development of a number of behaviors.
• The theory suggests that children learn cognitive gender roles from their parents through rewards and punishments, along with imitation and modeling.

• In addition to the effects of role models and reinforcement, children might think, "If I'm a boy, I'd better figure out what kinds of things boys do" (Beal, 1994).

• Between the ages of 2 and 3, children are able to identify themselves as either male or female.
• When a child knows that he or she will always be a male or female, it's called gender permanence.
• A child learns how to be competent at his or her assigned gender if he or she knows that gender is unchanging.
• Critics point out that there is a lot of gender-role learning before gender permanence develops.

• There are different types of Schemas, they are not limited to gender.
• We share information about things like a visit to the doctor, the first day of class, or the purchase of a car.

• Consider the case of a Biologist and her son, who had long blond hair.
• They were in a restaurant and the server said that it was one way that children learn to act in gender-appropriate ways.

• According to gender-schema theory, children create masculine and feminine attributes and activities from their accumulated experiences.

• According to this theory, we learn gender schemas early in life and they provide a lens through which we view the world.
• Through our culture's definitions of masculinity and femininity, we view attributes, behaviors, people, and things.

• Some characteristics, behaviors, and roles are associated with being male and female, and this knowledge influ ences our memory, perception, and behavior.

• There are strengths and weaknesses to each of the theoretical approaches.
• All of them suggest that children develop their understanding of gender concepts early in life and that this can have a significant impact on their lives.

• Many broad-based personality questionnaires used to feature a male or female.
• The assumption that men and women are psychologically dif O'Connor was a justice of the U.S.

What is the Supreme Court?

• The assumption that "normal" behavior was sex- appropriate and any deviation from the norm was considered abnormal was one of the important extensions.

• Stereotypes based on age, height, race, religion, and social class are similar to distinctions based on biological sex.
• Stereotypes lead to expectations about what is and is not appropriate in this case for males or females.
• Stereotypes can be a form of social control.
• Sex stereotypes are reflected in a variety of behaviors, from the courses students choose to the occupations they enter.
• Some emotions are stereotyped as masculine or feminine.
• We think of women when we think of this topic.
• It is more likely that you will experience guilt, shame, shyness, fear, and sympathy if you include your own.
• People whose emotions are stereotyped are not examples for adults.
• Emotions are stereotyped in important ideas.

• John Williams and Deborah Best enlisted the help of psychologists from all over the world to investigate gender stereotypes.
• They studied people in Australia, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Nigeria, and the United States.
• The children and students were all under the age of 10.

• Children at ages 5 and 8 may not have the vocabulary needed to express their gender stereotypes.
• Write down your answer before you read it.

• The researchers told the children stories to investigate gender stereotypes.
• The silhouettes of a male and a female were presented to each child and they were asked to pick someone from the story.
• The younger children were given written versions of the stories the 10-year-old was told.
• The students were given a list of 300 words and asked which were more associated with being male and female.

• The researchers looked at the characteristics associated with males and females in different countries.
• By the age of 5, most children around the world associate being aggressive and strong with males and soft-hearted with females.
• Sex stereotyping continues into middle adulthood according to psycholo gists.
• Children have learned a lot about femininity and masculinity by the age of 8.

• The stereotypes of these children become more extreme as they grow older.

• By the age of 10, children are more confident with males.
• More than 85% of college students are associated with being adventurous with males.
• Almost all of college students are associated with being emotional with females.

• There were some differences between respondents in different countries.
• Italians associated endurance with women, while adults in other countries considered it a mascu line characteristic.
• College students in most countries are submissive with males in Thailand.

• Some dramatic dif ferences in the characteristics of men and women were reported by Margaret Mead in her classic research.
• The attitudes and behavior of men and women were very similar in the Arapesh.
• Many cultures view both of them as having primarily feminine characteristics.
• They spent their time gardening, hunting, and child rearing activities that were shared equally by men and women.
• The men and women of the fierce Mundugumor shared many of the same characteristics such as selfishness and aggressiveness.
• Children were left on their own as early as possible.
• Their children were taught to be competitive, hostile, and suspicious.
• The Tchambuli defined femininity and masculinity in a different way than the United States.
• Women were practical, dominant, rational, and unadorned, while men were seen as vain, submissive, emotional, and nurturing toward children.
• Women's weaving, fishing, and trading made up the community's economic base.
• The men spent a lot of time in dance and art.
• They tried to get the attention and affection of the women, who viewed the situation with limited tolerance.

• Being feminine is associated with certain characteristics.

• The characteristics can be combined in either males or females.
• Women and men can have high levels of both instrumental and expressionary characteris tics.

• The concept of androgyny has been studied in a number of countries.
• In the Tamang villages of Nepal, both men and women do gender specific tasks.
• Men do a lot of the cooking and child care, and they seem to be gentle with young children.
• Heavy manual labor is also done by women when they perform these tasks.

• Prescriptions for behaviors, occupations, and physical appearance are included in gender stereotypes.

• This deviation from the femi nine stereotype is likely to cause a lot of people to be upset.
• It seems that statements like "she doesn't look like a woman" are designed to enforce the stereotype.
• Our perception of ourselves and others' perception of us can be influenced by gender stereotypes.

• Rebecca's parents both have full-time jobs.
• Her mother rarely cooks and her father makes din ner every night.
• Rebecca puts the "mommy" doll in the kitchen when she picks up dinner in her dollhouse.

• Parents are not the only source of information regarding gender stereotypes; relatives, peers, teachers, and the mass media are also influential.
• Major characters in tele vision programs are more likely to be male.
• Girls and women are more likely to rely on men for support if there is no clear occupation or means of support.
• They work in traditional female jobs such as a nurse or household worker when they are employed.

• Men and women are portrayed the same way in commercials as they were three decades ago.

• Domestic products are likely to be represented by women and men.

• Although women make most of the purchases of goods and services, they are underrepresented as primary characters in television commercials.
• Compared with women, men in television commercials are more often portrayed as authorities and as users of the products.

• The portrayal of men and women on television has changed.
• The representation of women in prime-time television programs is still not equal.

• The print media, from elementary school textbooks to newspapers to comic strips, present and strengthen messages about what is appropriate for women and men.
• Many preschool children are taught that "boys don't play with dolls" and "mommies can't be pilots" despite the fact that these stereotypes are changing.

• Mass media have increased their efforts to ensure that their programming does not reflect stereotypes.

• Males are more vulnerable than females.

• The most important determinant of identity is genetic inheritance.
• There is a debate about whether an individual is male or female.
• The 23rd pair of chromosomes in this community is currently necessary to determine if a person has an x and a Y sex reassignment surgery.

• Sexually transmitted infections include gonorrhea and syphilis.

• The undifferentiated gonad is directed by the Y chromosome to develop distinctions.

• Children in parts of the world learn that gender stereotypes are usually tall, have below-average intelligence, and at an early age.
• The mass media may have an influence on crime.

• Sex-linked disorders can be caused by the size of the Y chromosome.

• The x and Y chromosomes have the same number of genes.

• John was selected by the teacher for the role.

• Pat has high levels of characteristics that he or his partner would like with both males and females.

• The researchers are affiliated with well-known universities and you are likely to believe their findings.

• The study of male-female differences has been described as a national preoccupation.
• Everyone wants to know if the differences are the result of biological factors or not.
• We need to look at the causes of male- female differences as well as the size of the difference.
• Sex differences are statistical and can be said about a given individual.
• Unless hundreds or thousands of people are tested, many reported differences are not detected.

• There are obvious physical differences between males and females.
• Men are taller than women.
• The average American man is 20 years old and taller than the average woman.
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says that the average American man and woman are about the same weight.
• The effects of testosterone increase the muscle mass of men.
• Males are better at throwing a ball or a dart than females are.
• The ultimate game of life is won by females.
• Females have a longer life expectancy than males.

• Most physical differences have less impact than they did earlier in the work of air traffic controllers.

• Due to the wide use of mechanical equipment, differences in physical size and strength are not important for occupational of people depending on their success.
• In the past, physical strength was important in piloting an air traffic controller's airplane.
• The physical effort of piloting an aircraft has been replaced by the use of superb concentration and computerized equipment that can land the plane if necessary.

• Intelligence was thought to be a function of brain size by scientists a century ago.
• They reported that men had larger brains than women, which they claimed led to differences in intelligence and explained the greater accomplishments of men in fields such as politics and science.
• Some researchers knew if the brains they examined were those of men or women.
• It is possible that expec tations influenced their observations.
• They failed to notice the large degree of overlap in the brain sizes of men and women.

• The existence of some slight structural differences in the brains of men and women is suggested by magnetic resonance images and positron emission tomography scans.
• There is a reported difference between the two hemispheres of the brain.
• The callosum in women is larger than in men.
• There may be differences in the communication between the hemi spheres.
• The left and right hemispheres of men do not communicate as much as women.
• Language abilities in women are more likely to survive a stroke in the left hemisphere.
• The language capacity of the right hemisphere can be tapped by female stroke victims.

• Researchers have concluded that the differences are small and unlikely to account for differences in everyday behaviors.

• The differences are open to interpretation.

• People wonder if one sex is smarter than the other.

• The scores obtained by females and males on standard measures of intelligence do not differ.
• The first intelligence scale was developed by Alfred Binet and he found that boys were more likely to get low scores.
• Girls answered a number of questions from cartoonbank.com.

• Binet balanced the two types of items so that males and females performed equally well.
• Males and females have an advantage due to items on intelligence tests.
• Some differences emerge if we look beyond intelligence scores and investigate abilities.

• vocabulary and verbal analogies are included in the concept of verbal ability.
• Some differences emerge when the components are analyzed separately.
• Women were favored on abilities such as anagrams and verbal or associational fluency.

• The study found that women scored higher than men on the tests, but the dif ference was small.
• According to Janet Hyde (1994), there are no gender differences in On February 14, 1946, the U.S.

• The army unveiled a secret weapon because of gender differences, according to the more recent studies.
• It is difficult to see how and Computer if this gender difference is biologically determined.

• Several articles shells were published by two researchers in the early 1980s.
• The birth that day caused a stir in the popular press and academic circles.
• John had been collecting data on a group of very bright seventh- and eighth- grade students for several years.
• The dents who scored in the top 2% to 5% of any standardized math test were invited to the center stage.
• The SAT is used as a basis for admissions, but six women, including lege admission decisions, should not take it.
• The results were analyzed by Benbow Betty Holberton and she found that the boys scored higher than the girls.

• The seventh grade showed most of the difference.
• The findings were overstated when they were reported in the press.

• There is no evidence that boys and girls are different in terms of math ability.
• Women who perform math are more likely to be judged on their math ability than men.
• When female test takers are reminded of the stereotype of inferior performance before completing a test, they score less on mathematical tests than their male counterparts.

• Stereotype threat may underlie gender differences in advanced math performance, as well as those that have been attributed to genetically based sex differences.

• In a clever and potentially useful educational intervention, researchers found that the influence of stereotype threat could be reduced.
• College students were required to complete a series of math problems under one of three conditions.
• Some students were told they were doing a test of problem-solving ability, while others were told they were doing a math test.

• The hypothesis that knowledge of stereotype threat improved performance by providing a means of externalizing arousal was supported by the research.

• "Spatial ability is not a single construct," says Vicki Helgeson.
• When reading maps, locating simple figures in more complex ones, and mentally rotating three-dimensional objects, we use these abilities.

• The mental rotation task described at the beginning of Chapter 8 is a good example of a task requiring spatial ability.
• Skills such as these are helpful in certain types of mathematics and in engineering or architecture; they are also evident when we solve jigsaw puzzles or envision how furniture fits into a room before moving it in.
• Males are better at mental rotation tasks than females.

• Some studies show that males and females have different spatial abilities.
• Write down your answer before you read it.

• Performance on tests of spatial ability is related to spatial learning opportunities.
• Most American parents think that their sons are more talented than their daughters.
• They are more likely to encourage interest in their sons than in their daughters.

• It is difficult to draw a conclusion about sex comparisons in spatial abilities because the results depend on the specific task, according to Vicki Helgeson.
• The size of the difference varies from small to large in favor of men.

• Most differences between males and females are small.
• The differences in verbal, spatial, and mathematical abilities are getting smaller.
• The reasons for these changes are not clear, but they may be caused by societal changes that affect stereotypes.

• Researchers have studied male-female differences in social behaviors such as communication, helping, and aggression.
• Key findings of those studies are examined here.

• Men and women view communication differently.
• Communication is a primary way to establish and maintain relationships for most women.
• Men tend to see communication as a way of controlling, preserving independence, and enhancing status.

• Men are more likely to use speech to demonstrate their skills.
• Contrary to popular belief, research shows that males talk more than females.

• According to observations of the speech of men and women, feminine speech seems more indirect and less powerful than masculine speech.

• The helping of a spouse or girlfriend is compared.
• In public settings men are challenged to demonstrate their behavior of women and men, intelligence, expertise, and power.
• At home or in a one-to-one setting, a man may feel that researchers need to consider he has nothing to prove; there is no one to defend against and therefore no reason to talk different types of help.
• A nurturing type that can make or break a relationship is what dinner conversations can offer for women.
• It is not surprising that established women experience more difficulty exert their influence in business set relationships compared to men.

• There is a major difference between men and women in the social set.

• Women are more likely to ask questions than men.
• Women are more likely to consider helping a question to the end of their statements, such as "I think Ted's teacher is giving the behavior has led to erroneous conclusions in past research."

• The speaker may be tentative with the questions.
• They can be seen as a way of encouraging further conversation and inviting the participation of others.
• Many women say that men don't listen.
• Brain scans show that the complaint may have a biological basis.
• Men and women use their left and right hemispheres when listening.

• Most of the care for infants, elderly relatives, and sick or disabled people is provided by women.
• If a child is ill and needs to stay at home, it is usually the mother who takes time off from work.

• Men are more likely to have higher levels of aggression.
• The vast majority of crime committed in the United States is committed by men, who are also responsible for more violent crimes than are women.

• Consider male and female differences.

• We need to consider the type of aggression that is involved before we conclude that males are more aggressive than females.
• Researchers are by each other.
• Although males are more for socializing, females have a higher level of aggression.
• Clearly, the type of aggressive situation is an influence on the level of aggression for each outline, write down one that is displayed and who will be most aggressive.

• The chart summarizes the research on male-female differences.

• The intel igence of males and females is the same.

• The differences have diminished according to recent research.

• The highest ability level for males is shown on standardized tests.
• Higher grades in math are earned by females.
• Research shows that the differences are small in the general population.

• The difference in mental rotation tasks between males and females is large.

• Men talk more than women.
• The use of tag questions are open to different interpretations.
• An alternative explanation is that the questions facilitate conversation.

• Most crimes and acts of physical aggression are committed by males.

• Knowing a person's biological sex doesn't tell us much about their aggression.
• Women show higher levels of aggression.

• There are no biological differences between men and women when it comes to spatial and mathematical ability.

• Intelligence mathematical and spatial ability may be a factor in the differences in intelligence between males and females.

• In the past, females were said to communicate better than males.
• The difference is related to gender stereotypes.

• Both males and females score.

• Males are better at mental rotation tasks than females.

• It can be used to describe discrimination against women, such as differential treatment in educa tional settings and limited access to job opportunities, but it can also be applied to discrimination against men.
• Less than 1% of the 500 largest companies in the United States are led by a female CEO.
• There are still biases and discrimination based on sex in the U.S.

• The distribution of household responsibilities is the topic of the discussion.

• Scientists argued in the late 1800s that educating women would be dangerous because they couldn't handle the amount of energy required for men to have children.
• They pointed to differences in the brain size of men and women as proof that women were less intelligent than men.
• Women's inability to handle educational programs are considered absurd today.

• There is evidence that males and females are treated differently in educational settings.
• Beverly Fagot recorded the behavior of teachers and children in a toddler play group.

• The teachers reinforced the tendency for girls to communicate more gently and for boys to communicate more assertively, even though the 1-year-old children communicated in similar ways.

• In the coming decades, 600,000 and to accelerate.

• There are differences between the educational experiences of boys and girls.
• Boys are more likely to be nominated by teachers than girls.
• Even though girls generally get higher course grades than boys, they are more likely to name boys as most skilled in mathematics.
• Teachers are more likely to name girls when they think of students who excel in social skills.

• There is a gender bias reflected in the materials used in teaching classes.
• An analysis of educational software used in preschool classes found that there were more male characters than female characters.

• The female characters were more gender-stereotyped in appearance than the male characters.

• Girls who use such materials are told that technol ogy is not a good experience.

• There are important implica tions for learning from the study of possible gender bias in educational experiences.
• Write down your answers before you read further.

• Two professors studied gender bias in classrooms.
• They observed 100 fourth-, fifth-, and eighth- grade classes in urban and rural school systems and found that even teachers who care about gender equity tend to interact differently with the boys and girls in their classrooms.
• The teachers were shocked by the findings.

• Boys who call out in class are more likely to get the attention of their teacher.
• Girls who call out in class are more likely to be told to remember the rule.

• Girls teach boys to call out answers in class.
• The age to be assertive in requesting that the teachers see the gender gap in communication in their classrooms is so powerful that the stereotype of talkative females is so powerful.

• Boys are taught to be in a classroom.

• Baltimore is not the capital.
• The U.S. is located in the capital.

• After Anne offered an incorrect answer, the teacher did not stay with her but moved on to Judy, who received a simple acceptance of her correct answer.
• The teacher's reaction to the answer was more precise.

• The teachers give the boys more time to talk in class.

• Most teachers don't know about the impact of this bias.

• This bias can be reduced or eliminated with brief but focused training.

• The effectiveness of teach ing for all students is increased by increasing equity in classroom interactions.
• Equity and effectiveness are not competing concerns.

• High school and higher education have the same sexism patterns as elementary school classrooms.

• Girls and boys take different courses in high school.
• The classes in home economics, health, and office occupations are filled with girls, while those in technical, trade, and industrial programs are filled with boys.
• The consequence of these differences is that girls are only prepared for a limited number of jobs.

• In a small group, address the class as if only men were present, and consider gender by name more often.
• Sexism is a part of education.
• Women's achievements may be left and discussed in courses that deal specifically with gender, if you think about the selection and omission of course materials.

• There isn't a simple answer.

• The stereotype that firefighting is a male job has been broken by these firefighters, who are part of a tiny minority of women who work as firefighters.

• Women's access to higher-paying jobs has been reduced due to stereotypes.

• Many pictures of male scien tists but few of female scientists are included in science textbooks.
• There isn't a lot of female role models in the sciences.

• Men and women choose different majors in college.
• Women are more likely to be found in humanities and fine arts than men are.
• Men tend to enroll in areas such as computer science.

• Students face the influence of gender stereotypes when they are ready to enter the job market.
• During World War II, women entered the work force in large numbers to replace men who had been drafted.
• When the war ended, most of the women were expected to return to their domestic roles of raising a family and taking care of the home.

• Increasing numbers of women are entering the workforce for personal and financial reasons.
• The costs of sexism for individuals and society as a whole are significant.
• Sexism reduces the number of opportunities to enter the job market, which increases the risk of living a life of poverty.
• Sexism reduces the pool of talent and abilities available for employment by effectively cutting off more than half of the population.

• A variety of factors can affect a person's career choices, some of which can reduce the influence of sexism on the individual.
• The availability of female models in the family, school, or among friends and relatives allows young women to pursue careers they might not have considered.
• One of the most powerful influences on career development in women is having a working mother.
• Compared to daughters of full-time homemakers, daughters of employed mothers are more likely to pursue careers in other areas.

• The athlete's occupation is gender typed.

• Women earn less than men in the working world.
• Female scientists have lower salaries, are more likely to be in temporary positions, and find fewer opportunities to advance compared to males.
• The incomes earned by men and women are not the same.

• The primary responsibility of caring for the home and family is taken by women.
• Some of these issues will be discussed later in the chapter.
• The increased life expectancy has created additional burdens for women.
• Women are more likely to care for elderly relatives than men.

• A woman returning home from work takes on the additional responsibilities of caring for infirm relatives.
• Discrimination must be dealt with in the workplace.
• Discrimina tion is illegal so it tends to be practiced in subtle ways.
• Women are not likely to go above a certain level in a company.
• The existence of a glass ceiling can be found in corporations, government, and nonprofits.
• The dramatic effects of gender stereotypes can be seen in humorous attempts to deal with a very serious subject.

• One reason we laugh at material intended to be funny is that it often reveals elements of truth, such as the existence of gender stereotypes.

• Explicit benefits are not linked to sexual cooperation in a hostile environment.
• In quid pro quo harassment, harassers use their power over the victims to try to get them to give up their jobs.
• It can only happen between a superior and a subordinate, and it can be based on a single incident.
• Sexual harassment can be based on the conduct of coworkers as well as supervisors.
• Sexual harassment involves a wide range of behaviors, such as posting sexu ally suggestive or degrading cartoons, drawings, or photographs in the workplace and e-mail messages, installation of pornographic software on company computers, and touching someone in a sexually suggestive way.

• A person who claims to be the victim of a hostile environment must show there was a pattern of offensive behavior.
• The agency uses the "reasonable person" standard to determine if a work is hostile.
• The "reasonable woman" standard should be used in place of the sex-blind reasonable person approach according to a federal circuit court.

• According to the court, conduct that men might find acceptable may be objected to by women.
• The environment was hostile if a woman felt harassed in a given situation.

• The equal employment Opportunity Commission (eeOC), which is charged with enforcing Title VII, was established by the civil rights act.

• The guidelines prohibit unwanted sexual advances or requests made as a condition of employment and define a hostile work environment as illegal under the law.

• The Civil rights act of 1991 allows for compensation for pain, suffering, and emotional upset in cases of discrimination against employers.

• It is necessary for the person to perceive the treatment as abusive.

• Surveys show that sexual harassment in the workplace is widespread.
• In 1981 the Merit Systems Protection Board surveyed more than 20,000 government employees to find out the prevalence of sex ual harassment.

• Forty-two percent of the federal government's female employees reported experiencing some form of sexual harassment in the two years preceding the survey.

• 26% of the women reported being deliberately touched in a sexual manner, 32% had experienced unwanted sexual remarks, and 28% had suggestive looks.
• A small percentage of the sample had experienced rape or assault.

• The government spent an estimated $189 million talking to reporters during the two-year period of the project because of the repeated incidents of sexual harassment.

• She had been sexually harassed by other surveys.

• Davis was awarded back wages and compensation for emotional working life by the jury.
• Sexual harassment of men is rare.

• The types of harassment in Canada and European countries are similar to those in the United States.
• A review of data on workplace sexual harassment in a number of countries led to the conclusion that it is a relatively widespread phenomenon.
• The rates of harassment in the United States are higher than in the Nordic countries.
• There is a possibility that the high rates of partici pation in the labor force and greater income parity of women in the Nordic countries is due to the fact that they have a greater degree of gender equity than other parts of the world.

• The majority of sexual harassment victims try to ignore the behavior, but they don't file complaints because they think the organization will not respond to their complaint.
• About the same number of complaints were filed with the EEOC in 2003 as in 2004.
• Men filed 16 percent of the complaints.

• Declines in job performance and increased absences are some of the consequences of sexual harassment.
• Some people have been fired for filing a complaint.
• The psychological effects of sexual harassment include anger, guilt, social withdrawal, decreased self-esteem, and depression.
• There are complaints of fatigue, headaches, nausea, and sleep and appetite disturbances.

• In several workplace and school surveys, sig nificant numbers of women have described incidents that would qualify as instances of sexual harassment, yet only 5% of them have reported these incidents to someone in authority.
• Women who file complaints that result in court pro ceedings are likely to find that the process of litigation is deeply flawed, costing them far more in anguish and humiliation that it ever awards in damages.
• The low rate of complaints seems to be the result of the fact that many women don't see the incidents as sexual harassment.
• Repeated sexual jokes and offensive comments about body parts are examples of behavior that would meet the legal definition of sexual harassment, but they are not perceived as harassment.

• Men and women go to work with the same stereotypes.
• Women are seen as dependent, helpful, nurturing, and sexual, whereas men are seen as aggressive, dominant, and independent.
• When gender stereotypes spill over into the workplace, sexual harassment may occur.

• Men and women have the same perception of sexual harassment in coercive situations.

• Less explicit instances such as suggestive jokes or com ments about a women's body are seen by men as trivial or innocuous.

• Many men view this kind of harassment as part of the normal interaction between men and women.

• The way men and women perceive other people may be a key to understanding sexual harassment.
• College students were asked to observe and evaluate a discussion group.

• Sexual advances are made to female participants.

• The circumstances surrounding an event are important in determining if sexual harassment has led to that event.
• Abuse of power is a key factor.
• The establishment of policies to reduce student who repeatedly asks another student for a date may be considered annoying or harassment.
• A professor who tries to get a student to go on a date is likely to be seen as harassment because of their threat.

• People are trained to recognize and deal with sexual harassment.
• There have been limited attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of such programs.
• One study found that brief sexual harassment training could eliminate the perception of sexual harassment by women.

• It is not yet known if these results can be replicated and impact the rate and reporting of sexual harassment.

• There is research on gender stereo typing.
• A manager at the accounting firm brought in $25 million worth of business.
• Her supporters at the firm described her as aggressive and hard working.

• The firm put her on hold for a year even though she had generated more billable hours than any other candidate.
• The firm did not recommend her for partnership the next year.
• She said that only 7 of the firm's 662 partners were women.
• A colleague offered her advice to improve her chances of becoming a partner: walk, talk, and dress more femininely, wear makeup, and wear jewelry.

• Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act prohibits sex discrimination and was the reason for the lawsuit.
• Susan Fiske was an expert witness in the lawsuit.
• When a person is isolated or stands out in an environment, they are more likely to be stereotyped.
• Stereotyping is more likely when there is a lack of fit between a person's category and their occupation.
• Managers are expected to be aggressive and tough, but they are not typically expected of women.
• Her failure to conform to the gender stereotype led her detractors to conclude that she was abrasive.
• Her supporters and clients thought she was a go-getter.
• Experiments show that women are less likely to be hired if their forcefulness is not balanced with a degree of "niceness" that is consistent with the female stereotype.

• When ambiguous criteria are used to evaluate people, it is more likely to be stereotyped.
• The amount of business she had generated was not taken into account by the accounting firm.

• The judge said that Price Waterhouse refused to make Ann Hopkins a partner.
• The company appealed the decision to the Supreme Court.
• The partnership that she had been denied was awarded to her.

• Alice Eagly and her colleagues conducted a meta-analysis of studies that evaluated men and women in leadership roles.
• There is a slight tendency for female leaders to be evaluated less highly than men in the same positions.
• The devaluation of female leaders occurred when they occupied previously male-dominated roles and when the evaluators were men.
• Indra K. nooyi is the current CeO more, women were evaluated less highly when they adopted more masculine styles of one of the largest companies in the United States.

• Since 2006 she has served in this capacity effectiveness of men and women in the role of leader or manager.

• Even though there is no general tendency to devalue the managerial contributions of all women, gender has the potential to influence evaluations of managers.
• If women act like stereotypical males, their male colleagues may accuse them of not being feminine enough, and if they act like stereotypical males, their male colleagues are likely to accuse them of not being masculine enough.
• Women are more likely to prosper if they are encouraged to use their people oriented skills instead of adapting male "command and control" styles of leadership.

• One reason is that people don't like people who don't fit their stereotypes.

• A person who disconfirms a stereotype is placed in a subtype that serves to perpetu ate the original stereotype.

• An investigation of the social categories of "woman" and "man," as well as others such as "Republican" and "Democrat," revealed that the general category of "woman" was evaluated quite favorably; in fact, it was evaluated more favorably than "man" When the first studies of gender stereotypes were conducted, people did not like women as much as they do now.
• Although being understanding and gentle are positive attributes, they are more valued in close relationships than in the more highly paid sectors of the workforce.

• There are obstacles that women face in the workplace that can affect their chances for advancement.
• More women have been hired and promoted into management-level positions in recent years.
• The changes in family responsibilities are slow.

• Maybe you or your parents have been asked this question many times, and the answer most likely involved a statement about occupation.
• More than half of women in the United States now work outside the home.
• Many women have two jobs, one outside the home and one at home, where they are usually responsible for cooking, cleaning, and car ing for children.
• In dual-career families, mothers still have the primary responsibility for child care and household chores.
• According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, on an average day, women spend more time doing household activities than men.
• Only 20% of men did cleaning and laundry when they only focused on housework.
• 42% of men are involved in food preparation and cleaning compared to 32% of women.
• The amount of time dedicated to child care is different between men and women.
• Women and men both average about an hour and 20 minutes per day on child care activities.

• The husband and wife work on the lawn.
• Most of the time, women engage in tasks that are repetitive, routine, and outside the home, the majority constrained by deadlines such as laundry, food preparation, and transporting children of housework and child-care tasks to activities.
• The new tasks remain the responsibility of the wife, even though labor-saving devices have made the work less difficult.

• Women's psychological to household chores and child health can be negatively impacted by the amount of time devoted to this second shift.
• The stress of having both work and home duties must be taken care of by wives and husbands.
• There is evidence to the contrary.

• It is possible that the availability of variety in the lives of the women who juggle multiple roles helps protect them against their enemies.

• The treatment of individuals based on their gender stereotypes is different.

• Sexism has been noted in adults' interactions with toddlers.
• There is evidence in preschool settings.
• When evaluation criteria are ambiguous and the rooms have found evidence that sexism is pervasive in those settings, there is a greater likelihood that women's as wel.
• Boys are reinforced for being assertive in schools.

• Men and women have different responsibilities.
• Increased pretation of events as instances of sexual harassment are some of the benefits.

• Men earn degrees more than women.

• Women earn degrees at a higher rate than men.

• Whether men or women earn more degrees changes each year, with no apparent trend over time.

• Women are more active in child-care tasks.