One example of the kind of challenges we face when we solve problems is described in the video above.

We will look at our thinking and reasoning processes in everyday life and discover how we solve problems.

We'll look at how we communicate and comprehend meaning using words, and the enormous challenges we face, while doing so.

Learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, any mental activity or processing is included.

Behaviorists attempted to explain mental activity in terms of stimuli and response, reinforcement and punishment, as we discovered in the text.

Communication, believing, and psychologists have known for a long time that our minds often go beyond the available information, making leaps of insight and drawing inferences.

A variety of ways that reduce our mental effort but allow us to get things right most of the time can be found in Chapter 8.

The chance to meet a potential mate or someone with unique skills can be missed if we avoid strangers.

We might conclude that the stressed-looking woman walking briskly by staring at her phone is not the best person to stop and ask for directions.

Without actually tasting it, we can decide that the three-week-old milk in our refrigerator has gone bad based on its smell alone.

The cognitive economy allows us to simplify what we attend and keep the information we need for decision-making to a manageable minimum.

This type of cognitive economy is referred to as "fast and frugal" thinking by Gigerenzer, Hertwig, and Pachur.

A study shows that untrained observers can make accurate judgements about people.

A group of untrained observers were asked to look at the dorm rooms and bedrooms of students for a few minutes.

Observers can be open to new experiences and conscientiousness, according to research done by Samuel Gosling and his team.

Observers think people's personality traits are based on mental shortcuts to draw conclusions from their rooms.

Another example of how cognitive economy serves us well is provided by Nalini Ambady and Robert Rosenthal.

They showed participants silent clips of instructors teaching and asked them to evaluate their behavior.

It is a mixed blessing that cognitive economy can lead to faulty conclu sions.

People with psychopathic personality, a condition marked by dishonesty, callousness, and lack of guilt, along with self-confidence and superficial charisma, often come across to others as quite appealing at first.

Imagine we met another student who is Asian American, bilingual, and vice president of the college's Figure 8.1 A Floral Demonstration of Base Rates.

According to the American Psychiatric Association, alcoholism has a base rate of 5 percent in the U.S. population.

If we ask you if there's a higher density of trees on your college campus or in the downtown area of the nearest major city, you're likely to say yes.

It's not likely that you calculated the precise proportion of trees in each place after you answered the question.

When we think of the state of Michigan, we conjure up images of large farms and peaceful suburbs.

A couple was in legal trouble for allowing their children to walk a mile from the park to their home.

You're likely to find that the poem fits the event because it's about Hitler's rise to power.

The term "Monday Morning Quarterbacking" comes from when commentators and spectators of a football game point out that a different strategy would have worked better.

Many American politicians insisted that it was obvious that from the misheard song lyrics, that An example of top-down processing comes sion wasn't going well.

"Got a long list of eses or beliefs and to deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that doesn't" is the real line.

Confirmation bias can have consequences for our real-world logic, especially if we decide to make a decision.

In the text (LO 4.1a), we saw how our perception differs from sensation because we rely on stored knowledge and raw sensory input to interpret our experiences.

Our brain's tendency to simplify our cognitive functioning by using existing knowledge to spare us from reinventing the wheel is highlighted in each of these examples.

When we acquire knowledge, we create schemas that allow us to know what to expect in a given situation and to draw on it when we encounter something new.

When we go to a new doctor's office, no one has to tell us to check in with the receptionist and sit in the waiting room until someone calls us to enter an examining room, because our schema for doctors' visits tells us that this is the standard script.

Some high-end restaurants have begun violating our knowledge and ideas about a set dining-out model by collecting payment from diners by credit card before arrival, so that objects, actions, and characteristics don't change hands after the meal.

Most of the time, our concepts and schemas that share core properties allow us to exert less cognitive effort over basic knowledge, freeing us to engage in more complex reasoning and emotional processing.

Proponents of this view believe that the characteristics of language affect our thought processes.

We don't have to start from scratch every time we encounter a new object, event, or situation because we have concepts that carry prior knowledge and experience with them.

In English, we use a set of 11 basic color terms: red, blue, green, yellow, white, black, purple, orange, pink, brown, and gray.

Evidence suggests that language shapes some aspects of perception, memory, and thought.

The priorities, emphases, and values of different language communities affect how they think about the world.

We need to be careful when we draw conclusions about the impact of language on thinking.

These aspects of thinking are called higher-order thinking because they require us to take all of the more basic aspects of cognitive functioning, such as perception, knowledge, memory, language, and reasoning, and integrate them to generate a plan of action.

Depending on a number of factors, such as whether we're watching our weight, whether we like the type of salad dressings and fries available at the restaurant, and maybe even what everyone else at our table is ordering, such a choice can often be made.

For some decisions, such as where to go to college or whether to get married, the consequences are much larger and require more careful deliberation.

We may ask friends, family, and trusted advisers for their opinions of the pros and cons of each option.

Female college students were given a choice of five art posters to take home.

When it comes to emotional preferences, such as which art we like or which people we find attractive, thinking too much can get us in trouble.

Our brains can easily become overwhelmed by excessive information and this may be the case for complex, emotionally laden decisions such as which car to buy.

Careful analysis may be the better way to evaluate scientific claims in the laboratory and in real life.

In chess playing or business negotiations, slower and more deliberative decision-making tends to result in better outcomes.

The new field of "decision management" attempts to bring scientific evidence into the business world to help organizations prosper through sound decision-making and avoid bias.

In 2015, the U.S. President issued an executive order instructing government agencies to take framing and other behavioral science considerations into account when developing materials for U.S. citizens.

By using fMRI to identify brain areas that become active in specific decision-making situations, researchers hope to better predict and understand how emotion, reasoning, and arousal influence our decisions.

The brain's reward areas are important for motivation, but attentional control is associated with better choices.

Clinical psychologists are exploring how to use neuroscience to diagnose psychological disorders.

The long-term odds of survival would be higher with surgery than with radiation, if you resisted the framing bias that influences a lot of people's thinking.

The people who picked surgery first and radiation second were influenced by the framing of the question because both of the scenarios presented the exact same information.

We've encountered a variety of heuristics, like accomplish a goal availability and representativeness, that we use to draw conclusions and solve problems in a fast and frugal way.

The same basic steps for arriving at a solution every time are required to solve a problem such as replacing the starter on a car, or making a peanut butter and banana.

This approach has been used by psychologists to improve outcomes in everything from medical treatment planning to sports team performance.

Group problem solving can be problematic if everyone gets stuck in the same mindset.

If everyone is willing to share a unique perspective, distributed problem solving can be effective.

salience of surface similarities, mental sets and functional fixedness are obstacles that we will consider.

It can be difficult to ignore the surface features of a problem and focus on the underlying reasoning.

The fortress is taken without significant loss of troops if you surround it along with a solution that destroys the tumor but protects the healthy paths.

Sending in lots of lowintensity beams from many directions would work for both the fortress scenario and the tumor problem.

The participants who solved the ninth problem generated a correct solution 95 percent of the time.

One study showed that giving people jars to manipulate made them less likely to get stuck in a mental set.

The idea of functional fixedness was challenged in the Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses study.

The researchers found that people from a rural area of Ecuador who live in a traditional Have important alternative nontechnological society have few expectations about the functional explanations for the findings of these objects.

He built food smokers out of cardboard boxes and flower pots to show how to overcome functional fixedness.

Many psychologists used a computer analogy to explain the mind's tendency to process information.

Most modern psychologists believe that a computer analogy doesn't do a good job of explaining how we think.

Although we can perceive and recognize speech without difficulty, computers are notoriously poor at this task, so anyone who's tried to use voice commands on an automated phone menu knows that.

Computers have a hard time thinking about the world because they tend to represent their knowledge in a more simplistic way.

Humans find the answer laughably obvious because there are no aspects of salads that relate to shirts.

Awareness can help us recognize situations in which we're vulnerable to faulty reasoning and to think twice about our intuitions.

When we hear that one presidential candidate is leading in the polls or that bilingual education is bad for children, we should think about the information that the media used to make these conclusions.

We should think about what scientific research says instead of relying on a hand when making a decision about a diet plan.

Table 8.1 shows examples of newspaper headlines that result in unintentionally humorous interpretations.

We don't realize how many different types of sounds our vocal complex language has until we try to learn a new one.

Our ability to use apparatus requires coordination of an enormous number of cognitive, social, and physical skills.

These categories are influenced by our vocal tract, which includes our lips, teeth, tongue, and throat.

It's difficult for native English speakers to understand why many Hawaiian words and names are different.

Morphological markers change the meaning of a word based on a rule of the language.

If you were to write down what your psychol meaning is derived from words, you would find that he or she violates at least one or two rules.

We take a lot of additional information for granted when interpreting the language we hear.

Misunderstandings can happen if people don't pay attention to this information or if some of it is blocked.

To understand her, we need to look at her facial expressions and gestures, as well as what people were saying prior to her making the statement.

If she waved her hand in front of her face and wiped her forehead while standing in a hot kitchen, we would assume she was referring to the room's temperature.

If she's holding her nose and looking disgusted while standing in a seafood shop, we think she's referring to a terrible smell.

She might be referring to how crowded the room is if she has a frustrated look on her face and someone just commented on the huge number of people at the event she's attending.

People who share geographic speakers of two dialects can understand each other, even if they don't speak the same language.

You can refer to a drink as "soda," "pop," "tonic," or "Coke" depending on where you live.

The question of how language evolved has been debated by scientists for a long time.

Evolutionary theorists agree that the human species needs a strong survival advantage in order to offset its disadvantages.

A vocal tract that allows us to make a wide array of sounds increases our chances of choking.

We can use arbitrary words to express complex ideas that don't have sounds associated with them.

The "maluma" is on the left esthemes, if you're like most that share a common sound sequence called phon people.

The "gl" sound is related to glow, gleam, glitter, gloss, glorious, and glisten.

The process of learning a language begins long before children start talking.

By the fifth month of pregnancy, the baby's hearing systems are developed enough that they can begin to hear their mother's voice, learn to recognize some characteristics of their mother's native language, and even recognize specific songs or stories they've heard repeatedly.

A method that uses operant conditioning has been developed to test newborn infants' ability to distinguish sounds.

The fact that babies were tested with English and Spanish mothers is an experimental design feature.

It allowed researchers to rule out the possibility that all babies prefer English over another language.

Children's babbling plays an important role in language development because it helps babies figure out how to move their vocal tracts to generate certain sounds.

The first year of life is when babble begins and follows a progression of stages demonstrating infants' increasing control of their vocal tracts.

By 10 months, infants' phoneme categories seem to be similar to those of adult speakers of their native language.

A recent analysis of the phoneme content of Chinese-learning and English-learning infants' babbling patterns indicated no apparent differences at 8 or 10 months of age.

Most children can produce hundreds of Learning Language words when they turn two.

Most of the time, children get word meanings exactly right, which is a remarkable achievement.

The children pointed toward the proficient and fluent at speaking correct video, demonstrating they could determine from word order who was the "tickler" and who was the "ticklee" (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 1996).

The pig continues to acquire more complex rules in their early school years, even though the child is showing her comprehension of the sentence.

The easiest way to learn a second language is to be exposed to it at a young age.

There is some evidence that bilingual children experience a delay in their language development compared to their monolingual counterparts.

Recent research suggests that bilingualism may offer protection from cognitive decline in patients with Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia.

If you have an alternative later to be less proficient and to require more brain involvement to master their second explanations for the findings, you should.

We can look at the age of exposure to see if it is necessary to learn the language during a specific time window.

The English language skills of adults who'd come to the United States from China and Korea are measured.

Many of the rival explanations that plague cases like Genie's were ruled out by the alternative one.

These children are loved, cared for, fed, and given the opportunity to develop normally in all respects except language.

This research doesn't directly address the age at which language exposure is required for children to become fluent.

Longer term protective effects on the brain can be found.

According to this hypothesis, a young girl named Genie, who was less specific in her language, had more limited information-processing abilities and less analytic skills than adults.

When a string of signs is a grammatical sentence, it is determined by the same stages of development that babies who learn tures as spoken languages, including a complex set of syntactic rules, pass through.

Most of the work is done behind the scenes by the throat, tongue, and teeth, so most skil ed lip-readers can only pick up about 30 to 35 percent of what's being said.

The strongest communication nature account acknowledges that children aren't born with a specific language, they learn what they hear.

The strongest nurture account acknowledges that children's brains are set up in a way that is receptive to learning.

The field of linguistics was invented by Noam Chomsky, who believes that humans have a specific language "organ" in words and sentences.

The model states that children use the context of a conversation to infer the topic from the actions, expressions, and other behaviors of the speakers.

Explaining child language on the basis of adopted from a different country learn social understanding requires us to assume that infants to speak the language of their adopted parents understand a lot about how other people are.

According to social pragmatic theorists, children learn to interpret meaning from pointing because they know that the speaker's goal is to direct the child's attention to a toy.

They may be able to tell that every time their caretakers point to an object, he or she utters the same word.

Sex and violence are the two most common circumstances in which communication takes place in nonhuman animals.

The alarm calls are the closest thing to words scientists have observed outside of human language.

Recent evidence points to an orangutan having something resembling human-like vocal control, which may be more talents than previously thought.

After giving up on trying to teach Chimpanzees to speak, researchers tried to teach them to use sign language or a lexigram board, an apparatus that allows them to point to printed visual symbols that stand for specific words.

One is the bonobo, once thought to be a type of Chimpanzee, but now recognized as a distinct species that's genetically even more closely related to humans.

In one case in Sand Lake, Michigan, prosecutors considered using a parrot's "testimony" to determine what had happened at a crime scene.

The history and evolution of the language can be traced back to the spelling conventions we have today.

Even though the task doesn't require them to read, most people find it hard to ignore printed words.

Children who are still getting the hang of reading don't experience interference in the Stroop task, so they find it easier than adults.

Knowledge of the sounds they're looking for on the page is needed to connect the dots between speech and print.

This can't be the whole story because we need to develop strategies for identifying common words when we're just learning to read.

Children were taught to recognize whole words in the United States for a long time.

Speed-reading, also known as photoreading, megaspeed-reading, and alphanetics, can be advertised in magazines, Web ads, and on campus bulletin boards.

Comprehension rates below 50 percent can be achieved by reading faster than 400 words per minute.

As you walk out of class one day, you see a flyer with an open mind, but to insist on having evidence posted on an announcement board for a speed-reading course accepting them.

How do the principles of scientific thinking help that promises to cut your reading time in half, giving you more time to evaluate this claim about the effectiveness of this speed to sleep or hang out with your friends?

The course probably would teach you how to skim, but we know from previous research that doubling or tripling speed would result in a decline in retention.

It is more likely that it will result in a decline in retention because speed readers miss a lot of information.

If we apply Heuristics and top-down processing uncritically, we can make costly mistakes in reasoning.

Four levels work together to create mean to overlook conflicting evidence and only transmit information.

Thinking at Its Hardest: Decision- Making expression, gestures, contextual cues, and cultural conventions enter into how we interpret language are some of the extralinguistic information.

There are three hurdles to effective problem solving that result in stronger metalinguistic skills.

The computer is a poor analogy for the human mind, as it is clear that aggression and mating displays but little else.

Chimpanzees and African interact with the world and can teach gray parrots the basics of linguistic communication.

Bonobos explain our thinking and reasoning abilities and seem to learn more like humans, but don't exceed by neuroimaging studies demonstrating that our brain's the proficient level of about a two-and-a-half-year-old perceptual and motor areas are activated.

The reliability and validity of IQ differences can be evaluated using the evidence concerning racial.

For reasons that psychologists don't fully understand, some suggest that intelligence isn't enough for great intellectual success in later life.

Sir Francis Galton was a prominent scientist, inventor, and cousin of Charles Darwin who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.

His cousin, a creative genius in many respects, was interested in the potential adaptive advantages of high intelligence.

The highest and lowest pitch of sounds that individuals could detect, their reaction times to various stimuli, and their abilities to discriminate the weights of similar objects were all measured by him.

The first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania imported Galton's tests to America and gave them to thousands of college students to find out what they were measuring.

Like his teacher, Cattell assumed intelligence was a matter of sensory ability.

According to Galton, Helen Keller, the blind and deaf woman who became a brilliant author and social critic, would almost by definition be classified as intellectually disabled.

The French government wanted to find a way to identify children who were in need of special educational assistance.

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon were tapped by the Minister of Public Instruction in Paris to develop an objective psychological test that would separate Galton's laboratory from the rest of the world.

The exhibit was moved to the Binet and Simon was able to experiment with many different items, including an intelligence or personality test, designed to distinguish students between 1886 and 1890.

They involved naming objects, generating meanings of words, drawing pictures from memory, and completing incomplete sentences.

Binet and Simon's lead has been followed by virtually all items on modern intelligence tests.

They didn't come up with a single definition, but they did agree that intelligence consists of the abilities to: reason abstractly; learn to adapt to novel environmental circumstances; acquire knowledge; and benefit from experience.

People who are intelligent acquire complicated knowledge and abilities with relative ease.

People in China view intelligent individuals as those who perform actions for the greater good of the society and are humble.

The phenomenon of positive correlations among intelligence test items caught the attention of psychologist Charles Spearman.

In mice, the capacities to master mazes, to learn to avoid punishment, and to distinguish among different odors are all positively correlated.

Raymond Cattell argued that intelligence is actually a mixture of two related but different capacities, and that fluid is the ability to learn new ways of solving it.

People with high lev Crystallized IQ are imaginative, intellectually curious, and excited about exploring new ideas, places, and things.

According to Cattel and Horn, the bird IQ test is a measure of crystal ized intel igence, and it explains the story of people who are extremely successful in some.

In his spare time, he wrote a book introducing his "Cognitive-Theoretical Model of the domains of intellectual skill Universe," a comprehensive theory linking the mind to reality, which contains sentences like, "No matter what else happens in this evolving universe, it must be."

If you assumed that Chris Langan is a world- renowned scientist, you can be forgiven.

The Langan story shows that people can be smart in many different ways.

In studies of people with brain damage, researchers need to demonstrate that different intelligences can be isolated from one another, and that people with a specific brain region must show deficits in one intelligence but not others.

From an evolutionary standpoint, different intelligences should help organisms survive or make it easier for them to meet future mates.

We may allow the child's poor skills to get worse, like a weak muscle we choose not to exercise.

Table 9.1 Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences is a good example of evolutionary adaptiveness.

Naturalistic recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants, and other living things is the basis for this.

Some, such as bodily- kinesthetic intelligence, seem closer to talents that depend heavily on nonmental abilities.

The model is difficult to modify because he hasn't developed formal tests to measure his intelli gences.

The research on savants doesn't support the model because they score higher on general intelligence than other people with the condition.

It is argued that analytical intelligence doesn't predict outcomes like job performance.

People who are extremely book smart but also have all of the social skills of a block of concrete are what we think of.

We can think of people with high levels of street smarts who do poorly on school-related tests.

Several studies show that brain volume is related to general intelligence.

The correlation between brain volume and IQ is complicated and may hold more for verbal than for spatial abilities.

The lower part of Einstein's parietal cortex was 15 percent larger than normal.

Well-conditioned athletes who barely break a sweat while running a five-mile race can afford to slack off a bit while learning the task.

People with high IQs tend to work less hard because they have more efficient brains.

The tasks activated the prefrontal cortex, a brain region that plays a key role in planning, impulse control, and short-term memory.

fluid intelligence appears to predict how quickly people will respond to a light suddenly turning on.

Galton may not have been completely wrong in believing that speed time box to study the relation between sensory processing contributes to intelligence, although these two concepts clearly intel igence and response to simple stimuli.

Researchers have looked at the relation of tasks to the blue button next to the unlit light.

Intelligence is related to efficiency or speed of information processing, if there's one central theme to these diverse findings.

Common sense says that people who are rapid thinker tend to be more intelligent.

The question of how to measure people's intelligence has been a problem for psychologists for a long time.

Making matters more complicated suggests that people with poor cognitive skills are more likely to underestimate their intellectual abilities.

This "double curse of incompetence" may explain why some people perform poorly in school and on the job, even though they are convinced they are doing well.

This curse may help explain the embarrassing behavior of some singers and dancers on television talent shows, who seem oblivious to the fact that they are not more skilled than the average person off the street.

When Binet and Simon created the first intelligence test over a century ago, they had no idea that they would forever change psychology.

Binet and Simon used a variety of measures developed by Binet and Lewis Terman, such as measures that involve testing vocabulary and memory, in addition to the intelligence test originally developed for children.

We can ask if a given person's score on intelligence test items is above or below those of similar-aged people and how much.

Although the formula does a good job estimating intelligence for children and young adolescents, there is a critical flaw in it.

The Eugenics Movement: Misuses and Abuses was developed by French psychologists Binet and Simon.

IQ testing became a booming business in the United States in a matter of years.

It was no longer just a vehicle for targeting children in need of special help, but also a way of identifying adults who are intellectually inferior.

New American immigrants who barely know the language are often subjected to these tests in English.

Many adults, including prison inmates and delinquents, scored in the range of mental retardation on his tests.

In the late 1940s and early 1960s, the practice of sterilizing people with good genes waned, although it remained on the books in the United States.

Many people are suspicious of claims regarding IQ and its genetic bases, as they remind them of the efforts to "purge" low-IQ individuals from the gene pool.

It's understandable to be dismayed by the tragic history of the eugenics movement in the United States.

In 1989 the American Academy for the advancement of science listed the IQ test as one of the 20 greatest scientific achievements of the 20th century.

The most recent version of his test consists of 15 "subtests," or specific tasks, designed to assess such varied mental abilities as vocabulary, arithmetic, spatial ability, reasoning about proverbs, and general knowledge about the world.

The overall IQ, verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed are some of the major scores.

People who aren't proficient in the native language may do poorly on IQ tests because they don't understand the questions themselves.

People's performances on intellectual tasks can be affected by cultural factors.

The SAT, ACT, Graduate Record Exam, and other admissions tests were designed by psychologists to forecast performance in undergrad.

We can see an upward slant to the data points as we move, which tends to predict first-year grades at reasonable levels.

In a group of ordinary people playing a pickup basketball game on a Saturday afternoon, height is related to who scores more points.

Colleges and graduate schools don't admit low scorers because of the range of heights.

You've probably heard of companies that help students prepare for the SAT and other college entrance exams.

When taking the tests a second time, many of these companies will give you huge increases of 100 points or more.

Commercial coaching may improve SAT scores by 10 to 15 points on average per section, according to the evidence.

The companies are likely neglecting to consider an alternative to Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses for their advertised increases in test scores: practice effects.

The test-retest reliabilities for adult IQ tests can be as low as 0.95 over several weeks.

IQ scores obtained in the first few years of life do not do a good job of forecasting long-term outcomes, unless they are extremely low, such as under 50.

IQ tests designed for very young children assess the sensory abilities that Galton emphasized, which bear little association with intelligence.

IQ tests designed for older children and beyond assess the reasoning emphasized by Binet and Simon.

Babies who stare at a red circle for a long time are more likely to have higher IQs in later childhood and adolescence.

Babies who attend more to the new face are more likely to have higher IQs in childhood and adolescence.

IQ scores correlate with grades in high school and college, and they do a good job of predicting academic success.

The ability to focus on difficult problems for long periods of time is important.

The baby had previously viewed mance across a wide variety of occupations, with the average correlation again being a number of identical pairs of photos.

It's ironic that many employers place more weight on interviews than on IQ when it comes to selecting job applicants.

IQ scores can be used to predict other aspects of job performance.

A variety of important real-world behaviors outside the classroom and low levels of health literacy are predicted by IQ.

You need to chew the pill before IQ in childhood even predicts risk for premature death in adulthood.

Poor people who are Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses tend to have lower IQs.

Several cases in which IQ tests may or may not be good predictors of later real-world behaviors are discussed in the text.

Historians' ratings of overall presidential excellence are correlated with presidents' estimated scores.

The adaptive functioning criterion explains why about two-thirds of children with intellectual disability lose this diagnosis in adulthood, an IQ below about, and an inability to engage.

Mild forms of Down syndrome are usually due to a mix of genetic and environmental influences that parents pass on to their children.

Many have been the result of rare genetic defects or accidents during birth, neither of which have been successfully mainstreamed into families.

People with Down syndrome typically have a flat nose, upwardly slanted eyes, and a short neck.

Over the past century, societal attitudes toward individuals with intellectual disabilities have improved.

As we increase our contact with these individuals, these laws may further erode the stigma that some Americans feel towards them.

If you score in the top 2 percent of the IQ range, you can join Mensa.

One of the classic studies of intellectually gifted individuals was started in the 1920s by Lewis Terman and his colleagues.

Terman's study was flawed because he didn't recruit a control group of indi technology, engineering, and math students with average or low SAT scores.

Terman's participants became a highly distinguished group due to their study of super-smart children.

In the video opening this chapter of the SAT, people at the very top of the range go on to curse.

The ridicule and isolation that these children experience may be to blame for the negative outcomes.

Research shows that individuals rarely attain remarkable intellectual accomplishments until they dedicate themselves for a long period of time.

The "10,000-hour rule" means that outstanding achievements in a specific domain aren't possible until people 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 The stereotype of a teenager or young adult with no effort who is brilliant is not realistic.

Practice is important, but unless we have innate talent in our chosen domain, it won't matter much.

Good Will Hunting, a 1997 movie, is not accurate in its portrayal of childhood or adolescent influences on IQ geniuses.

The genetic and environmental contributors to IQ have been better understood by psychologists over the past few decades.

With increasing biological distance, the proportion of relatives who achieved intellectual greatness declined.

Family studies don't allow investigators to disentangle the effects of nurture and nature, so they've turned to more informative research designs.

We can compare the correlations in IQ between the two types of twins because they share the same genes.

There are a few assumptions we won't bother with, and higher identical twin correlations strongly suggest genetic influence on a trait.

The higher identical twin correlations tell us that IQ is influenced by genetics.

Whatever these genes are, they appear to slice across multiple domains of mental ability, including attention, working memory, and perhaps even risk for Alzheimer's disease.

Increasing evidence suggests that heritability of IQ may be low in individuals, especially children, at or below the poverty line.

When environments are optimal, people may be able to actualize their genetic potential toward learning and seeking out new information, thereby boosting their intelligence.

The range of environments in our sample can affect heritability, so it's not a fixed number.

There's less opportunity for people in poor neighborhoods to realize their intelligence because they don't have access to environmental resources like books and computers.

If genetic influences alone were used, identical twins would correlate 1.0 if the IQ tests were reliable.

There are important alternative studies of identical and fraternal twins that can be used to exclude this possibility.

The sample sizes of these studies are relatively low because twins reared apart are extremely rare.

The studies of intact family members are limited because they can't disentangle genetic from environmental influences.

Twin and adoption studies show that both genes and environment affect IQ scores.

Although they've made progress in identifying promising candidates, psychologists don't know for sure.

Carol Dweck showed that people who believe that intelligence is a fixed entity that doesn't change tend to take less academic risks.

They tend to give up after failing on a problem because they think they can't increase their intelligence.

It's possible that the causality arrow is reversed, as some authors have interpreted the correlation as meaning that education leads to higher IQ.

The researchers looked at pairs of children who were almost exactly the same age, but in which one child attended an extra year of school because he or she was born a few days earlier.

Children who have attended an extra year of school tend to have higher IQs, even though they are nearly the same age.

Arthur Jensen argued in the late 1960s that IQ is highly heritable and therefore difficult to modify by means of environmental intervention.

Jensen's argument was based on the fact that heritability implies that a trait can't be changed.

The federal Head Start program has yielded consistent results, but they have been disappointing.

After the Head Start programs end, they don't typically produce increases in IQ.

Several studies show that Head Start and similar early intervention programs result in lower rates of dropping out of high school and being held back a grade compared with control conditions.

Intelligence and IQ Testing improve children's social and emotional functioning, including their ability to inhibit aggression, gain acceptance from peers, and develop close relationships with their teachers.

Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson wanted to look at the effects of teacher expectancies on IQ.

A group of families in a poor area of Georgia were studied by Arthur Jensen.

Cumulative declines are differences that increase over time for African American children.

The relationship between lead intake and IQ of preschool children from an impoverished region is controversial.

The intake of high-fat and high-sugar foods in childhood is linked to slightly lower IQ scores several years later, although these data are only correlational and could be due to unmeasured factors.

Can the results be duplicated in lead-contaminated dust or lead paint chips?

It's not clear how much of the association is attributable to the direct effects of lead itself as opposed to poverty or other factors.

On one side of the debate are researchers who claim that infants who are breast-fed end up with higher IQs than children who are bottle-fed.

The link between infant breast-feeding and adult IQ seems to last for at least 30 years, and may even extend to enhanced income and educational achievement.

The average IQ of the United States, Europe, and South America has risen at a faster rate than the rest of the world.

Good news for you young readers of this, recent evidence indicates that the Flynn effect may be continuing, despite some initial data suggesting that it is slowing or even reversing.

The research shows that IQ scores have a correlation with exposure to Israel progressive matrices.

We're forced to process far more information gains over time because of the discovery of IQ.

The upper, tail of the bell curve is thought to be unaffected by the Flynn effect.

The rates of severe malnutrition in many parts of the world are declining, and people are better fed than ever before.

In the United States, families have become smaller, allowing parents to spend more time with their children.

As can be seen in the sizes of these men Journal Prompt and their uniforms, most people are discussing some of the possible environmental influences on IQ scores identified by considerably larger today than they were psychological scientists.

We would love to be able to achieve enormous acti success in college and beyond with minimal effort.

Many companies have capitalized on our desire for increased intelligence by making sensational claims.

You can develop your brain potential and become smarter by practicing an hour a day on our memory tests.

In multiple studies, Supersynapse's in-house scientists have shown that this remarkable product can increase intel igence.

Scientific skepticism requires us to evaluate claims with an open mind but to insist on compelling evidence before we accept them.

In principle, the claim that Supersynapse's products boost IQ could be false.

The claims in the ad are remarkable, but the evidence was done in-house by scientists working for the company, who are likely to be biased towards the details.

Although the ad refers to replicated studies, independent investigators, those who don't have these replications weren't conducted by independent investigators, a personal or financial conflict of interest in the intervention so it's unclear whether the positive findings reflect biases on the they're testing.

The issues are emotionally charged and have become deeply entangled in politics, with people on different sides of these debates accusing each other of biases and bad intentions.

It is difficult to evaluate these issues objectively with an open mind to scientific evidence.

Sex differences in IQ and Mental Figure are related to Bachelor's degrees earned by women.

Women have been underrepresented in most of the hard sciences for 40 years, and only a small percentage of those graduating with a degree created a furor.

He proposed two reasons, one of which was that women prefer raising families over competing in tough jobs.

A prominent woman Biologist from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology walked out of a talk by the President.

We don't know why women with low and high IQs are different, but both genetic and environmental explanations have been proposed.

When it comes to intellectual abilities, men and women are quite similar, but a closer look shows sex differences in a few areas.

Women do better than men on some verbal tasks, like spelling, writing, and pronouncing words.

When Figure 9.17 Mental Rotation Task is completed, females tend to be better at detecting and recognizing feelings than males.

Men and women in the United States and Mexico speak about 16,000 words a day.

Remarkably, this sex difference appears as early as three months of age, rais Men tend to do better than women on tests of mental ing the possibility that it's partly innate.

77 percent of the 5 million children who have participated in the National Geographic Bee have been boys.

The difference doesn't emerge until adolescence, perhaps reflecting hormonal changes that occur around puberty.

For example, in a recent study of students who received scores of 700 or higher on the SAT math section, males outnumbered females by about 4 to 1, a difference that was once as large as 13 to 1 but that appears to have diminished considerably in recent decades.

Some sex differences in mental abilities, such as women's higher scores on certain verbal tasks and men's higher scores on spatial and complex math-solving tasks, may be Answer to Figure 9.17: No.

Sex differences in spatial ability have not decreased over time in intelligence and IQ Testing.

Some studies show that excess levels of testosterone, a hormone of which males have more than females, is associated with better spatial ability.

Sex differences in science and math ability can be duplicated.

Over the past three decades, the percentage of women entering the hard sciences has increased.

The study of intelligence has found that average IQ scores differ among some races.

The average IQ difference between Caucasians and African Americans has received the most attention.

First, claims of inherent racial superiority are outside the boundaries of science and can't be answered by data.

The origins of racial differences can only be determined by whether they're genetic, environmental, or both.

Evidence suggests that the gap between whites and African Americans may have narrowed since for IQ.

They maintained that people with high levels of cognitive skills tend to rise to the top of the social ladder.

They make more money, assume more positions of leadership, and enter more powerful occupations because of this.

Their claims received unprec but one outstrips the other over time because of different press coverage.

If this example sounds familiar, it's because we introduced a concept very much like it previously in the text.

At this point in the growth cycle, the plants in the two groups are roughly equal in height.

The cumulative effects of such factors as social deprivation and prejudice may produce notable differences in IQ among racial groups, one that's entirely environmental in origin.

The majority of this research is related to analyses of differences between African Americans and Caucasians.

A study was conducted in Germany after World War II to compare the IQ scores of children of African American soldiers and German mothers with those of Caucasian American soldiers and German mothers.

When environment was compared, the different race-related genes appeared to have no bearing on children's IQ.

If racial differences were genetic, it would be expected that European ancestry would give a boost to IQ.

There is no evidence for a genetic explanation of the IQ gap between African Americans and Caucasians.

Many African and Hispanic Americans are less prepared to compete in higher education and the job market because of these disadvantages.

According to Claude Steele, stereotype threat can affect people's performance on standardized tests.

Steele believes that this belief can lead some people to display reduced performance.

Steele and his colleagues have shown that stereotype threat can affect African Americans' IQ scores.

Stereotype threat manipulation can cause African American participants to become stressed, preoccupied, or overly self- conscious.

Stereotype threat depresses women's scores on measures of mathematical (but not spatial) ability relative to men.

African American students are more likely to perform worse on tests if they are asked to identify their most important personal value, such as their friends, family, or need to express themselves through art.

It is possible that focusing on ourselves as individuals rather than as a group renders us less vulnerable to stereotype threat.

Some recent evidence suggests that the size of stereotype threat findings may have been overestimation, perhaps because researchers in this field have been more likely to publish positive than negative findings, which is a widespread bias in scientific research.

Almost all stereotype threat findings come from the tightly controlled world of the psychological laboratory and therefore may be of limited external validity.

The extent to which stereotype threat findings generalize to the real world remains an active area of investigation and debate.

Some researchers and writers in the popular media suggest that racial differences between African Americans and Caucasians on IQ tests are due to stereotype threat and self-fulfilling prophecies.

There is no evidence in the research literature that racial differences in IQ can't be changed.

If environmental disadvantages can contribute to IQ differences, they should be eliminated.

Look at the string of high-profile political sex scandals over the past decade in which well-educated and highly intelligent people got caught red-handed.

"Beethoven's Ninth," as musicologists call it, was unlike any piece of music ever written.

Beethoven's Ninth was condemned as being too abrasive, too reckless, and too "different" by some critics.

Beethoven's Ninth Symphony is considered to be the greatest piece of music ever written.

There is evidence that many great painters, writers, and composers may have suffered from mental illness.

More recently, actresses Carrie Fisher and Catherine Zeta-Jones have spoken about their struggles with the condition.

These are anecdotal reports, and don't provide proof of a link between creativity and bipolar disorder.

Studies show that highly creative individuals in artistic and literary professions have higherthan expected levels of bipolar disorder and related conditions.

The same genes that make people prone to bipolar disorder can also be found in creative accomplishments.

Frank Lloyd Wright's architectural creative artists, musicians, and scientists produce more stuff than other people.

When we get to the level of specific mental abilities, people with dif tend to display different intellectual interests.

People with high lives levels of scientific and mathematical ability tend to be especially interested in investigating the workings of nature and often describe themselves as enjoying the practical tasks of everyday life, like balancing checkbooks.

People with high levels of verbal ability are more interested in art and music.

According to some research, the emotional intelligence of the German composer Robert Schumann is related to his mental health issues.

His productivity includes the ability to understand and recognize one's increased dramatical y during "hypomanic" (mild manic) episodes emotions, to appreciate others' emotions, to control one's and decreased dramatical y during depressive episodes.

A test of the hypothesis that manic-depression increases maintains that emotional quotient is just as important as creativity.

Many American companies give their employees formal training to boost their emotional intelligence.

EQ training seminars teach workers to listen to their emotions when making decisions, find better ways of dealing with stress at work, and express sympathy for their coworkers.

People with low emotional intelligence are more likely to have psychological problems, such as depression, substance abuse, and psychopathic personality.

Extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience are personality traits that are assessed by most measures of emotional intelligence.

According to the most parsimonious hypothesis, emotional intelligence is a mixture of personality traits that psychologists have studied for decades.

A number of psychologists have sought out personality or character variables that may be needed for intellectual achievements, two of which have received considerable attention in recent years.

Many schools have begun programs for teaching children character trait in light of the exciting findings.

There are examples of brilliant individuals holding strange beliefs in the history of science.

Despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary, Linus Pauling insisted that high levels of vitamin C could cure cancer.

Several other Nobel-Prize winners in the "hard sciences," such as physics, have embraced strange and unsupported ideas.

One of the photographs from the famous Cottingley fairies hoax that they don't assess rationality, which we can think of as reflecting the abil took in writer Arthur Conan Doyle.

As we're recal from the supernatural who was taken in by an embarrassingly obvious prank earlier in the text, and as a devoted believer in low IQs, it's easy to see why.

In many cases, smart people embrace odd beliefs because they're book about the Cottingley fairies and defended the girls against accusations of faking it.

The message here is that we all have ideological immune systems that kick into high gear when we think.

When intelligent people neglect the safeguards afforded friend chal enges our political beliefs, they will often be fooled.

We feel defensive and there is growing evidence that rationality can be taught.

For example, frantical searches our mental knowledge banks to find arguments that relatively simple interventions, such as computerized video games, could refute our friend's evidence.

Our knack for defending our that give people rapid feedback about how to improve their decision positions against competing viewpoints can sometimes lead to confirma making, which appears to boost their critical thinking skills and ability to over tion bias, blinding us to information we should take seriously.

It remains to be seen if grit is a new kid on the block or if it's just an existing personality trait that's been repackaged in slightly new clothing.

We can think of wise people as good scientists in everyday life.

The current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, is an exempli fies wisdom.

He has advocated for nonviolence and a willingness to engage in constructive dialogue with his opponents despite arguing forcefully for Tibet's independence from China.

Some psychologists argue for the existence of multiple intelligences by dividing by chronological age.

Intelligence and IQ Testing 358 suggests that men are more variable in their IQ scores than women, and that people with good genes are encouraged to reproduce, and people with bad genes are discouraged from reproducing.

Intellectual disability is divided into four categories: mild, moderate, severe, and profound.

The 9.3: Genetic and Environmental Influences on IQ are novel and successful are two features of creative accomplishments.

Adoption studies suggest that some of the capacity to find the best answer to a problem can be found in convergent think Twin.

Although emotional intel is low among extremely poor individuals, it is relevant to job performance because of the adverse effects of environmental degradation on the expression of genetic potential.

Explain the environmental and genetic motion and achieve major motor milestones.

Explain which aspects of physical ability are developed during adolescence and emerging adulthood.

Children develop from little blobs to complex, active, communicative creatures in a matter of a few years.

Disentangling their effects is not easy because nature and nurture intersect in a variety of fascinating ways.

Avshalom Caspi and his colleagues conducted a longitudinal study of children who possessed this gene, some of whom committed violent crimes and others who didn't.

Children can express their genetic tendencies to seek cies through nurture.

If the death of a parent early in development causes the children's genes to become active, they will never become anxious.

One of the most surprising aspects of genetic expression is that genes that are turned on don't stay on for long.

Environmental factors may result in month-by-month or even day-by-day adjustments in which genes are actively impacting development and behavior at any given time.

The mistaken appearance of a pure effect of nature can be caused by genetic predispositions.

Early life experiences can shape later development in powerful ways.

The separation of an infant from its mother during the first few hours after birth has no negative consequences for children's emotional adjustment.

Early experience is an important part of children's physical, cognitive, and social development.

During the first year of life, the baby's brain undergoes massive growth and changes.

Neuroscience research shows that the brain changes in important ways in response to experience throughout childhood and well into early adulthood, supporting the idea that later experiences in life can be as influential as those in early childhood.

In surprisingly good shape, most children are capable of withstanding stress and trauma, emerging from potentially traumatic experiences, including kidnappings and even sexual abuse.

We could conduct a study to find out how people's knowledge of computers changes with age.

Our hypothesis is that people's knowledge of computers should increase from adolescence to early adulthood, and then level off at age 30.

In a longitudinal design, psychologists track the development of the same group of participants over time.

Although longitudinal designs are ideal for studying change over time, they can be difficult to explain.

It can be a problem when participants who drop out differ in ways from those who stay in.

When comparing the performance of older adults with two-year-olds on a memory test, the potential for cohort effects or skilled with technology seems low.

In such a study, a longitudinal design could be problematic because they weren't around when they were administering the same memory task to the same children twice so close together would up, limiting our ability to compare probably result in better performance on the second test.

The equipment we need to evaluate the causes of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes from childhood to old age will be provided by understanding these challenges, along with the scientific thinking principles we've encountered throughout this text.

It wouldn't make sense to conclude that milk drinking creates mass murderers.

Longitudinal designs show how parents influence their children's behavior, which in turn affects the same groups of people over time.

Children play an increasingly active role in selecting the way up through age 56.

The human body takes shape before birth, as does the ability to perform coordinated movements.

Learning, memory, and even preferences, for certain sounds or body positions, are also under way in unborn infants.

The brain undergoes radical changes throughout the life span, shaping the range of behaviors exhibited across development.

An egg travels through the fallopian tube to the uterus after being fertilized by a sperm cell.

When the embryo doesn't form properly, limbs, miscarriages, facial features, and major organs can occur without the mother knowing.

The brain must organize them to perform coordinated functions in addition to producing all of these cells.

The migration of cells begins in the fourth month and continues throughout the rest of the year.

Neurons move to their final positions in the brain's structures, such as the hippocampus and the cerebellum.

Fetal development can be disrupted by a number of factors, including premature birth, low birth weight, exposure to hazardous environmental influences, and errors in cell division.

Fetal brains are often unable to engage in basic functions such as breathing and maintaining a healthy body temperature due to the long tube oped lungs.

Low birth weight is associated with a high risk of death, infections, developmental delays, and even psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety.

It is believed that low birth weight can be minimized by providing more access to healthcare for expectant mothers.

Drugs, alcohol, chicken pox, and X-rays are some of the things they exert a negative impact on.

Smoking while pregnant can cause learning disabilities and physical growth issues.

Smoking cigarettes, marijuana or retardation, facial malformations, and using other recreational drugs while pregnant are more likely to cause behavioral disorders low-birth-weight babies.

Fetal development can be adversely affected by mental health factors in the mother.

Women who are pregnant will stop taking their medication because most psychologists assume that the drugs have teratogenic effects.

In these cases, women and their healthcare providers have to decide which will have the least adverse effects on the baby.

Depending on which teratogen and when the embryo or fetus is exposed to it, certain parts of the brain can be affected.

Random errors in cell division and genetic disorders are some of the adverse influences on fetal development.

If we softly stroke a hungry infant's cheek, she'll automatically turn her head toward our hand and begin casting about with her mouth, eagerly seeking a nipple to suck.

Babies might starve if they had to learn through trial and error that sucking on an object gives them food.

For example, cruising, walking, and running look the same, but require different muscle groups and shifts in weight to accomplish movement.

Sitting up, bodily motion that occurs as a result crawling, standing unsupported, and walking are some of the major motor milestones during development.

The physical adjustments that control our body's positioning and the direction and speed of our movements are incredibly complex, and we take for granted how easy it is to reach for a cup of coffee sitting on a table.

Babies don't yet know how to perform the calculations needed for good hand-eye coordination and motor planning.

Crawling and walking involve coordination of all four limbs, as well as keeping track of where the baby is going.

There is a wide range in the rate and manner in which children achieve motor milestones.

The findings suggest that the skills don't necessarily build on each other, as the post hoc fallacy might lead us to believe.

The brain and the body play a key role in allowing children to become more flexible in their movements.

Babies are swaddled in blankets that provide warmth and a sense of security but prevent free movement of their limbs in China and Peru.

Babies who are swaddled over the first year of life tend to cry less and sleep better.

African and West Indian mothers engage in a variety of stretching, massage, and strength-building exercises with their infants.

Babies' motor development is sped up by this practice, which looks harmful to American eyes.

Even things as basic as cloth or disposable diapers, which are prevalent only in industrialized societies, slow down walking.

If you can, speak to a person who raised you when you were a baby and have him or her describe your motor development.

Babies have to relearn how to handle slopes and stairs once they start walking.

Walking uses different types of motor coordination than crawling, but it also changes their perspective and how the baby's body takes up space as she moves.

The absolute size of the head continues to increase with development, but it grows at a slower pace than the torso or legs.

Sex hormones are released into the bloodstream by the reproductive system, triggering growth and other physical changes.

People think of androgens, such as testosterone, as male hormones in the teenage years.

Growth of facial and body hair, as well as the achievement of sexual maturation broadening of the shoulders, are promoted by testosterone in boys.

The differences between boys and girls' athletic ability are explained by the fact that these changes result in greater average physical strength and reproductive organs and genitals endurance in boys than in girls.

Girls reach full physical maturity at different ages, so there's variability in when menstruation begins.

The testicles, penis, and pubic hair are the first signs of sexual maturity in boys.

There are a variety of environmental factors that affect physical and mental health when adolescents reach puberty.

The girl is more likely to start menstruating earlier if she is close to reaching countries.

There are signs of puberty in American boys up to 2 years earlier than previously reported for blacks, whites and Hispanics.

The changes are probably due to better nutrition and health care, although other factors, such as increased exposure to hormones fed to livestock, may also contribute.

Cardiovascular disease and cancer are two of the negative longterm health outcomes associated with an early onset of menarche.

It's difficult to say whether the early onset of menarche causes these other Correlation vs. Causation health risks or if it is a marker of predisposition for these negative outcomes.

As they attempt to stave of a woman becoming pregnant, the likelihood of year on products and gimmicks marketed to make them look younger decreases.

Maintaining an erection and achieving ejaculation can become a challenge due to age related declines in sperm production and testosterone levels.

Sex drives are still healthy for most senior citizens despite changes in reproductive equipment.

A quick, easy, acti and affordable way to reduce or even reverse the signs of aging is what many people are looking for.

When a commercial featuring a famous 40-something actress appears, you are sitting with your aunt watching TV.

The voice-over says that research shows that this product is highly effective at reversing the appearance of wrinkling.

These findings should be ordered because your aunt is seriously considering placing multiple replications.

The double-blind design makes it difficult to explore how and why placebo effects occur.

The only design suggests that the effects can be attributed to problematic practice.

Over the past 50 or 60 years, psychologists have constructed a variety of theories to explain cognitive development across the life span.

Some models emphasize the experience of moving around in the world; others, social interaction; and still others, biological maturation.

Jean Piaget was the first person to present a comprehensive account of cognitive development.

The formation of cognitive development as a distinct discipline was the result of Piaget's theory, and for decades, most research in this field focused on refuting his claims.

The first scientist to develop a theory of cogni rather active learners who seek information and observe the consequences of their actions was Jean Piaget.

He believed that the ability to reason logically that of adults is the achievement of the end ing.

A child with a certain level of abstract reasoning in mathematics can do spatial problem-solving tasks.

When a child experiences the world as flat but learns in school that the earth is round, something must give way.

Physical interactions with the world are the main source of knowledge, thinking, and experience for children in this stage.

Children can use symbols such as language and drawings as representations of ideas in this stage if they are able to think beyond the here and now.

A child is showing symbolic behavior when he holds a banana and pretends it's a phone.

Mental operations can't be performed in abstract or hypothetical situations.

The most sophisticated type of thinking that children can perform is hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now.

Stage changes are the result of accommodating children will accept a new way of looking at the world.

A child who is confronted with a globe will have a hard time understanding how flat the earth is.

Some phenomena he observed appeared to be a product of task demands, which is a criticism of Piaget's theory.

The lack of Mental Representation is demonstrated by the child forgetting that the toy still exists after it's been hidden.

Children are asked to look at two equal displays from one perspective and then watch as the researcher manipulates one of them to get a better idea of the amount.

The preoperational stage prevents children from top and the number task is on the bottom.

Children can use longer and shorter strings with heavier and lighter weights to build a pendulum.

Children in the formal operations stage can manipulate weights and lengths to see how they affect the swing's speed.

Cole, 1990; Gellatly, 1987; Luria, 1976 are just a few examples of non-Westernized children revealing sophisticated insights when interviewed in a culturally sensitive manner.

A significant proportion of adolescents and adults fail some formal operational tasks in Western societies, suggesting that Piaget may have been overly optimistic about the typical course of cognitive development.

Exploring general cognitive processes that may cut across multiple domains of knowl Occam's Razor edge, thereby accounting for cognitive development in terms of fewer and more parsimonious--underlying processes.

Vygotsky was interested in how social and cultural factors affect learning.

Parents provide a structure to aid their assistance in children's learning when a building is being built.

As children become better able to their own, parents gradually remove structure as complete tasks on their own, much like taking off training wheels from a bicycle.

In educational settings, where guided father is instructing his child on how to learning and peer collaboration are popular, the researchers and remains influential.

When the field of cognitive development got off the ground, few theoretical accounts were strictly Vygotskian.

Like Vygotsky's theory, this class of theories emphasizes the idea development that emphasized social and of domain-specific learning, that is, separate spheres of knowledge in different domain cultural information as the key sources of knowledge.

Although Vygotsky's scholarly language is not related to the ability to reason about space, his career was shortened by early death skills between them.

Some of the major cognitive accomplishments within the realm of perception, memory, and language have already been learned.

There are sweeping changes in which children take a step forward in their ability to mentally represent their experiences.

She believes that young children failed the object perma ruling out rival hypotheses task because they lacked the ability to plan and perform a physical search for the hidden toy.

An earlier mastery of object explanations for the findings permanence emerged when using a looking-based measure.

Anyone who has ever hit a golf ball and fallen, or yelled at it for failing to move in the direction it was supposed to go, is almost certainly related to this.

Folk psychology can affect our reasoning about physical objects in other ways.

Early on, infants expect that any contact with formal science education will prevent cal events and observations to human-like goals or intentions.

Not only is formal majority of the weight on the support science education only partially successful, it doesn't appear to be necessary to overcome surface, won't fall.

Indigenous cultures, such as the Itza Maya in Guatemala, who are more connected to the natural world than are industrialized societies, seem to overcome these reasoning biases without any formal education.

Even though dogs come in all shapes, sizes and colors, children learn to recognize them.

Imagine if every time a baby was given a bottle, she had to quickly learn what was going to happen through trial and error.

They learn more about how members of categories connect, such as that fruits taste sweet and grow on trees.

In the 1980s, thousands of parents bombarded reason for this deficit in learning from videos because they were their newborn infants with activities designed to teach them foreign languages and advanced math in an effort to create "superbabies" When parents are involved in the learning process.

According to the experts in the video, college students performed better on a spa if they had heard classical music before.

Hundreds of thousands of parents are going to start playing classical music to their babies after the media exaggerated the finding.

As technology has evolved, infant-oriented multimedia educa tional tools have become a huge industry.

Children can see their images in a mirror as early as their first birthdays, as long as they watch a video of their own.

The infant's legs will look longer at the videoplishments that appear to be tied to the junction of the other baby's brain region.

Children who pass this task know that the child in the story holds an incorrect belief about the location of the treat.

Children are more successful at an earlier age if researchers tell them the reason for the change was to trick someone.

Many children learn to count to 10 at a very early age, and will recite "1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10" in rapid succession.

When the objects to be counted closely resemble each other, children are better able to match two sets of the same quantity.

The brain doesn't mature fully until late adolescence or early adulthood, as discussed in LO 3.1b.

Some impulsive behaviors, like skateboarding down a steep incline, can be explained by the fact that the frontal lobes are still maturing during adolescence.

Teens need more brain processing than adults when it comes to simple tasks, such as suppressing the impulse to look at a flashing light.

Teens are more susceptible to peer group influences, which can lead to further risk-taking, if the brain involved in social rewards becomes more active during adolescence.

Even though their brains aren't ready to make well-reasoned decisions, adolescents encounter new adultlike opportunities to engage in potentially harmful activities.

Teenagers are assumed to engage in risk-taking because they don't believe bad things can ever happen to them.

Most adolescents don't underestimate the risks of such behaviors as driving fast or having early or unprotected sex, even though they're aware they're taking chances, but believe they're willing to accept the consequences.

During the late high school and college years, there is a critical cognitive change in adolescents' and young adults' perspectives towards knowledge.

Students starting college are often frustrated by the lack of answers to questions in their psychology courses.

Over the course of their college years, students pass through a variety of "positions" on knowledge.

Students realize that they can't abandon the idea of "truth" or "reality" completely, but they can appreciate and respect differing points of view.

The world's cultures honor and revere to decrease after age 30 due to the fact that many people recall information.

Teenagers can beat older adults at video games and other speed-sensitive tasks because people's overall speed of processing declines.

Brain changes that occur with age are likely to be the cause of these age-related declines.

The cortex and the hippocampus, which play a key role in memory, are particularly affected by age-related declines in brain volume.

When asked to remember material that's relevant to their everyday lives, aging adults show relatively little decline, as opposed to the random lists of words used in memory research.

Crystallized intelligence, our accumulated knowledge and experience, tends to stay the same or increase with age.

Babies show a preference for their mother's face as early as four days after birth.

Babies' interest in others is a good thing because people like basic emotional style that appears their parents are valuable sources of information and provide the love and support they need to flourish.

The emergence of temperament can be distinguished from other personality characteristics because it appears to be largely genetically influenced, although there is some evidence that maternal stress levels during pregnancy may also impact infant temperament.

Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess had explanations for the findings of their studies of American children.

Like "scaredy cats," who crawl 70% under the nearest bed at the sight of a new person or moving object, behaviorally inhibited human infants become frightened at the sight of novel or unexpected stimuli.

The 20% amygdala plays a key role in processing fear and this last finding makes sense.

Children with high levels of behavioral inhibition are at increased risk for shyness and anxiety disorders.

Children who are behaviorally inhibited are more likely to adapt to this social environment in daycare settings.

There may be a good evolution share with those that we feel have a reason for the attachment bond.

Konrad Lorenz won a Nobel Prize in the 1930s for observing the behaviors of geese.

Goslings seem to follow around the first large moving object they see after hatching, which, in 99 percent or more of cases, turns out to be Mother Goose.

Large white bouncing balls, boxes on wheels, and even Lorenz himself will be imprinted on by the Goslings.

Konrad malian infants exhibit a softer form of imprinting in which they forge strong bonds with those who care for them.

That's true of intelligent mammals like cats, dogs, and humans, who are more flexible than geese.

The question is controversial and early separation from attachment figures may have negative effects on psychological adjustment.

In the 70s and 80s, all forms of birth control were banned in Romania, which resulted in a lot of babies with their parents unable to support them.

Babies were often left in their cribs all day and night because these orphanages offered little social interaction or emotional care.

When thousands of these infants were adopted by families in the United States and England, they had no chance to develop bonds with adult caretakers.

There was a unique opportunity to study and test the predictions of John Bowlby's Attachment Theory.

Bowlby was interested in how young children were affected by early separation from their parents.

Can the results be duplicated in Contact Comfort: The Healing Touch?

The physical setup of the strange situation is encouraged in maternity wards and birthing centers to help babies.

The Strange Situation is a laboratory procedure designed to evaluate attachment style by observing one-year-olds' reactions to being separated from and then reassembled with their mothers.

The infant ignores the entry of the stranger, shows no distress at mom's departure, and displays little reaction upon her return.

The attachment styles that weren't included in the original classification were added later by Mary Main and her colleagues.

Children's behavior is predicted by the attachment styles derived from the Strange Situation.

Babies can form bonds with both their mothers and fathers and with siblings, grandparents, and other caregivers.

It is possible for infants placed in daycare to establish secure attachment relationships with their caretakers.

In two parent households, infants show a strong preference for the mother that leaves around 18 months after birth.

Alternative measures of attachment, such as interviews in adulthood designed to assess bonding to one's parents, are being developed to address this concern.

Many infants change their attachment classifications over a short period of time.

Babies whose parents respond to distress by comforting them are more likely to develop a secure attachment style.

Some psychologists argue that the causality arrow is reversed and that children's temperament influences their attachment styles.

It is possible that temperament is a third variable that influences both parenting practices and attachment styles.

Over the past century, self- proclaimed parenting experts have bombarded nervous mothers and fathers with conflicting advice about how to raise their children.

Even though there is not much evidence that physical punishment is effective for promoting long-term behavioral change, some parenting experts still advocate spanking children.

The publication of two books about cultural differences in parenting approaches renewed interest in this topic.

Although they are loving and nurturing, they are a family setting and they expect their children to find child is the center of attention in ways to entertain themselves.

Permissive parents tend to allow their children a lot of freedom inside and outside the household.

Parents who neglect their children pay little attention to either their positive or negative behaviors.

It is possible that Baumrind's categories do not reliably differentiate parenting styles outside of her original study population.

The majority of the research shows that the stakes for specific authority are not as high as experts had thought.

Children's social development can suffer if parenting falls below the average expectable environment.

When children enter the world with a strong genetic predisposition toward aggressiveness, parenting quality matters.

When children are genetically prone to high levels of impulsivity and violent behavior, parents probably need to exert especially firm and consistent discipline.

The primary environmental influences on children's behaviors have historically been emphasized by theories of child development.

Harris made a controversial claim in 1995 that peers play an even more important role than parents in children's social development.

Harris's model suggests that parents may not be as involved in children's development as previously thought.

Children benefit from warm, close relationships with their fathers regardless of how much time they spend with him.

It's difficult for children to form stable social bonds with peers when their mothers move more often.

Research on widowed mothers supports the idea that other variables explain child adjustment in single-parent households other than the absence of a second parent.

Some researchers argue that many of these studies are biased and could lead to inflated measures of well-being relative to children of same-sex parents in the general population.

It is important for most children to have two parents who are primary caregivers and a secondary attachment figure who is rough-and-tumble in traditional families.

The popular psychology tells us that divorce can have a serious emotional toll on children.

This belief was reinforced by the results of a 25-year study of 60 families by Judith Wallerstein, who reported that the negative effects of divorce were enduring: Many years later, the children of divorced parents had difficulties establishing career goals and stable romantic relationships.

We can't tell whether the outcomes she observed were a consequence of divorce or not because she didn't include a control group of families in which one or both parents had Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses separated from their children.

In the latter case, children find divorce to be a relief from their parents' arguments.

The most likely explanation for children with educated moms being better off is that the family has more resources and therefore more stability after a divorce.

Children's ability to delay gratification is a good indicator of later social adjustment.

The experimenters left a child alone in a room with a small reward and a bell to study delay of gratification.

Our identity and understanding of ourselves as social beings is dependent on whether we consider ourselves male or female.

Recent news stories and political debates have shown that male/female distinctions aren't always straightforward.

The psychological characteristics include behaviors, thoughts, emotions, and sense of self associated with being male or female.

If people want to receive a bigger reward for violating traditional rules, there are differing degrees of tolerance across society.

When biological sex and gender identity collide is a teenage activist's experience.

We now know that children who have their families and school settings support their gender identities are more likely to have high levels of depression and anxiety.

A misconception is that gender differences don't emerge until socializing influences such as parenting practices have the chance to act on children.

The finding suggests that toy preferences may be related to differences in biology.

rhesus monkeys between 6 and 12 months of age are segregating by sex, raising the possibility that this phenomenon has biological roots.

Nature is almost always shaped or amplified by nurture, such as the reinforcing influences of parents, teachers, and peers.

According to research, parents tend to encourage children to engage in gender stereotyped behaviors, such as achievement and independence among boys.

Adults watched a video of a baby reacting to several emotionally arousing stimuli, like a jack-in-the-box popping open suddenly, as a demonstration of how social environment and social expectations can influence how gender stereotypes are reinforced.

The study was a true experiment because the investigators randomly assigned the adults to two conditions.

The startled reaction to the jack-inthe-box was rated as reflecting anger by adults who thought the infant was named David, while the startled reaction to the jack-inthe-box was rated as reflecting fear by adults who thought the infant was named Dana.

The teenage years can be a time of discovery, of opportunity to participate in adultlike activities, and of deep friends.

The popularity of the myth of adolescent dilemma is due to the fact that teens may be less skilled at controlling their emotional reactions than adults are, so relations to other people the adjustment problems they experience are more obvious.

The period when adoles of interest in the welfare of others and aging and the prospect of death with a sense of satisfaction are the most fun the world in general about the future damental question of all: who they are.

Developmental researchers used to consider people younger than 18 as adolescents and older than 18 as adults.

Many changes in identity and emotional development take place in early adulthood that are distinct from later adult experiences, according to scientists.

Many emerging adults struggle to figure out their identities and life goals, trying on different hats in an effort to see which one fits best.

We may juggle "nerdy," "hipster," and "jock" friends at various times, scope out different potential majors, and even explore alternative religious and philosophical beliefs.

Our identities change over time as we get the chance to fit between who we are and who we want to be.

As toddlers and preschoolers, children begin to develop ideas of right and wrong.

In adolescence and emerging adulthood there are no clear right or wrong answers, and arise more frequently in the teen and young adult a time of exploring who we are.

Over the course of development, the approach we adopt to these and other moral problems changes.

We learn not to do bad things to avoid punishment because we associate right with reward in infancy and childhood.

One of the best predictors of the strength of a child's sense of morality is their level of fear years.

The way morality unfolds across the life span was identified by Lawrence Kohlberg.

The husband of a sick woman went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he was only able to get together about $2,000, which is half of what it cost.

Having tried every legal means, he gets desperate and considers breaking into the store to steal the drug.

After studying the responses of many children, adolescents, and adults to this and other dilemmas, Kohlberg concluded that morality develops in three major stages.

Sample answers to the Heinz dilemma can be found at each stage in Table 10.2.

Imagine that you just learned that one of your next-door neighbors is wanted for an attempted murder she committed as a young woman three decades ago, and that you have known her for many years as an extremely kind and caring person.

The meaning of this finding is not clear because group dif erences don't always imply bias.

Carol Gil igan broke from her mentor to argue that his system was biased against women.

Men are more likely to adopt a "justice" orientation based on abstract principles of fairness, whereas women are more likely to adopt a "caring" orientation based on concrete principles.

Measure verbal intelligence and moral development in the same study to see if it washes out the findings.

In some cases, our emotional reactions to morally laden stimuli, like photographs of assaults on innocent people, occur almost instantly.

The correlation between Kohlberg's levels and moral behavior, such as honest and altruistic actions, tends to be only about.3 A person may steal a coat from a store because he wants to add it to his fashion collection or he may want to keep his children warm in the winter.

Major transitions in lifestyle or societal status such as entering a serious relationship, becoming a parent, or shifting from student to wage earner are associated with these changes.

We often think of adults as following a predictable life trajectory: attending college in the late teens and early 20s, getting that first job after graduation, falling in love with someone of the opposite sex, getting married, having children, and growing old gracefully while rocking on.

Many college students in their late 20s, 30s, and 40s attend school while maintaining a job and have families who are financially dependent on them.

One of the biggest sources of anxiety for young adults graduating from college is what they're going to do for a living.

Many recent graduates want a career path that matches their qualifications and interests.

For some, this strategy can be beneficial, because they end up discovering an unexpected career that is a good fit for their skills and passions.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, being in your late teens or early twenties can cause you to change jobs every 4.5 years.

The high levels of job satisfaction that emerging adults report when they start their first professional position may be due to the fact that the novelty has worn off.

How much job satisfaction changes with age is dependent on the results being duplicated.

Having a child involves a fundamental and often stressed shift in lifestyle because, suddenly, adults are completely responsible for the well-being of someone other than themselves.

It's not uncommon for new parents to think that they'll just stick to their routine and bring baby along with them wherever they go--which almost never works the way they envision it.

According to research, new parents who have the easiest time adjusting to parenthood are the ones with the most realistic expectations.

The adjustment can bring new challenges as children get older, but most parents make it.

Although most adults adjust to parenthood, longitudinal studies show that couples' satisfaction drops for both parents during the year following the birth of a child and stays low throughout the first several years of their child's life.

Couples who are matched on initial level of satisfaction but don't have a child show no decline.

Once children reach school age, marital satisfaction tends to rebound.

The stereotype is that of a man in his 40s or 50s who impulsively buys a motorcycle and leaves his wife for a younger woman.

Although psy attempt to regain youth chologists once viewed this period of transition as a normal part of adult development, researchers have failed to replicate findings of an increase in emotional dis Replicability during middle age.

The cohort effect is related to the percentage of women who joined the workforce or were homemakers after World War II.

The shift in role takes some adjustment, not to mention the sudden increase in free time.

The average life span was 48 for men and 51 for women a century ago, according to the National Center for Health Statistics.

Now that baby boomers are coming of age, a greater percentage of the population is elderly.

Some people have little change in memory, ability to learn, and personality from adolescence to old age, while others do not.

A host of physical and social factors influence how comfortably we age, and growing old isn't entirely a state of mind.

No matter how many candles appear on our birthday cake, we can still promote a younger body and mind by remaining physically and mentally active.

Low-birth-weight babies ties and decisions that their brains aren't always prepared tend to have the least positive outcomes for adolescents.

Motor milestones such as crawling and walking are achieved in roughly the same order, although the ages when 10.4: The Developing Personality: Social they accomplish these are different.

Babies with Moral Development reflexes that help them get started, but experience that is critical to building children's muscles and motor coordination, are born.

There are large individual differences in age related changes uninvolved, family structure, and peers may all influence in agility and physical coordination.

The stones of physical aging in women is one of the major mile children's behaviors.

Children's initial concepts of morality are based on the belief that development unfolds in four stages that fear of punishment, but over time become more sophisticated.

Physical reasoning in infants involves basic, apparently innate Chronological age isn't a perfect predictor of physical, social, knowledge and refinement of knowledge based on experience or cognitive ability in the elderly.

S. M. went back to the park because she lost access to her "gut feelings" regarding which situations are and aren't threatening.

Researchers made college students angry by asking them to write about their past unpleasant experiences.

As he attempted to generate solutions to everyday problems, his absence of emotional reactions would ultimately do him in.

Pop psychology books help us not to feel sad, angry, or guilty.

Pop psychologists agree that excessive anger, guilt, and the like can be self-destructive.

Although psychologists don't agree completely on what causes our emotions, they have made significant strides towards unraveling this and many other enduring mysteries.

The proponents of this theory propose that each basic emotion has its own biological with our evaluation of our roots and that it serves one or more distinctive evolutionary functions that are essentially experiences the same in all of us (Ekman & Friesen, 1971; Hamann, 2012).

Three-month-old babies who are blind from birth smile in response to playing and tickling, and frown and cry when left alone.

The chances of you wrinkling your nose, sticking out your tongue, turning your head, and closing your eyes at the same time are very high.

When we're afraid, our eyes open wide, winning a match or receiving a medal will allow us to better spot potential dangers in our environments.

The angry snarl of dogs, marked by the baring of their fangs, is reminiscent of the way humans treat animals.

Eugene Morton showed that the emotions of humans and nonhuman animals share the same evolutionary heritage.

The chuckling of Chimpanzees and the high-pitched panting of dogs seem to be similar to human laughter.

The same facial and vocal emotional expressions can be generated by other participants in North American and European countries.

In the late 1960s, American psychologist Paul Ekman traveled to the wilds of southeastern New Guinea to study a group of people who had been isolated from Western culture and still used Stone Age tools.

Some scholars theorize that the facial signals evolved to make others more likely to Answer: (1) happiness, (2) sadness, and (3) nurture and take care of us when we're afraid.

Ekman and his colleagues found that certain primary emo tions are easier to detect than others.

One challenge to the theory is that people in different cultures don't always agree on which facial expression to use.

The levels of agreement are higher than would be expected by chance, suggesting at least some cross-cultural universality in the recognition of emotion.

According to some psychologists, painters create a magnificently complex palette of secondary paint colors.

One's hands fear and surprise, and the secondary emotion of "hatred" seems to be a mixture of anger and disgust.

Americans can be taken aback when a visitor from South America, the Middle East, or Russia kisses them on the cheek.

Wallace Friesen videotaped 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 800-361-3020 He asked both individuals in each group of students to watch two film clips, one of a neutral travel scene and one of an incredibly gory film depicting a ritual genital mutilation.

The full story of cultural dif ferences in emotion may not be told by display rules.

One research team asked North American participants to guess the nationality of either Japanese American individuals or native Japanese individuals as they assumed either a neutral expression or an emotional expression in photographs.

According to Elfenbein, culture can subtly shape how emotions are expressed.

We can differentiate some primary emotions by their patterns of response, although the distinctions are a bit fuzzy.

At higher-than-chance levels, American college students can distinguish threatening from nonthreatening masks.

The movement of the eyes in facial expressions can help us distinguish between real and fake emotions.

People who experience positive emotions in the presence of others are more likely to have a genuine smile.

Pan Am smiles can be found in posed photographs if you page through your family albums.

Several research teams have shown that Duchenne smiles have the ability to predict life outcomes.

In a clever study, investigators found that people who displayed Duchenne smiles in conversations were more likely to recover emotionally from their spouse's death.

They don't like the idea of emotions theories being based on our thinking rather than the other way around.

The way we interpret the situa products of thinking tion has an influence on what we feel about it.

The great American psychologist William James (1890) is thought to be the originator of the oldest cognitive theory of emotion.

Patients with theory propose that we use our "gut higher spinal cord damage reported less emotion--fear and anger--than those with lower spi reactions" to help us determine how nal cord damage.

Patients with lower injuries could feel more of their bodies and we should act to give them a greater range of emotional reactions.

Cannon and Bard would say that when we see a bear while hiking in the forest, the sight of that causes it to be afraid and run at the same time.

In a study of "love at first fright," Singer randomly assigned participants to two additional conditions, one in which a tigators tested Schachter and Singer's confederate, and the other in which an undercover research assistant acted in a happy state.

There are two questionnaires, one in which a confederate acted in an angry fashion, and the other in which com approached participants immediately.

Participants were asked to describe how a photograph of a member made them feel.

The most creative test of the two-factor theory probably goes to two researchers who asked an attractive female confederate to approach male undergraduates on the University of British Columbia campus.

She gave them her phone number in case they had any questions after asking them for help with a survey.

The Emotion and Motivation 413 condition increased male students' arousal and made them feel more romantic.

The work on nonverbal accents shows that the theory of emotion may underestimate cultural differences.

Cognitive theorists propose that our thinking influences our emotions in significant ways.

The James-Lange and somatic marker theories assume that our bodily reactions can influence our emotional states.

Some research suggests that a lot of our behavior is produced automatically, that is, with no influence on our part.

Although not all psychologists agree, the same Stimuli can influence our emotional reactions, and many may be generated automatically.

Experiments using meaningless material give better evidence for the mere exposure effect.

There's evidence that the mere exposure effect can operate unconsciously, Robert Zajonc and his colleagues are presented below.

Cornell University's Department of Psychology has a controversy about how enduring the exposure effect is.

If no one is near you, and you're not afraid of looking foolish, make a big smile and hold it for 15 seconds.

Zajonc viewed this process as purely biochemical and noncognitive, that is, as involving no thinking.

Participants who engaged in smiles, prefer the photograph on the left, and he's more accustomed to this, so he showed lower heart rates immediately following the task.

Our experience of explanations for the findings is altered when we smile the brain and feel happy and unhappy.

It's a clever study, and one that compared the first film clips with the author of your text recounted in his introductory psychology course for many years.

psychologists haven't figured out what functions crying serves They've begun to make inroads.

94 percent of popular articles state that crying is a good way to reduce negative emotions.

Even presidents cry, as evidenced by the tears shed by Barack Obama during a December 14, 2012 news conference while discussing increase distress and arousal in most people.

In the animal kingdom, it's unusual for an exam to cause milk production in mothers who've recently given birth.

Crying increases in frequency from birth until about us to get rid of stress hormones and other substances that produce six weeks of age, decreases a few months later, and then levels off unpleasant emotions.

According to this view, tearing until the age of one, after which it drops again, improves our moods by allowing us to release toxic substances that 1969 It is possible that crying becomes less frequent in our bloodstreams.

It's unlikely to be a role of grabbing parents' attention since the amounts of stress when babies learn to talk are small.

An alternative hypothesis is that the "acoustical umbilical cord" can be moistened.

When babies can cry loudly, tears evolved to protect the blood vessels in their eyes.

The LO may continue to play a similar attention-getting function with those 1.1a as we age due to the fact that most complex psychological phenomena have who care about us less frequently.

The problem is compounded by the fact that we underestimate how easy others can figure out the meaning of our e-mail messages.

Women are innately pro grammed to do the opposite of upset postures according to some research.

The overlap between men's and women's ology can affect our emotions and readiness to engage in certain behaviors.

For example, while preparing for an exam, we might not be able to see our emotions over e-mail and instant messaging.

There are some gestures that are consistent across cultures, such as crossing one's fingers when hoping for good luck or shrugging one's shoulders to indicate "I don't know".

Cuddy's talk on power poses has been viewed over 37 million times.

This well-known effect may be difficult to replicate and, even if genuine, relatively weak in size, according to recent work.

The source is based on the work of Duclos, S., Laird, J., Schneider, E., Sexter, M., and van Lighten, O.

The young haven't yet developed clear boundaries, so personal space increases from childhood to early adulthood.

S. M., the woman with severe amygdala damage who we met in the opening video of this chapter, displays virtually no sense of personal space.

College students tell an average of two lies per European country, according to diary studies.

Data from Paul Ekman and his colleagues on the accuracy levels of different e spend a lot of our everyday lives trying to find out if others are being straight with us or putting us on.

Despite what most police officers believe, verbal cues are more valid indicators of lying than nonverbal ones.

The polygraph test is promoted on Dr. Phil's show as a way to find out which partner in a relationship is lying.

They inquire about trivial misdeeds about which most people will lie, especially under intense pressure.

The "baseline" for gauging their responses during known lies is supposedly provided by suspects' activity following these questions.

Many people display arousal following relevant questions for reasons other than pressure, skin conductance, and the fear of being convicted of a crime they did not commit.

Half or more of participants can accomplish this goal by biting their tongues, as long as they have less than 30 minutes to take the polygraph test.

The answer probably lies in the fact that polygraphs are effective for eliciting confessions when people fail the test.

Poly polygraph examiners often conclude that suspects who failed the test and didn't confess to crimes must be guilty.

The GKT is different from the polygraph in that it measures suspects' recognition of concealed knowledge, not lying.

In order to give the GKT to a suspect, we'd have a series of multiple-choice questions and measure his or her reactions to the object at the crime scene, such as a red handkerchief.

We can be certain that the suspect was present at the crime scene if he or she consistently shows his or her responses to the objects.

The GKT has a low false positive rate, which means it misidentifies few innocent people as guilty.

The traditional GKT uses skin conductance or brain waves as a measure of concealed knowledge.

Most of the evidence for this technique comes from laboratory studies in which participants are forced to rehearse details of a fake crime, like the color of a stolen purse or the type of jacket worn by a victim.

Lower accuracy rates can be caused by criminals forgetting these details in the real world.

Peer review is an essential safeguard against error in science, and most of the evidence for brain fingerprinting hasn't been subjected to it.

Other investigators have turned to fMRI, a more direct brain-imaging method, to assist them with detecting lies.

There's some preliminary support for the idea that fMRI could be more sensitive than the polygraph at detecting lies.

Other companies claim to be able to use fMRI methods to distinguish truth from lies.

The chemical version of the polygraph test is portrayed in scores of Hollywood movies.

In the past, the police and military occasionally gave truth serum to suspects in the hopes of uncovering information.

In 1963, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that criminal confessions can't be used for most purposes.

After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, some U.S. government organizations renewed their interest in truth serum.

The effects of barbiturates are similar to those of alcohol, and truth serum is comparable to getting drunk.

It seems unlikely that this could happen because of the fact that oxytocin only increases trust among members of our in-group.

The validity of these tests for detecting dishonesty in the business world is often weak because they yield many false positives.

For most of the 20th century, psychologists dismissed happiness as a fluff topic better suited to self-help books and motivational seminars than to rigorous research.

Over the past few decades, a growing body of research has suggested that happiness may produce enduring psychological and physical benefits.

When we're happy, we see more of the world and seek out more opportunities, like romantic partners we wouldn't have considered before.

The more hopeful language in a candidate's speeches is one of the best predictors of who will win a presidential election.

Daniel Gilbert has observed that people have a lot of bad theories about happiness.

Pop psychology bubbles need to be burst to understand happiness.

More than 200 students were screened by Ed Diener and Martin Seligman for their levels of happiness.

Daniel Kahneman and his co-conspirators tracked the moods of more than 900 women by asking them to record of their wealth compared with those around them.

Second, spending money on other people tends to make us happier, because of the women's income and features of their job.

We're familiar with the stereotype that the sad old man Finding 2: Money doesn't make us happy.

In the last year of life when people die of natural causes, additional money probably doesn't make a difference.

The effect seems to be due to elderly people's economic prosperity.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi demonstrated that liberals have more positive words in their language and higher levels of happiness than conservatives.

The concept of flow implies that happiness comes from the sheer act of enjoying what we do best, whether it's our work, hobbies, or romantic partners.

Tens of thousands of Americans wait in hourlong lines every month in the hopes of winning a multimillion-dollar lottery.

Most people with paraplegia have returned to their baseline level of happiness a few months after their accident.

People assume that they'd be profoundly distressed if they turned up HIV-positive before taking an HIV test.

The hedonic treadmill hypothesis suggests that we bounce up and down in response to short-term life events.

Our happiness set points are stable, but can sometimes shift over time.

Getting divorced, widowed, or laid off from work can cause lasting increases in unhappiness that don't disappear completely.

There is no evidence that low self-esteem is the root of unhappiness, despite what the popular psychology industry tells us.

It reduces enormously complex psychological phenomena, such as depression or aggres evaluation of our worth, to one cause.

The photograph from the 2016 Rio high self-esteem is prone to aggression, especially when confronted with the Summer Olympics demon threats, as most evidence shows that a subset of people with Happiness is largely a matter of comparison.

It might have been a personality trait marked by extreme self-centeredness that they responded to by bombarding their opponents with louder noises.

People with high levels of grandiose narcissism tend to brag about their accomplishments.

In feeling good contrast, people with high levels of vulnerable narcissism tend to be shy and preoccupied with themselves, as well as oversensitive to perceived minor slights.

There are intriguing implications for a variety of real-world behaviors, positive like myself, including leadership in the business and political worlds.

People who make good initial impressions are more likely to rise to positions of leadership and excel in job interviews.

Children who are narcissists tend to exaggerate their accomplishments, be over confident in their decisions, and place their self-esteem at risk.

According to one study, U.S. presidents were rated by their biographers as having high levels of grandiose narcissism, but that was not related to their success.

In tendencies to perceive ourselves more contrast, other researchers aren't persuaded and maintain that the evidence that narcissism favorably than others do levels are rising is unconvincing.

It's clear that we all need to keep a close eye on individuals with high levels of narcissism.

The murders were attributed to low greater initiative and persistence, that is, a willingness to attempt new challenges and self-esteem, which was released after their suicides.

High self-esteem individuals with a touch of healthy self-confidence may be able to thrive in interpersonal situations because of these illusions.

A slight positive bias helps us take healthy risks, like asking people out for dates or applying for jobs.

A lot of contemporary psychology doesn't encourage adequately functioning people to achieve their full emotional potential.

Some authors argue that popular psychology has underestimated people's resilience in the face of stress.

This field helps people to find ways of enhancing positive emotions like happiness and fulfillment, as well as building psychologically healthy communities.

Positive psychology is dependent on character strengths and virtues outlined by Christopher and Martin.

Positive psychologists are teaching students to incorporate their strengths and virtues into their daily lives.

Positive psychology has been condemned as a "fad" due to the fact that its claims have outpaced the scientific evidence.

A study by Dr. Drew Pinsky and S. Mark Young found that celebrities scored 17 percent higher on a self-report measure of narcissism than did the general population.

Negative moods make people less susceptible to some of the cognitive quirks discussed in this text, such as false memories and the fundamental attribution error.

The strategy helps certain people to improve their performance because it encourages them to work harder.

optimists tend to recall feedback about their social skills as better than it was, which could prevent them from learning from their errors, like inadvertently offending others Pessimists and optimists show different responses to stressors, such as bad health news, perhaps because they don't spend enough time preparing for the worst.

Positive thinking is a key ingredient in many people's recipe for happiness, but it may not be for everyone.

The world of popular psychology is bursting at the seams with motivational speakers that minimize aversive states who line their pockets with cash from people hoping to receive inspiration in love or work.

There's no evidence that Motivational speakers like Anthony can deliver long-term benefits.

The unpleasant feeling of hunger motivates food seeking and eating, which in turn produces satisfaction and pleasure.

Evolutionary theory states that drives are geared to ensure survival and reproduction.

Think of how a thermostat works to control the temperature in your relation between arousal on one hand and performance or affect on the house or apartment.

When we experience or heating system to restore the equilibrium, the thermostat tells us when the room temperature deviates up or down from that set point.

The ideal balance of motivation and control can only be achieved when we are aroused.

Daniel Berlyne said that underarousal can heighten our sense of curiosity, like a challenging book or a piece of abstract art.

Many experienced rich sensory images, athletes who are too calm often don't, and a few began to see or hear things that weren't there.

We sat there frozen in place and had to decide whether to stay on the couch or walk 10 feet to the kitchen.

Kurt Lewin observed that approach and avoidance drives conflict when we want to introduce ourselves to an attractive person but are terrified of rejection.

The idea of organizing our club's holiday party in December sounds like a lot of fun when we volunteer in June.

As we get closer to a goal, the avoidance Picasso, or Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart completed a masterpiece, their desire to generate gradient becomes greater than the approach another one would decrease, because they would've quenched their creative thirst.

As the deadline approaches, psychologists have come to realize that reduction theories are undesirable.

The pleasure of creating a great painting or finishing first in a track meet are motivators.

In everyday life approach and avoidance from a rat that's reinforced with a chunk of cheese can cause conflict, making it difficult to complete a maze.

The most rewarding activities are ones where our true passions may be tempted to avoid if we aren't fond of apples.

When people are starving and don't have enough food, they don't pay much attention to the principles of psychological growth safety and security.

It is not based on biological reality as it excludes important evolutionary needs like sexual and parenting drives.

There are many cases of starving artists who continue to paint masterpieces despite being hungry and poor.

We experience hunger and thirst in order to get the food and drink we need to be active and alert.

A complex series of events governing hunger and eating unfolds inside our bodies.

Washburn, Cannon's graduate student, swallowed a balloon that was inflated inside his stomach in order to test the hypothesis.

Scientists have known for more than 60 years that two areas of the hypothalamus play different roles in eating.

Scientists concluded that the hypothalamus plays a key role in initiation of eating.

The ventromedial hypothalamus has been labeled a "satiety center" by many psychology books, but this distinction is too simple.

A complex sequence of events in the brain areas and body regions leads to eating.

Blood sugar provides our cells with energy to score a touchdown or flee from a hungry lion.

When the body's ability to "burn" excess calories through metabolism is not optimal, people gain weight.

People who aren't infused with glucose don't have the same feelings of hunger, appetite, or fullness as volunteers who are.

It's possible that eating when we're Correlation vs. Causation hungry influences levels of glucose.

We can't help but notice that adults and children come in more shapes and sizes than Campbell's soup.

Some of the sugar in a candy bar can convert into fat, which stores energy for the long term.

The brain's pleasure circuits can be activated by the mere sight, taste, smell, and thought of plentiful food.

When we eat too little and drop below our set point, regulatory mechanisms kick in to increase our appetite or decrease our metabolism.

Levitsky and his colleagues overfed the study participants so that they consumed 35 percent more calories than they did at baseline.

During the third period in which people differed in their genetic tendency, they didn't restrict their food intake enough to be obese, so differences in food return to baseline levels, as predicted by set point theory.

Staying active and eating a healthy diet can modify our weight within limits.

People tend to eat more when they are hungry, but a combination of many genes associ popcorn when it's served in a large rather ated with appetite, amount of fat stored in the body, and metabolism probably work together to than The portion sizes of food served on dinner plates in restaurants in the United States increased by 25 percent from 1977 to 1996.

Participants were tricked into drinking soup from bowls that were full by means of a flowing tube, by Brian Wansick and his colleagues.

According to this theory, individuals are at risk for being obese when they continue to eat even after being full and base their food choices on appealing qualities of food, time of day, or social circumstances.

Most people with eating disorders feel guilt and anxiety over the loss of control and the prospect of gaining a pattern of bingeing and purging.

Sometimes, their answer to this problem is to purge, which typically takes the form effort to lose or maintain weight, but sometimes involves abusing laxatives or diet pills or exercising excessively.

Purging helps relieve negative feelings such as guilt, fear, and sadness after weight gain.

It is possible for people with bulimia to "undo" the binge and negative feelings by vomiting.

Severe, medically supervised diet can lead to hunger and increases preoccupation with food and the temptation to binge.

People with binge eating disorders often see themselves as obese when they're normal weight, because of their high levels of body dissatisfaction.

Twin studies suggest that eating disorders are influenced by genetic factors and that they're triggered by expectations of the ideal body image.

It's possible that women who are already concerned about their body image may watch television programs featuring idealized images of women, so the causality arrow could run Correlation vs. Causation in the opposite direction.

In cultures not exposed to the ideal of a thin body type, bulimia is rare.

Anoremia is usually caused by excessive weight loss and the pressures to be thin, and it begins in adolescence.

It's irrational to think that 25 percent of people diagnosed with an eating disorder are male adolescents.

Individuals with a fear of fatness and a distorted perception of their body size have an eating disorder.

36 healthy young men volunteered to restrict their food intake for half a year as part of the "starvation study."

Some men broke the eating of being fat even though they were severely rules and binged.

A patient with an eating disorder who was treated by your text's second author broke her thigh bone during a tennis game.

According to some researchers, the mortality rate for Anorexia is between 5 and 10 percent, making it one of the most life-threatening of all psychological conditions.

The creators weight participants lose, and to its credit, reduc Inter of weight-loss plans are happy to oblige.

Enrol ees may lose weight for reasons other than the program but are instead a consequence of their tendency to be more aware of their food consumption and health and to exercise more as a result.

This principle of scientific thinking is relevant to the extent that weight loss may appear to be associated with participation in the program, but may not occur as a result of the interventions or the principles claimed to produce weight loss.

We collaborated with sci to develop a revolutionary program that is easy to bring pendent studies.

Our online video series takes any conclusions about whether the claim is based on rep you through each principle, one-by-one, and provides the licable findings.

The ad doesn't open mind, but to insist on compelling evidence before accepting mention of potential adverse health effects of such dramatic them.

The ad does not state that the collaboration with sci has important alternative explanations for the findings.

Sexual desire is a result of our genes and biology, but it's also influenced by social and cultural factors.

Students' reports of sexual desire and arousal are correlated with variations in a gene that produces DRD4.

The scientists estimated that 20 percent of the population has a variation of the gene that makes them want to have sex more.

Increased reports of promiscuity, such as "having a one night stand" and infidelity, are associated with variations in the gene.

Drugs that increase the release of dopamine and norepinephrine can be used to treat low sexual desire in premenopausal women.

After they form a secure relationship, women's appetite for sex appears to decline.

There is tremendous variability in sexual interest among men and women, but none of these findings apply to any individual man or woman.

Socialization may help explain why men and women have different sexual desires.

The data supports the idea that men have a stronger sex drive than women.

Sexual behaviors under virtually every imaginable condition were included in their observations.

The basic sexual arousal response is traced by the blue line, but the cycle was the same for men and women according to Masters and Johnson.

Sexual desire can be affected by anxiety, orgasm, and resentment.

The fact that people's sexuality is deeply embedded in their relationships is not captured in Masters and Johnson's work.

Maybe people expect their sexual activity to decrease as they age, so they're not disappointed by this change.

There's an explanation for the difference between older men's and Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses women's sexual activities because of the changes in pleasure and hormones experienced by women who experience sexual experience complex and sometimes striking.

People's ideas of what's marked by rhythmic sexually appropriate or inappropriate are influenced by cultural norms.

When members of the Tsonga tribe in Africa first saw Europeans kissing, they laughed and said, "Look at them--they eat each other's saliva genitals in both men and women and dirt" (Ford & Beach, 1951).

Women of the island Turk poke a finger into the man's ear when they're excited about sex.

Since the dawn of recorded history, same-sex romantic relationships have developed in virtually all cultures.

Even the best estimates may not represent the general population because researchers often conduct surveys in prisons, college dorms, or military barracks, all of which may result in sampling bias.

Less than a fourth of gay men and women fit neatly into the categories of masculine and feminine, which is contrary to the stereotype.

The fatal flaw in the study was that he had no way to gauge the validity of participants' claims of changed sexual orientation.

It is possible that Rival Hypotheses have been lying to investigators or deceiving themselves about their sexual orientation.

If you have gay individuals who wasted time and energy engaging in reparative therapy based on explanations for the findings, you should have them.

Evidence-based treatments that value cultural diversity can help people who are currently distressed accept and live with their homosexuality, rather than changing their sexual orientation.

Although heritability doesn't imply that a characteristic can't be changed, most scientists are skeptical about the ability of gay individuals to change their sexual orientation because of inborn differences between homosexual and heterosexual individuals.

For example, gender nonconformity in childhood is a well replicated finding across different cultures.

There is support for the hypothesis that genetic differences account for a third of the variation in sexual orientation.

Environmental influences play a key role in homosexuality, despite the fact that a lot of variation in sexual orientation can't be explained in terms of genetic differences.

Sex hormones play a role in whether the brain sets the child on a path toward more masculine or feminine characteristics.

The hormonal influences affect temperament and set the stage for both childhood gender nonconformity and a homosexual orientation in later life.

The original finding that older brothers increase the odds of homosexuality in right-handed but not left-handed males was recently qualified by researchers.

Gay and heterosexual individuals differ with respect to their fingerprints, finger length, and handedness, which are all determined largely before birth.

Simon LeVay caused a stir in 1981 when he reported that a small cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus was less than half the size of gay men.

It's unlikely that the differences LeVay uncovered are due to AIDS, because a number of the heterosexual men also died of AIDS-related complications.

The cause of homosexuality and differences in lifestyles between gay and heterosexual men have been the result of the changes LeVay observed in the hypothalamus.

Social, environmental, and cultural influences that remain to be understood, in conjunction with genetic factors, play an important role in shaping people's sexual orientation.

In 1975, psychologists Ellen Berscheid and Elaine Hatfield received a dubious distinction.

This award was cooked up by Proxmire to draw attention to projects that he considered to be huge waste of taxpayer money.

This award was won by Berscheid and Hatfield for their government-funded research on the psychological determinants of attraction and love.

We need to feel chemistry with someone before we can decide if we're compatible with him or her in our core values and attitudes.

Scientists suggest that friendship, dating, and mate choices aren't random, even though we might ascribe finding our true love to the fickle finger of destiny.

College students who viewed equal numbers of homosexual and heterosexual women on Internet dating sites guessed correctly about 64 percent of the time.

A simple truth of human relationships is that our closest friends live, study, work, or play close to us.

The second author of your textbook married a woman who sat in front of him in many classes.

According to psychological research, last names that start with the same letter are more likely to be seated next to each other.

We are most likely to be attracted to and befriend people nearby to each other in a classroom or work place.

Leon Festinger and Stanley can set the stage for Schachter, and Kurt Back asked people living in apartments for married students attraction and relationship formation.

The effects of mere exposure may explain why physical nearness is a predictor of seeing someone on a frequent basis.

Four women with similar appearances posed as students in a college classroom and attended zero, 5, 10, or 15 sessions.

At the end of the semester, the experimenters showed participants slides of the women and asked them to rate their attractiveness.

The posers didn't interact with the students, but the participants judged women who attended more classes to be more attractive.

Although not all researchers are convinced by the principle of similarity, most commercial online dating sites use it to their advantage.

The online dating services have caught on to the fact that similarity breeds content.

The foundation is paved for mutual understanding when people's interests and attitudes overlap.

Negative gossip can foster feelings of familiarity with another person and allow us to elevate ourselves at the expense of others.

The rule of give and take begins to kick into motion as early as 11 years of age in many cultures.

When one partner responds to our disclosures with sympathy and concern, there is no need for absolute reciprocity.

David Buss conducted a survey of mate preferences among heterosexuals in 37 different cultures across six continents.

Buss found that women place more importance on having a partner with a high level of financial resources than men.

Evolutionary theorists point out that because most men produce an enormous number of sperm--an average of about 300 million per ejaculation--they typically pursue a mating strategy that maximizes the chances that at least one of these sperm will find a receptive egg at the end of its long journey.

Evolutionary psychologists say that men are on the lookout for signs of potential health and fertility such as physical attractiveness and youth.

The technique of speed dating was invented by Los Angeles Rabbi Yaacov Deyo in 1998 to help Jewish singles get to know each other.

Because men are more likely to wear pink or red when they are bigger and stronger than women, they end up playing shirt when they are at their peak.

Men don't bear low risk for having a child because they have opportunities to pursue high-status positions.

Women may prefer men who are dependable financial providers because they have held fewer high-status positions.

Men and women tend to agree on who they find attractive in different cultures.

Our Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses preferences for average faces might be due to their greater symmetry.

Evolutionary psychologists theorize that averageness in a face is due to an absence of genetic defects.

When we're around the object of our desire and not the other way around, we have a strange mix of delirious happi characteristics.

When obstacles, such as seemingly insurmountable physical distance or the strenuous tend to elicit the so-called "cute response" objection of parents, are placed in the way of romance, passionate love "head" relative to the rest of the body is fueled.

Studies show that people can fall in love with their partners when they are elderly.

According to animal research, emotional attachment to others is influenced by hormones that play a key role in pair bonding and trust.

At times, commitment and intimacy can be at odds, at the point of wanting to destroy them.

Virtual communities of like-minded people who share similar hostile views can be created by the Internet and social media.

The first step in overcoming their confirmation bias is to teach them to dislike only the negative attributes of individuals or groups.

"There's good and bad in everyone," as the saying goes, may help us combat our deep-seeded animosity toward our enemies, and more broadly, members of other races, cultures, and groups whose views differ from our own."

The prime determinant of happiness is what low body weight is expected for age and height.

Sexual desire is shaped by mental health but is associated with more social norms and culture.

The major hate elements of attraction and relationship formation are lack of passion, proximity, similarity, and commitment.