8.1 Civilizations of Central and South America 166

• Its beautifully crafted limestone buildings and monuments capture the imagination.

• The funeral trappings of the ruler of Palenque.
• Pacal's body was adorned with jewelry and other precious objects, and his face was covered with a jade mask.
• His tomb was not discovered until the 20th century.

• Palenque is a city-state that was ruled by a 12-year-old.

• His accession to the double-headed jaguar throne and his crowning with the plumed headdress of rule was attended with elaborate public ceremonies and ritual sacrifice.
• Since Maya women did not usually rule, he had a strong sense of his own supernatural status, which he attributed to his mother being the mother of the gods.

• Palenque was 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 The boy became a ruler.
• He extended the power of Palenque over most of its neighbors.
• One day the Temple of inscriptions would hold his tomb, as he became a patron of the arts and fostered the building of a number of palaces and temples.
• His face was covered with a mosaic jade mask as he was laid to rest.
• A large stone slab was placed over his sarcophagus to show his rebirth as the god of maize.
• Beneath the temple floor, the tomb was hidden.
• One of the longest Maya texts was written on the walls of the temple.

• Palenque was abandoned around 900 c.e.
• after it suffered defeats by its rivals again.
• Much of the story of this civilization was lost when the forest advanced again and thick vegetation surrounded the walls of the great king's final resting place.
• Rumors of lost cities and claims by scholars were the only clues to this lost and forgotten past.

• Stephens was an experienced traveler who had seen Egypt and parts of the Middle East, and he wanted to look at the idea that something like the Old World might have existed in the Americas.
• Many people were skeptical that Native Americans had achieved anything like the classical world.

• A number of ruins lost in the forest and underbrush were reported by Catherwood and Stephens in their drawings.
• The monuments, pyramids, and temples of Palenque were described in detail.

• The Maya civilization had cities in these places.
• The Americas were seen as part of world history when Pacal's body was placed there.

• The past of these ancient American civilizations has been uncovered.
• The tomb of Hanab Pacal was discovered in 1947 by a Mexican archeologist, but the continuity of power from Pacal to his son and the inscriptions about his exploits were not fully deciphered until the 1980s.

• We now have a general idea of the development of these ancient American societies in the context of world history.

• The developments in the Americas seem to have had no connection to the classical world we have examined so far.

• American separateness made the achievements of civilization all the more impressive, but it also constrained them.
• American chronology had only accidental connections with the classical civilizations.
• Like Old World civilizations, it encountered similar problems of internal and outside attack.

• Civilization moved to its own rhythm in the New World.
• The history of the Americas is explored in this chapter before and after the 1000 b.c.e.-500 c.e.
• periods of world history.
• With few large domesticated animals, the Americas drew on a different resource base than Europe, Asia, or Africa, but the Americas also developed a number of plants that yielded a higher calorific output.
• The American civilization suggest alternative patterns and paths of development because they lack elements like metallurgy that were found in the early civilizations of the Old World.

• The cultures and civilizations of the Americas bear similarities to those of the Old World, and the history of the Western Hemisphere is part of the larger story of human development.
• The inhabitants of the Americas were placed at a disadvantage by the pace of development and the level of technology.
• The Aztecs were one of the great empires of the early 16th century and their technology was similar to that of the Near East.

• People from Asia entered the Americas during the last ice age.

• For more than a century, archeologists believed that people from Asia, moving during the last ice age when the level of the oceans fell, were the first inhabitants of America.
• The land bridge that formed in the present was organized as chiefdoms, states, and sometimes empires.

• There is a Strait between Siberia and Alaska.
• The mammoths, mastodons, and other large game were followed by hunters.
• The land migrations from northern Asia stopped after a rise in the world's temperature caused the ice to melt.

• The Monte Alban flourishes were probably used in Oaxaca.
• The migrations took place between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago.
• Many recent discoveries and a reevaluation of previously collected evidence from the Pacific coast of the United States, Chile, and Brazil have led many scholars to conclude that occupation was much older.
• The Americas seem to have been settled by many different peoples.
• The bones of some of the earliest inhabitants do not appear to be from north Asia, but rather from other groups like the Caucasians, Polynesians, and the Australasians.
• The ancestors of the Native Americans, sometimes called Paleo-Indians, came from a variety of physical locations.
• The remains of a man who died 9000 years ago are similar to those of the Ainu of Japan.

• The fact that Indians in South America have blood types O and B indicates that the migration may have begun before Asian populations emerged.
• Some scholars believe that most Native Americans descend from a single small population group in Asia, but these findings are still questionable.

• There is a large degree of common ancestry and a relative isola tion from other human populations.
• Indians can be attributed to adaptation and natural selection.
• Growing diversity is indicated by American Indian languages.
• The languages seem to have been developed from a few parent stocks.
• The findings are controversial and open to question.
• How long did it take for the American conti nents to be occupied?
• The settlement of the Americas was a complex process that we don't fully understand.

• There are hunting bands in the Americas documented by the Ancient Hunters Stone.
• Stone tools and simple spear points associated with early hunters were widely dispersed over North America by about 11,000 years ago.

• The ice began to melt as the climate became warmer.
• Some of the great mammal herds disappeared.
• It has been argued that the disappearance of animals like the mammoth, the horse, the camel, and the giant anteater was caused by overhunting by the ancient Americans.
• The number of mammals that became extinct in the Americas, especially North America, was greater than anywhere else in the world.
• The decline of large mammal species may have been caused by changes in mean tempera tures between seasons.

• The society of these early ice age hunters is unknown.
• They probably lived in small groups of 20 to 25 people.
• The basis of social organization was kinship.
• The roles and contributions of an individual were determined by their age and gender.

• Archeologists are fascinated by the possibility of later contacts with the Americas across the Pacific or Atlantic.
• There are unresolved mysteries in the history of pre-Columbian cultures.
• The artistic styles in the Americas are similar to those in China and Southeast Asia.
• Plants such as cotton and bottle gourds seem to be of Old World origin, and their presence in the Americas suggests spread by human agents.

• The evidence is mostly circumstantial, although many scholars admit the possibility of sporadic transoceanic contacts with Chinese, Phoe nicians, Africans, Polynesians, and others.
• No identifiable Old World object has ever been positively identified in a pre-Columbian archeological site, and if Phoenicians or Chinese introduced pottery or writing to the Americas, why they failed to introduce the wheel or bronze at the same time remains a puzzle.

• The peopling of the Americas took place long before the beginnings of agriculture in the Old World, and that the population lived in isolation due to the disappearance of the Bering land bridge.
• The people of the Americas developed their cultures on their own, according to most scholars.
• It is possible that ideas and material things may have been introduced from other places into American Indian cultures.

• When Native American populations came into contact with the peoples of Europe, Africa, and Asia, independent development and isolation had a negative effect.
• American Indians had a disadvantage due to their lack of wheel, plow, and iron.
• Dogs, turkeys, and guinea pigs were domesticated, but the lack of large mammals such as cattle and horses was a disadvantage in terms of diet, transportation, and power.
• In the Americas, pastoralism, so important in the Old World, was not a way of life.
• The inhabitants of the Americas had no immunity to diseases of Asia, Europe, and Africa because of the isolation of American populations.
• After permanent contact was established, this vulnerability became disastrous.

• Small bands of hunters were scattered over the American continents.

• Stone grinding tools were used to prepare the roots and plants that people gathered for food.

• Between 5000 and 4000 b.c.e., populations concentrated around lagoons and river mouths to exploit fish and shellfish.

• There is evidence of cultivation as early as 7000 b.c.e.
• and 5000 b.c.e.

• The introduction of agriculture, the American version of the Neolithic revolution, was not as complete and drastic a change as we thought.

• Farmers and hunter-gatherers lived in close contact with each other as a result of social choices and different environments.

• From the forests of eastern North America to the tropical forests of the Amazon basin, agriculture was practiced all over the Americas.
• More than 100 different crops were cultivated by American Indians.

• For dense populations, maize, potatoes, and manioc became essential sources of food.
• As in Asia earlier, agriculture restricted human behavior and the patterns of human action, as American societies depended more on agriculture, a process was set in motion that resulted in the development of complex social, economic, and political systems.

• peppers, squash, and beans were grown along with it.
• These were domesticated by 4,000 b.c.e.

• In 2000 b.c.e., people grew it along with the potato and other crops native to that region.
• By 1000 c.e., maize was grown in the southern United States by groups such as the Iroquois in Canada.

• One of the staple crops of maize in areas that had depended on manioc probably resulted in population growth and the rise of sedentary agriculture in more complex societies.
• In the lowlands of South America and the islands of the Caribbean, manioc was the main crop of the people, but maize was also grown in those areas.

• In most cases, agriculture allowed societies to achieve the surplus produc Central America, along with Peru, and the complexity needed to develop the elements usually associated with civilization.
• The process of civilization was started in the Western hemisphere with the site of sedentary adoption of agriculture and a sedentary way of life.

• Most of the features usually associated with Old World civilizations can be found in the regions of the Americas, including the coastal areas of Ecuador and Peru.
• In both areas there were cycles of cultural advancement and empire building.
• States rose and fell over thousands of years.

• The area between the cultural hearths of Panama and Colombia contained advanced societies with great cultural achievements, but they did not build large stone buildings.

• There was a continuous core of American civiliza tions from central Mexico to Chile.
• Recent archeological findings from the Amazon region suggest that some of the cultural spread may have gone in the other direction and that the lowlands were areas of great importance.

• Many differences and variations existed among American cultures, but there were also similar ties in organization, technology, and belief that made them more like one another than any one of them was to the Old World.
• We can distinguish between ancient American societies on the basis of their economic and political organization.
• Population density was a key factor.
• Hunter-gatherers continued to occupy large portions of the continents, divided into small bands and moving to take advantage of the resources.
• These peoples were sometimes organized in larger tribes, but generally their societies were made up of family groups or clans, and there was little hierarchy or specialization of skills.
• The material culture of these people was simple.

• People who made a partial transition to agriculture lived in larger and more complex soci eties.
• The village of 100 or 200 was more common than the band of 25.
• Women till the fields when men hunt or make war.
• When soils were deplete, agricultural techniques were often required to migrate.
• The villages of semisedentary farmers and hunters have been found on the coast of Brazil and in the woods of eastern North America.

• It was among peoples who had adopted sedentary agriculture that the complex societies emerged most clearly.
• The populations could reach the mil ion.
• Men shifted into agriculture, forming a peasant base for a society that might have included classes of nobles, merchants, and priests.
• The basis of rule was formed from the removal of tribute from subject peoples and redistribution by central authority.

• The large imperial states with highly developed religious and political systems and monumental architecture were examples of a common pattern.
• From the Amazon to the Mississippi valley, hereditary chiefs ruled from central towns over a large territory, including smaller towns and villages that paid tribute to the ruler.

• There are three cultural "hearths" that are represented, one of which is Mexico, the other two are the Andean region in South America and the third is the intermediate zone of modern-day Colombia and Panama.

• The main town had large temples and a priest class.

• Many chiefdoms had a social hierarchy with classes of nobles and commoners.

• The 19th century replaced clan or family relations.
• There were many similarities between the large states and chiefdoms, but the scale of society differed.
• Archeology has revealed less about the chiefdoms of the American and southeastern North America because they did not build in stone.
• Cahokia was an important town of the Mississippian culture.
• It probably had a population of more than 30,000, as large as the great cities of the Maya civilization, because it had great mounds covering an area of 5 square miles.

• There were different possibilities for human exploitation.
• The basis for trade was created when people tried to acquire goods that weren't available in their area.
• The collapse of these civilizations resulted in a lot of trade.

• Increased use of plant foods eventually led to domestication of certain plants.
• People grew beans, peppers, and squash.
• Pottery was one of the innovations that took place about 2000 b.c.e.
• When the Shang dynasty ruled in China, sedentary villages based on agriculture were the first to appear in the Americas.
• These settlements were small, modest and lacking in social differentiation.
• Population densities rose as the number of archaic villages increased.

• A new phenomenon appeared suddenly.

• The beginnings of calendar and writing systems.

• The origins of 300 KiloMETERS are unknown.

• The basis for a state ruled by a hereditary elite was the Olmecs.

• The ceremonialism of a complex religion can be found in the core area of Zapotecs.

• Tutankhamen Maya was about 300 B.C.E.-900 C.E.

• The Olmec civilization flourished in Egypt and Mexico.

• Many elements of The Olmecs remain mysterious.
• Some of their ideas were shared between zones.
• The scholars debated if the indi moved many miles without using the wheel.

• Some seem to have African features, while others seem to be representations of humans with feline attributes.
• The Olmecs traded or conquered to obtain jade.
• They created a calendar with a 260-day ritual cycle and a vigesi mal numerical system.
• The basis of all Mexican calendars was this system.
• There are no known reasons for the decline of the major cities.
• They are believed to be the ancestors of the great Maya civilization.

• Some early Maya centers began to appear to the south.
• In the central valley of Mexico, Olmec influence could be seen in expanding communities.

• Much of what we know about these cultures is based on their art and symbols.
• Public art was both decorative and functional.
• The place of the individual in society and the universe was defined.
• In the Americas, it had political and religious functions, as in many civilizations.
• In the absence of written sources, the interpretation of artistic styles and symbols presents a variety of problems.
• The spread of Olmec symbols is a good test of the problem.

• Olmec influence was felt throughout the region.

• The Olmecs are shrouded in mystery.
• The period from about 150 to 900 c.e.
• is believed to be the time when the Olmec initiative began.
• Similar features have been found in achievement.

• It was supported by intensive agriculture in the surrounding region and planted around the great lakes of Mexico.
• The city developed slowly.

• A large state apparatus with the power to mobilize many workers was suggested as the chief center of ancient Egypt.
• Estimates for the size of the city are as high as 200,000.
• It would make it Mexico during the preclassic period, contemporary with Olmec culture, greater than the cities of ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia and probably second only to ancient Rome based on irrigation agriculture.

• When the Europeans arrived in the 16th century, the city of Teotihuacan was already honored as the urban center of classic culture.
• The god of rain, the feathered serpent, the goddess of corn, and the goddess of waters are important religious functions and can be seen in the murals and decorations of the palaces and temples.
• Most of the Teotihuacan were religious in nature.

• Teotihuacan objects, such as pottery and finely worked obsidian, and Teotihuacan artistic styles are found in many other areas.

• Teotihuacan was a political empire that spread over much of central Mexico and beyond.
• The lack of battle scenes on the walls of Teotihuacan has led some scholars to believe that the authority and power of the great city led to a long period of peace.
• The fact that secular palaces are more popular than temple pyramids suggests a shift in power from religious to civil authority.
• The memory of Teotihuacan was a golden age of cultural achievements.

• There is a point in southern Mexico and Central America where classic culture is emerging.
• The great civilization flourished in the American tropics after the classical America contemporary with period had ended in the Old World.

• The American classic period was launched as the Old World classical civilizations were coming to an end.
• Although their civilization was distinctive, it was based on calendrical and mathematical systems, highly developed religion.

• The Maya culture extended over a broad region that now includes parts of five different coun tries.
• It had a lot of regional variation in its art styles.
• The region shared a culture that included monumental architecture, a written language, a calendar and math ematical system, and concepts of statecraft and social organization.
• As many as 50 city-states flourished, using only stone tools in an area of dense forests plagued by insects and poor soils.

• Several agricultural systems were used by the classic Maya.

• A system of cultivation typical of irrigation, swamp drainage, and a system of artificially constructed ridged fields at river mouths shifting cultivators seems to explain the ability to support large urban cleared by fire.

• The Maya centers were mostly occupied by rulers, artisans, and an elite, it seems clear that populations were concentrated in and around these centers.

• The inscriptions on the stelae were usually dated.

• A vigesimal system of mathematics was used to make the calendar system possible.
• The Maya used the concept of zero in conjunction with the concept of place value.
• They could make complex calculations with simple signs and elegant simplicity.
• The Maya calendar was based on a concept of recurring cycles of different lengths.
• There was a cycle of 13 numbers in the Maya's sacred cycle of 260 days.
• There are 5 "dead" or inauspicious days at the end of the year with this ritual calendar.
• Each day had two names, but the combination of those two days only happened once every 52 years.
• The cycles of 52 years were sacred to the Maya.

• The Maya believed in great cycles of creation and destruction of the Maya universe.
• The Maya were able to date events with precision because of the long count.

• There are many theories that the world will end in 2012 because of the Maya fascination with cycles of destruction and creation.
• A writing system was created by the Maya.
• The Maya wrote on stone monuments, murals, and ceramics and in books of folded bark paper and deerskin.
• Scribes were revered and held a place in society.
• Recent advances allow the reading of many texts, despite the fact that we can't fully decipher many inscriptions.
• The logographic system of the Maya written language was similar to that of Chinese and Sumerian.
• The Maya recorded a lot of complex ideas.

• Many of the inscriptions on ceramics deal with the cult of the dead and the complex Maya cosmology, but hundreds of the inscriptions refer to the reign of kings, their victories, their accomplishments, and their lineages.

• The Maya had a complex religious system with many deities, but there was a basic concept of dualism.
• This idea is similar to that found in some Asian religions.
• Each god had a parallel female consort or feminine form.
• There were patron deities of various occupations.
• The number of gods and goddesses in the inscriptions seems overwhelming, but they should be understood as manifestations of a more limited set of supernatural forces.

• The rulers of the Ancient Maya Palenque were able to expand their territories by conquest.
• Civil and religious were exercised by the rulers.
• Their rule was aided by power and an elite.
• A class of priests, or perhaps sholders, specialized in the complex calendar observations and calculations and tended to the cult of the state.
• The stakes were high.
• People who lose might give up their possessions or their lives.

• Builders, potters, scribes, sculptors, and painters worked in the cities for the glory of the gods and the rulers.
• The labor of peasant farmers supported the political lives of the elite.
• The captives were slaves.
• The elite traced their families through both fathers and mothers, even though the patrilinean families formed the basis of social life.
• Women in important positions are often represented in monuments.
• State marriages were important, and elite women retained many rights.
• Women were responsible for food preparation and domestic duties, including the production of fine cloth on small looms.
• Religious belief and custom probably supported the division of tasks by gender.

• The decline of the great cultural centers shook the world between 700 and 900 c.e.
• The collapse was widespread and not fully understood.

• Teotihuacan was destroyed in the central plateau.
• Problems with agriculture may have contributed to the decline of the city.

• The Maya cities were abandoned in the collapse.
• Maya rulers stopped building large buildings and popula tion sizes went down during the 8th century.
• Most of the major Maya centers were empty by 900 c.e.
• The scholars don't agree on whether the process was the result of ecological problems or foreign pressure.
• The decline of Teotihuacan and the attempt of she may be related to the warfare.

• In the dense rain forest of the Peten in Guatemala, a civilization can be created by the ability to tured the pyramid of Feathered Serpent.

• The density of spoken was estimated by the Aztecs.

• Epidemic disease has been suggested as a cause of the collapse, possibly indicating some people from beyond the northern un recorded contact with the Old World.
• Others think that the peasants refused to bear the frontier of the sedentary agricultural burdens of serving and feeding the political and religious elite and that internal rebellion led to the end of the ruling dynasties and their cities.

• The cultural achievements of the classic period were not achieved again.
• There is long-count dating into the central part of the Americas.

• The Mexica, one of the great Maya centers of the southern lowlands and highlands, was abandoned or declined as nomadic tribes used political Maya cities in the Yucatan and in the Guatemala highlands.
• A new synthesis of Maya and central Mexican culture was created by the northern Maya area.
• After the great southern Maya cities of Tikal and Palenque, the rain forest overran the temples and 1325 around the shores of Lake Texcoco.

• Their genius seems to have been military, and a lot of calendars in Western civilization were derived from classic traditions.
• From their capital at Tula in central Mexico, they have two calendars, theJulian and Gregorian, as well as a solar influence and trade that may have spread as far as the American Southwest.

• The Anasazi people produced ceramics and cultivated maize in the desert valleys.
• One of the main ways of establishing a calendar is by claiming descent from invaders.
• The cultural traditions of Mexico did not die when the empire fell because they were different from the solar cycles.
• The provide accurate guide to round Aztecs started another cycle of expansion based on the deep-rooted ways of life and thought of the seasons.

• The Maya developed the most complex system of writing to record their history, religion, philosophy, and politics.
• The Maya hieroglyphs have puzzled and fascinated researchers since the 1820s, when the first steps to decipher the rich glyphs and symbols of Maya monuments, ceramics, and the few surviving Maya books were made.
• Although we are not able to read all the surviving texts, those that have been deciphered have changed our view of Maya society and its underlying beliefs.

• A false start was one of the problems of decipherment.
• Diego de Landa, a Spanish bishop, tried to stamp out the Maya religion by burning books.

• Landa's attempt to describe the Maya writing was badly flawed.
• Scholars were confused by Landa's description of the glyphs.
• Landa provided the only guide for a long time.
• Unlike the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs, no text with Maya and some other known language side by side exists, so the problem of reading the Maya glyphs remains difficult.

The first modern advances in Maya numbers and glyph 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 By the 1940s, scholars were able to read the dates andTrademarkiaTrademarkiaTrademarkias were able to readTrademarkias were able to readTrademarkiaTrademarkias were able to readTrademarkias were able to readTrademarkias were able to readTrademarkias were able to readTrademarkias were able to read

• The reading of the other glyphs was complicated by the fact that scholars didn't know which of the Maya languages was the language of inscrip tions.
• There was a relief from the Maya palace complex.
• The Maya script shows a kneeling woman pulling a rope with thorns across her, like ancient Egyptian and Babylonian writings.
• The tongue is used to draw blood.
• The theory was not fully accepted by her husband, a king named Shield-Jaguar, but it has proved to be a torch above her head.
• The shrunken accurate adorns the king's hair.

• In 1960, an art historian noted that on certain monuments the earliest and last dates were never more than indicated birth and the second accession.
• The first date was always accompanied by a human lifespan.
• She realized that the images on the monuments were not about the history of the Maya gods or mythical figures, but about the first glyph cities.

• The presentation of the indigenous civilizations would take place in the same place each year.

• Despite its difficulties, the Americas adopted the lunar calendar to examine the importance of time and its measurement.
• The basis of the world history is still used by Jews.
• The calendar and timekeeping are part of the Muslim calendar.

• We divide the day into 24 hours.

• Pope cal instituted the Gregorian calendar.

• The French Revolution of 1789 and the Russian Revolution of 1917 were related to concepts about time and history.

• The beginnings of new historical ages were built by them.
• There are calendar systems and time observatories that reflect ideas about politics and history.
• They used two cal perceptions of the natural world.

• The key to the solar calendar was observing the motion of the heavens.
• The days of the two lined up only every 52 years, creating a yearly calendar by which agriculture could see time divided into 52 year cycles.
• The religious and ulated cycles could be set.
• The recurring patterns of the stars and planets were observed by the early peoples of India.
• There was clearly observed time.
• The ancient Hindus and the Maya cal lunar calendar were not an accurate guide to the seasons.

• Merchants of Europe began to live their lives with an elaborate clock designed for the emperor by a court official in the 11th century.
• The missionaries arrived in China in the water.
• The Chinese were interested in mechanical clocks in the 17th century, but they were amazed by the complexity and did not use time in their clocks.
• Europe's philosophy is seen by some authors in the lives of most people.
• A new fascination with time and perfection of the clock as a symbol of the emperor gave rise to a new calendar for controlling the changes in attitudes about labor and nature.
• The accurate calendar was seen as an attribute of power.
• The idea of history was marked by the belief in a divine mandate of technology that accompanied the Scientific Revolution that was given to each dynasty and then withdrawn when the Industrial Revolution of the 18th failed in its duties and obligations.
• Time and history were a century old.

• The revelation of God's will was linear.

• The present was influenced by the past and the future.
• It has been on sugar plantations.
• It was suggested that a concept of the future and of progress depends on that workers sold and employers bought, and on a linear view of time and history.

• Before the 19th century, most of the world's time became part of the industrial work ethic.

• The shift was difficult.
• When the cows had to be milked, industrialists complained that workers still didn't show up for work on "Saint Monday" because they didn't know how much time until dinner was left.
• They preferred to work by the job.

• In the 19th century, exact time was of the world outside of Europe, but preindustrial habits and attitudes of work persisted.

• The passage of time was difficult for European travelers who traveled to Asia, Africa, the Pacific, and the Americas.
• Clocks were curiosities and vehicles for artistic mented on the natives' lack of punctuality, the natural or reli expression, more likely to be found in royal collections than in gious rhythms of their life, their inability to measure time, and private homes.
• Europeans marveled at their seeming disregard for it.
• The Muslim leader sent a mechanical water clock as a gift and the myth of the lazy native was born.
• The clock was used as a measure of what Euro Haroun al-Rashid to Charlemagne was.
• The peans and North Americans valued what set them apart.

• Time measurement was changed in Europe when an English missionary wrote in southern Africa.

• The perfec history may have been caused by the lack of sundials and water clocks in the more civilized world.

• Europe's growing interest in machines could have been the cause.

• The extent of contact between the ancestors of the North American Indians and the Archeologists has been distinguished by various stages of archaic culture.
• Traditions that evolved from those cultures of the archaic period, but two broad regions in North in the Mississippi basin and the American Southwest, deserve special attention because of the complex, sedentary agricultural societies that their ancestors used to live in.

• By 2000 b.c.e., people began to practice agriculture in the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers.

• These peoples built large mounds in southern Ohio.
• Some of the mounds were used for burials.
• These burials contain pottery, pipes, jewelry, and copper objects that indicate long-distance trade from as far away as Michigan.
• The culture may have been spread by migrants or trade contacts in other places, such as New York State and Maryland, where it lasted as late as 700 c.e.
• It was already being replaced by a more complex culture in Ohio and southern Illinois.

• The mounds of the North were characteristic of the culture of American mound-building.
• The Serpent Mound in Ohio was built as an effigies from 200 to 500 years ago.

• There were personal items, weapons, and religious symbols in the burials.
• Conch shells and shark teeth are indicative of long-distance trade with people on the Gulf coast.
• Pottery, pipes, and effigies were designed for the cult of the dead and were produced by the artisans at Hopewell.
• The trade network had begun to break down and large-scale construction of mounds had stopped in the main centers of the culture.

• The Egg Earthwork Ohio building was used for a lot more than burials and effigies.

• Cahokia had a temple mound that was 100 feet high.
• The Mississippian centers were home to large populations and small towns.
• At least 50 communities appear to have been influenced by Cahokia.
• Cahokia seemed to parallel the urban development of Mesoamerica, except for the absence of stone architecture.

• We don't know much about the social organization of this society because of the rich variety and excellent quality of artifacts.
• The best clues come from the observations of the Natchez Indians.
• The Great Sun ruled a society composed of four distinct social classes, the lowest of which were called the stinkards.
• The last remnants of the culture were the Natchez.

• The Mississippians mound-building cultures relied more on agriculture than their predecessors.
• The Mississippian popu America flourished between 800 and 1300 c.e., and the search for new agricultural lands seemed to have begun around 1300 c.e.
• The large towns and urban centers, temple complexes, and ceremonial centers lack stone pyramid mounds, religious symbols, and crops, which appear to reflect a strong Mesoamerican influence, architecture of Central America.

• The Desert Peoples Across the American Southwest have a different cultural tradition.

• The settled communities of this region developed first in pit houses and later in stone structures.
• There seems to have been trade between these areas and Mexico, with distinct pottery developed in each cultural region.
• Multiroom stone dwellings were being used in southern New Mexico.

• They settled in the region around 200 b.c.e.
• and lived in adobe and stone for 1200 c.e.
• The adobe and stone buildings were built in protected canyons or cliffs because of the pressure from hostile neighbors.
• There are cliff-dwelling ruins at Mesa.

• Verde and Canyon de Chel y are examples of Anasazi settlements.
• The structure is still being used by the Indians.

• There is another type of Anasazi settlement.
• The ruins of 125 towns in New Mexico's Chaco Canyon are remarkable for their planning and the care of their stone and adobe construction.
• Many of these towns were connected by an extensive system of roads or ritual lines, which connected the city to the stars and planets.
• The turquoise of their region was traded for items such as parrots, valued for their feathers, when the Anasazi produced excellent pottery without the potter's wheel.

• The decline of the Anasazi and other southwestern peoples is thought to be the result of a long period of dry weather in the late 13th century.

• These societies were vulnerable to rapid climate change.

• The decline of the Anasazi led to the abandonment of the towns, but many scholars believe that the tra ditions of the Anasazi have continued in the culture of the modern Hopi and other Pueblo Indians of the American Southwest.

• The ancient peoples of the south western United States have more contact with the Mesoamerican civilization.
• Both regions show the spread of many aspects of civilization and the development of settled agricultural societies in the Americas.

• The geography of complex microregions with extreme changes in Chavin spread along the Peruvian altitude and temperature was presented by the civilization of The Andean world.
• The narrow, arid strip on the western coast, cut by a few rivers that coast, created a horizon of widely flow to the Pacific, and it was followed feet.
• The land is level and there is adequate water on the cool uplands above 10,000 feet.
• Down Tihuanaco was where the Andean populations were concentrated.

• The tropical rain forest is concentrated at the basins of the Amazon and La Plata rivers.

• The rugged terrain created opportunities for civilization to grow.

• Population growth and social complexity were spurred by the need for irrigation.

• Irrigation and terracing increased the food supply in regions where the amount of pastoralism in arable land was limited.
• The fertile valleys were home to the majority of the population.

• Communication and trade were difficult.
• There are projects to build roads, bridges, and agricultural terraces.
• There were good reasons for state building.

• In the 15th century, individual communities and families tried to control the different ecological zones of larger animals.

In fact, access to a variety of these ecological zones nomadic pastoralism in the New by colonization, occupation, conquest, or trade seems to have been a constant feature in Andean life, World until European importation which determined pre-Columbian patterns of settlement and influenced the historical development of larger animals

• Located on the eastern slopes of the Andes mountains, it is where the rise of Chavin of cultivation and gathering of tropical fruits and coca leaf took place.

• During periods of decentralization, various local or regional centers developed distinctive cultures, and during periods in which one of these centers spread its control over large areas, establishing a cultural horizon under centralized authority.
• Between 3000 and 2000 b.c.e., there were permanent agricultural villages on the Pacific coast.
• The potato was one of the indig enous crops that was grown with maize.
• Pottery first appeared on the north coast in present-day Ecuador and then in the highlands of central Peru.
• This early pottery, called Valdivia ware, is indicative of advanced techniques of production.

• We don't know much about the societies that built the monumental buildings at El Paraiso on the Peruvian coast.

• The artisans worked in ceramics, textiles, and gold.

• The region seems to represent a cult or system of religious beliefs.

• The features associated with early Mochica state were used in the design of the state.

• Major cities have integrated.

• The style indicated was lost.

• Hierarchical societies can be found in many places.

• The pottery and weaving produced by 800 MILES was remarkable.

• The Americas had a high point in nezca weaving.
• The development of civilization is noted.
• There are many weaving techniques and centers on the coast and in the highlands.

• The scene of great figures of various animals, which cover hundreds of feet and can be seen only from the air, can be found in the plain near Nazca.
• Straight lines that cut across the plain seem to go towards distant mountains or stars.
• There is no explanation for the lines and designs.

• The potter's art reached a high point when it depicted rulers receiving tribute and executing prisoners.
• Many vessels are clearly portraits of individual members of the elite, and Nobles, priests, farmers, soldiers, and slaves are also portrayed in remarkably realistic ways.
• There were many depictions of explicit sexual acts in the pottery vessels produced by the Mochica.
• These scenes are usually in a domestic setting and show a description of everyday life.

• Moche was able to expand its control.
• There are many representations of war, prisoners, and the taking of heads as trophies in Mochica art.
• There is evidence of hilltop forts.
• Moche and the other regional states seem to have been military states or chiefdoms, supported by extensive irrigation and often at war.

• The tomb of a warrior-priest was discovered in 1988 and revealed some idea of life in Moche society.
• The nobleman buried with his dog and servants was covered with gold, silver, and copper ornaments, fine cloth, and jewelry.
• There are depictions of captive prisoners, ritual sacrifice, and warfare on the pottery buried with him.
• The social divisions and privileged status of the elites of Moche society are depicted in a nose ornament.

• The pattern of regional development continued until about 300 c.e., when there were two large Lord of Sipan.

• Recent archeological work has revealed a system of raised fields and canals that could produce high yields.

• Archeological term for the art style of Tihuanaco and the representations of its gods, especially the Staff God, spread all over a period when a broad central the southern Andean zone.

• It may have begun as a colony of Tihuanaco, but it spread its culture along the Moche valley between 200 and 700 system of roads.
• The period of control was short, but the urban area eventually covered.

• The intermediate horizon, represented by Tihuanaco and Huari, came to an end.

• After the decline of the expansive cultures in Peru, a large center for another period of regional development followed as different peoples tried to establish control over their neighbors.

• Other small states formed during this time.
• Ethnic groups established strug agriculture in the highlands to control their neighbors.
• They were spread all over the zone.

• It is difficult to reconstruct much of the social and political organization of early Andean established widely diffused religious and artistic symbols spread all over societies on the basis of archeological evidence.

• The goal of families and communities was also achieved by the Andean chiefdom.
• Kin groups were a part of the world.

• Despite ethnic and linguistic differences, some form of kinship; traced descent communities generally were composed of households, which together recognized some form of kin from some common, sometimes ship.
• Ayllu are people who traced their descent from a common, sometimes mythical ancestors.

• In the Americas, the ancient peoples created complex sys.
• The knowledge of agriculture and irrigation combined for many American Indian civilizations seems to be ingenuity and importance.

• At Tihuanaco, similar systems were developed.

• Each household had access to herds and water.
• Group of clans centered at and access were not equal for every household.
• Ayllus were able to divide Cuzco into halves, which could have different functions.
• The peoples of the empire shared this form of organization with many tribes of the forest.

• Community leaders had access to resources and dress.

• The ties of kinship were used to mobilize the community.
• kinship provided an understanding of cooperation and conflict from the village to the empire, and the ayllu was a basic organization.
• Conflicts were more often between groups of ayl us than between secondary social classes, according to some authors.

• Under the organization of the ayllu- infused social life there was a principle of reciprocity.
• In the past, community leaders were expected to provide access to goods or to mobilize large projects, in exchange for labor and tribute, in return for privileges of dress and access.

• Religious belief is also related to reciprocity.
• Worship of the huacas and of the mummies of ancestors, which were also in caves, mountains, rocks, rivers, and considered holy and part of Andean religious life, was a matter of other natural phenomena.

• Global connections and critical themes metallurgy produced more bronze tools than other cultures in the Americas.

• It's possible that people in different Americas had more in common with each other than with people in other places, but the Old World may have been where they came from.

• There is a lot we don't know about the Colom history of the Western Hemisphere.
• Large-scale chiefdoms based on intensive tion in the New World flourished in the long history of civiliza bia and Panama.
• Their societies were patriarchal and their beliefs of the American Indians had an effect on the history of these continents.

• In terms of global connections, the Americas were relatively shrines in Yucatan.
• It is possible to contact isolated from the developments in the rest of the world through intermediate societies.

• Other examples include cultural spread and contact.
• The Old World and the inability of the Americas to share with each other has been found as far as the technological advances of the Maya area.

• There are many ways in which the Peruvian cultures developed.

What were the differences between them?