Chapter 1

• We describe the methods psychologists use to gather information about the numerous problems and areas they research, describe the historical development and growth of psychol in Fairies ogy, and look at the different types of jobs that psychologists currently guidelines for the Psychological hold.

• The case study in perspective in this chapter will allow us to examine its special topics in greater detail in subsequent chapters.

• There are a lot of topics covered in these events.
• Take the example of the survey research.

• The situation poses questions that might be asked by psychologists.
• In The evolutionary Perspective about the behavior of human beings and animals, psychologists seek to find the best answers to questions.
• The cognitive perspective does not exclude the rich inner life that we all experience, such as dreams and cultural and diversity dreams.

• Perspective psychology gives us the tools to answer questions about how we develop, The environmental, Population, what causes abnormal behavior patterns, and why people commit acts of aggression.

• Before you can figure out why and how it happened, you need to be clear about what happened.

• Chapter one can be very powerful.
• At least 347 civilians were killed in Vietnam in 1968 by the soldiers who were directed by their commanding officer.
• Jim Jones convinced his followers to poison their children in 1978.

• Some techniques have been found to help with thinking critically.
• Folk wisdom is a common alternative to these techniques.

Do you agree with the proverb?

• General principles of behavior are included in the test of folk wisdom.

• Before you leap, look at it.

• People are lost when they hesitate.

• It makes the heart grow fonder.

• Two heads are better than one.

• A penny saved is a penny earned.

• Nothing was gained.

• Efforts to explain events are presented in ways that can never be proved wrong.
• The proverbs in List B are different from the ones in List A.
• The exact opposite of every con ceivable event can be explained by folk wisdom.

• Looking for insights and explanations through psychological research methods is the answer.
• To gather useful information, to arrive at appropriate conclusions, and to develop and ask further questions are some of the things psychologists are trained to ask.
• There are both right and wrong ways to ask questions.
• Practice is needed to become a good psychological detective.

• We're going back to England in 1920 to understand the need to practice psychological detective skills.

• People who claim to be able to communicate with the dead during a seance.
• The participants in a seance hold hands as they sit in a dark room.
• During a seance, spirits are heard to speak through floating trumpets, cool breezes and touches are felt, and tables tip over even when no one has touched them.

• The creator of the master detective was interested in spiritualism.
• He wanted to communicate with his son, who was killed in World War I, so he started his inter est as a hobby.
• The father believed he had spoken with his son on several occasions.

• The reports of fairies being photographed seemed to confirm his belief in the existence of a spirit world, as he greeted the reports with enthusiasm.
• Two young girls took photographs of fairies in a field.

• The girls were young and didn't know how to use the equipment, so they were not at risk of fraud.

• Many people believe that the photographs of fairies are real, and hundreds of cardboard cutouts they used to describe fairies they had seen, are genuine.

• The photographs of fairies are not real.
• She contacted fairies.

• The statements of prominent public figures should not prevent us from asking our own questions.
• It can cloud our observations, influ ence the questions we ask, determine the methods we use, and influence the information we gather.
• He was convinced of the existence of a spiritual realm before he saw the photographs of the fairies.

• If we have more than one explanation for an event, it would be better to make a claim.
• All the proposed explanations explain the event or claim.
• The simplest explanation is required by the law of parsimony.

• There were two explanations for the fairies being seen by the girls.
• The girls had seen the fairies.
• The second explanation was that the girls had made up a story.
• Belief in the existence of fairies involves many more complex assumptions than the view that the girls made a hoax.

• One of the goals of the book is to help you become a better detective, able to ask good questions, collect useful information, and be aware of your own biases.

• The process we discuss can be applied to the story of Doyle's fairies, shocks to headlines in news stories and advertisements, to this chapter's opening example of 450-volt administra tion, and to countless events you experience during the course of a typical day.

• The reasoning we do in order to determine whether a claim is true is a cornerstone of psychology.
• In this book, you will learn about many experiments in which psychologists put critical thinking into action to reach conclusions about behavior and experience.
• We encourage you to use these sections as a way to test your reading and understanding.
• Before you read further, be sure to write your answers down.

• Whenever a person claims that they have a bias, always ask yourself if they have any in people you know or even yourself.

• Sales people have a stake in convincing you to buy their products.
• To prove their point, past buyers often offer the results of surveys, which show that they have been satisfied.
• Car manufacturers mail surveys to recent buyers to determine their beliefs and levels of satisfaction.

• The author of the claim should be evaluated because of personal bias.
• We should not be blinded by authority figures.
• Transferring credibility from one field to another is not easy.

• The potential for bias among people who make a claim has been focused on.

• The very assumptions we hold can create biases that can affect our views of claims, questions, or proposed solutions to a problem.
• The influence of bias is not limited to the experts; we are all subject to its influence and must strive to recognize its sometimes subtle effects.
• There are a number of seemingly simple questions in Table 1-2.
• If your answers are correct, try to answer them.

• You can compare your answers with those on page 39.

• People cite personal experiences or anecdotes to support conclusions about behavior.

• Products ranging from detergents to cars are often offered as proof of their quality.

• Ask if the claim is justified when you come across it.
• We have to question where the facts came from.
• Several research methods that psychologists use to collect data for answering questions are discussed in this chapter.
• The experimental method can provide the basis for cause-and-effect statements.

• The research methods on which the claims in these news stories are based are not specified in most of these articles.

• The process of scientific inquiry makes it difficult for us to evaluate the claims that we read in the print media.
• The Internet has the same cautions.
• Anyone can create a page on the internet.
• There is no guarantee that the information is accurate.

• Many students are afraid of statistics, but we use them all the time.
• Don't hesitate to ask for numbers, but be sure you understand them.

• Some claims are presented as an average.

• You need to know which type is being presented and whether it is appropriate, as there are actually three types of averages.

• We need to know if the findings could have been a result of chance.
• The likelihood that the findings might have resulted from chance alone is usually reported by researchers.
• You can't tell if a finding is significant by looking at the results, a statistical test needs to be performed.

• The appendix covers such tests and other statistical topics.

• It will improve your ability as a psychological detective if you read this material at this time.

• Two variables are related to each other.
• When the moon is full, the police report more crimes and emergency rooms treat more accident victims.
• This belief persists despite the fact that research ers who have examined broader periods have failed to find a relation.

• Consider the statements in the table.
• In a group of four, did one of the factors cause the other?

• Drugs and other article are some of the claims we encounter every day.

• Even if there is no assign one of the four active ingredients, patients will respond to drug treatment.
• If you believe that a drug will give you relief from the psychological detective, you may be able to reduce the symptoms.

• When judging a drug's effectiveness, we need to know how many patients have improved because of the placebo effect with the group, so each student should evaluate the claim using his or her chosen drugs.

• When we have comparative information, we can judge the effectiveness of a drug.

• The guidelines do not mean that you will always arrive at an accurate understanding of any claim or proposed explanation.

• When I'm in the shower, the phone rings.

• People call at the wrong time.

• It rains after I wash the car.

• Different views of "the truth" may exist depending on the culture in which the experiment is conducted and the personal interpretation of the results.
• The guidelines can help you avoid pitfalls that can lead to incorrect conclusions.

• The methods psychologists use to answer research questions are examined in the next section.
• The psychological detective uses these techniques.

• There are at least two competing explanations for sonal testimonials.

• Asking good questions might have led to arriv.

• We need to know what might account for a particular claim.

• The students had a dream the previous night.
• 50 students reported color in their dreams, what is the major problem with relying on folk wisdom?

• Folk wisdom and proverbs are not always correct.

• Folk wisdom is too vague.

• Folk wisdom and proverbs do not provide insight into human contact or ability to behave.

• This is likely to be a characteristic of biased tal y handicapped.

• Researchers are objective at all times.

• People who were previously unable observations are clouded by preconceptions by researchers.

• To construct correct sentences, researchers need more stringent proof.

• Researchers ask their own questions, regardless of what other people tell them.

• They can't be explained about whether they are the greatest team in basketball.

• The science of psychology is concerned with events like these.

• We have noted that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental proclivities.
• Physical and psychological events have causes that can be uncovered to explain the phenomenon, according to theories all other sciences.
• Scientists don't rely on hunches, but rather test hypotheses about personal experiences.

• They use more research and observation to test the hypotheses.

• naturalistic observations, case studies, and experiments are some of the research methods psychologists use.

• As he developed his theory of personality, Sigmund Freud popularized this method.
• A major advantage of the case study is that it allows researchers to gather a lot of very detailed information.
• The goal of a case study is to understand the behavior of other people.
• The case study is an excellent source of research ideas that can be explored with other methods.

• One disadvantage of this method is that it may not apply to other people.

• States may not tell us much about the behaviors and characteristics of men and women.
• The president lives in unique circumstances and leads a life that few people can relate to.

• They observed if children used seat belts in the study.
• When psychologists make naturalistic observations, they observe that they can often provide suggestions as they occur, without altering the behaviors in any way.

• Observers must not change the behaviors they observe.

• The researcher can make naturalistic observations of the children at this day-care center by using a one-way mirror.

• You are familiar with a reactive or obtrusive observation.
• If the observer's scrutiny changed your behavior, try to get back to normal.
• The psychologists who make naturalistic observations try to blend in with the sur roundings so that they are not noticed by the people being observed.
• Their goal is to collect observations in a way that is not intrusive.
• They can find a way to gather data without being present.

• Retail companies can use data provided by his company to increase sales of their products.
• Videotaping shoppers as they search, compare, and decide which products they will purchase is one of the methods he uses.
• His team had cameras trained on the entrance to a large retail store.

• There were some displays at the entrance that were very close to each other.
• The same phenomenon was noticed time and time again by the team that monitored the videotapes.
• A shopper was brushed by an incoming shopper.
• Suddenly, the intent shopper was no longer interested in examining the merchandise, which was placed back on the rack, and the shopper moved on, in most cases not returning to the items.
• The intrusion of others close to the shopper's backside seems so offensive that the shopper leaves the situation.
• The "butt brush" phenomenon was noticed by both men and women.
• The order to rearrange the merchandise and make butt brushes less likely to occur came down to the fact that Underhill told the company.

• Imagine that your senior year in high school is a time when you are faced with a lot of decisions about going to college.
• Before applying to the college of your choice, you probably took an entrance exam, such as the SAT or the American College Test.

• Grade point averages are not caused by SAT orACT scores.

• The graphs show the relation between SAT scores and first-year grade point average.
• One student is represented by each dot in the scatterplot.

• The location of the dot is determined by the student's SAT score and freshman grade point average.
• It is not perfect, but there is some predictability here.

• Between two variables they tend to occur together.

• A correlation coefficients can have a value between two variables, no higher or lower.

• Ignore the sign in front of the numbers for a moment.

• A plus sign tells us that the values of one variable increase and the values of the other variable decrease.
• Grades tend to be high if SAT scores are high.
• The number of hours students study for an exam and their grades are correlated.
• The values of the two variables tend to change as the values of one increase.
• Students who study a lot should make fewer mistakes.
• People who don't study a lot would make more mistakes.
• The study time and errors on an exam are related.

• The concept of correlation can be difficult for students.
• We have created a hands on activity to help you test your understanding.
• The assignment doesn't require calculation and you don't have to draw scatterplots.
• Six pairs of variables will be presented to you.

• The task is simple.
• Determine if the pair of variables is likely to be a positive correlation, a negative correlation, or a zero correlation.
• A professor found that the more time students spent studying chapter one, the higher their grade on the first quiz.

• A reporter collected data from 100 motorists who agreed to have devices attached to their cars that tracked mileage and speed.
• The reporter correlated average speed and miles per gallon at the end of the week.

• There are a dozen models of new homes for sale.
• The 1,200 square foot model sells for $85,000, the 1,500 square foot model sells for $105,000, and the 1,800 square foot model sells for $125,000.

• 500 people were asked to wear pedometers.

• If the total steps in a month were related to actual weight, that's a research method.
• She noticed that the lower the person's weight and the group of people who are less steps, the more the person weighed.

• A researcher is interested in the relation of two variables, height and intelligence, in a sample of 200 adults.

• The amount of alcohol in the blood is called BAC.
• A group of social drinkers were asked to take part in a simple task after consuming various amounts of alcohol.
• They were seated in front of a computer screen and had to click if they saw a particular letter.
• If they missed the letter, their response was incorrect.
• The researcher had the BAC and the total number of errors.

• This is your first chance to work as a psychological detective.
• In each chapter, we have psychological detective features to help you improve your critical thinking skills.
• Before reading further, please pay attention to the sections and generate answers for the questions.

• SAT scores and grade point average were two variables.
• It's not surprising that these two variables are related.
• A good psychological detective wants to understand this relation.
• Make a list of factors that could be responsible for the relationship between these variables.

• Some students with higher SAT scores may have been raised by families that emphasized enrichment and learning activities.
• The formation and experiences of these families contributed to better study habits and higher SAT scores.
• The bigger the correlation, the better the prediction.

• Surveys can be used to collect large amounts of information.
• They can be done in a variety of ways, from face-to-face interviews to written questions that are mailed to respondents.
• More reliable, less expensive, and less time consuming are some of the advantages of Web-based interviews.
• People may not necessarily tell the truth is a significant problem for survey research.

• One of the authors of this text once conducted a telephone survey of the use of seat belts and found high numbers, which was not as common in the 1980s as it is today.
• The few people who admitted to not using seat belts were quick to add that they insisted that their children wear seat belts.

• The naturalistic observation of actual seat belt use revealed a lower use of seat belts than was revealed in the telephone survey.

• To ask for clarification.

• Call safety has been an issue in recent years.

• 40% use of cell phones while driving was assessed by the aaa Foundation.
• The percent of respondents who said they would always answer a cell phone call was 20%.

• When news anchor announce election winners based on information from polling researchers, only 2% of the vote is counted.
• News organizations can make these predictions because their polling experts have identified key areas within the state that represent the entire population from the stand point of gender, ethnicity, and political preference; thus a small but representative seg ment of the population can be used to predict the way the entire population is voting

• The traffic safety culture index is an excellent example of survey research.
• The researchers used a nationally representative sample of 2,000 U.S. residents 16 years of age or older and conducted the survey via telephone in English or Spanish.
• Up to eight attempts were made to reach a household.
• When they got to a household, they randomly picked from among the household members 16 years old or older, asking who would have the next birthday.
• Drunk driving is a very serious threat to personal safety, 85% said it was a very serious threat, and 9% said they had driven when they thought their alcohol level may have been close to or over the legal limit.

• When conducting surveys, a representative sample is not the only important consideration.
• To avoid bias, questions must be carefully worded.

• You have created a mental set that suggests that professional athletes may be overpaid.
• Your respondents might be biased to answer yes.

• A complete qualitative researcher may want to describe a culture from the perspective of a cultural insider.

• The research method involves people thinking about the topic.
• Qualitative researchers are able to manipulate independent variables.
• The goal of qualitative research is to develop a complete description of the behavior of interest, not to determine how they affect cally use logic.

• Useful leads, strong data, and ex cellent descriptions can be provided by the research methods described so far.
• Such statements can be provided by a variable that shows the outcome.
• The most powerful research method has effects on an independent variable.

• Crowding, frustration, and hot weather are possibilities for an experiment.

• We need to be careful not to rely too much on hypotheses to guide the psychological research.
• Research should be guided by observable findings, not just by independent variable predictions.

• A behavior that a comparison group in an experiment doesn't receive shows the outcome of the experiment by revealing the effect of the independent able.
• If we manipulated an independent variable that affects the probability of violence, hitting a person could be a dependent variable in the study of violence.
• Clear and precise definitions for the independent and dependent variables are offered by researchers.
• The value of the dependent variable exhibited by the control group and the experimental group would be different if our independent variable had an effect on violence.

• Let's look at a classic experiment.
• Children who observed an adult behaving aggressively would be more likely than children who observed an adult not acting aggressively.

• One group observed an adult model while the other group did not.
• An aggressive or non aggressive model was being observed by the indepen dent variable.

• The dependent variable was the number of blows directed at the Bobo doll.
• Children who observed an aggressive model engaged in more aggressive behavior than those who did not.

• Modelling can play a part in causing children to act aggressively, but keep in mind the other factors of the experiment.
• The type of participants, age of the models, sex of the models, measure of aggression, and so on may have influenced the results of the experiment.
• Measures of aggression could have produced different results.
• The need to replicate or repeat research is highlighted by these considerations, as well as the care that experimenters must take in conducting and interpreting their research.

• Bandura and colleagues might have assigned all of the boys to the group that observed the aggressive model and all of the girls to the group that didn't observe the aggressive model.
• Write down your response before you read further.

• We couldn't conclude that the aggressive model was responsible for the aggression in the second part of the experiment if all the boys had been assigned to the group that observed it.
• Boys might be more aggressive than girls.
• You can identify the cause of the behavior under consideration.
• If all of the boys were assigned to the aggressive-model group, there would be two explanations for increased aggression: being a boy and observing an aggressive model.

• We need to pick two groups that are alike before we start an experiment.
• Two groups that are similar in many characteristics are usually the result of a random assignment.

• Random assignment doesn't solve all problems and makes research perfect.
• For example, psychological researchers believed that their behavior, attitudes, and expectations did not affect the performance of their research participants.
• This view has changed a lot.
• The effects of human experimenter expectancy on the IQ scores of grade-school children was one of the most widely cited studies.
• The children in the classes that were studied took an IQ test at the beginning of the school year.
• It's doubtful that the intellectual bloomers were superior because they weren't run Variables.
• They can be perceived in this way and treated differently by the teachers and these influence the outcome of students in accordance with the teachers' expectations.
• Experiments have looked at the influence of assignment of health care workers' expectations on the health outcomes of their patients.
• Raising caretakers' expectations for residents' health outcomes led to a reduction in the depression levels of the residents, according to a study conducted in a nursing home.

• Data on the occurrence of two variables is analyzed to determine the extent to which those variables occur together.

• A sample of a larger population is used for research in which information is gathered.

• A typical qualitative research strategy is carried out in a natural setting and focused on an entire phenomenon or culture.
• A complete narrative description of the behavior of interest is the goal.

• A research technique in which an independent variable is manipulated to determine if it affects a dependent variable.

• There are different research methods that you understand.
• Remember that each involves the collection, analysis, method can make a contribution to our understanding and that the methods are often and interpretation of data used in combination.

• The procedures used to summarize research can show cause and effect.
• The set of data results must be analyzed before they can be shared with other professionals.

• The need for statistical methods to determine if the independent marize experimental results before researchers present them to the scientific variable has a significant effect community was created by the practice of doing experiments.

• Before reading further, please take down some answers to this question.

• If you are conducting an experiment and a friend gives you a sheet of paper with hundreds of scientific observations on it, you are no closer to having an answer to your research question than before you started.
• You need to understand the data that has been collected.

• You can use the two main branches of statistics to make decisions.

Let's take 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299 888-353-1299

• The test you took Tuesday was returned by your instructor.

• Your paper has a score of 67.
• Because you don't have enough information to know if your score is good or bad, a reaction of uncertainty and confusion is understandable.

• Write down your answers and give the data that tells us about a typical score.

• Let's see if we can be a bit more precise, since you're on the right descriptive measures.
• We need to know the amount of variability or spread in a set of data cal score.
• The primary descriptive statistics used by psychologists are measures of central tendency and variability.

• The dependent variable will be affected by the ma nipulation of our independent variable.
• The effect of the independent variable is evaluated by the difference between the groups in the experiment.
• Some differences between groups are influenced by the independent variable.
• Some differences are due to chance.
• The groups will never be exactly the same.
• Researchers can evaluate the difference between groups in an experiment by using an inferential statistical test.
• The online Appendix contains further discussion of inferential statistics and a sample infer ential statistical test.

• Psychologists are obligated to follow a code of ethical behavior when conducting research.

• At the beginning of the chapter, there is a description of the study.

• Imagine being asked to give a 450-volt electric shock to someone else.

• You are told that no shocks were delivered, but that you could have killed someone.
• The potential for long-term traumatic effects on the research participants in this experiment is clear.

• Standards of conduct for psychologists in their roles as researchers, clinicians, and teachers have been prescribed by the American Psychological Association.
• Several Gen eral principles are included in these guidelines.
• The high standards of competence that psychologists must maintain include recognizing the limitations of their expertise.
• They need to show respect for the rights and dignity of people.

• All research proposals need to be reviewed to make sure they are in line with the guidelines.
• An institutional review board is established by a college, university, or other organization where research is conducted.

• According to the ethical guidelines, psychologists who use human participants in research must make sure they are protected from psychological harm.
• Depending on the type of participants chosen for the project, what the researcher considers to be a risky or potentially harmful situation may be different.
• The age of the participant may be relevant in determining potential emotional harm or distress in studies involving the selection of liked and disliked peers.

• The ethical guidelines require that any research records with a person's name or identity be kept confidential.
• For example, psychologists may use code names or numbers for their participants so that information cannot be associated with the actual names of people who have taken part in research.

• College students must be told that their participation in research is voluntary.
• College students might be part of a pool of people that researchers draw for their studies.
• If a student does not want to participate, he or she must be given the chance to earn the same amount of credit or complete the course requirement.
• No one will be punished for not participating in research.

• The use of deception is required in some experiments.
• Without the use of placebos, researchers wouldn't be able to study the effectiveness of drug treatments.
• Participants who are given placebos are led to believe they are taking the actual drug so that researchers can assess the influence of expectations on the drug's effectiveness.
• Participants are allowed to ask questions and the researcher checks for negative effects of the deception.
• Participants in psychological research have the right to end their participation at any time.
• Researchers are not allowed to use threat or intimidation to force them to complete a study.

• Much of our knowledge about the structure and identify visuals--icons or pictures-- functioning of the brain, sensation and perception, motivation to assign to each of the principles and emotion, and developmental processes-- can be found in this chapter.

• There is a written document in which a person has been heated and emotional at times.
• The use of animals in psychological and medical research is seen as cruel by animal rights activists.
• Study agrees to participate after that research often involves stress, pain, punishment, or social and environmental receiving information about the deprivation.

• Some types of research cannot be conducted without using animals.

• For example, psychologists acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals with applicable laws and regulations.
• Under what circumstances it is acceptable for researchers to sacrifice animals for research is subject to laws and regulations.
• All procedures involving animals are supervised by psychologists trained in research methods and care of laboratory animals, who are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and humane treatment.

• The ethics of using ani mals in research are influenced by a number of factors.
• The similarity of the animals to humans, their "cuteness," and the perceived importance of the research to alleviating human suffering are some of the factors that are complex.

• The animal rights movement has an influence on it.
• The attention that the animal rights movement has focused on this issue may be the reason for a decline in the number of studies using certain animal species.
• Researchers are looking for ways to reduce the number of animals used in research.
• They are looking at alternatives to the use of animals for testing.
• The new methods do not involve test ing intact higher animals, such as dogs and cats, but instead rely onbacteria, cultured animal cells, or fertilized chicken eggs.
• The need for animals in certain types of research is not eliminated by such methods.
• The opinions on the use of animals in research will be very personal and strong.

• Now that we have discussed the need to be a good psychological detective and the methods used by psychologists to conduct and analyze their research, it is time to get a general overview of the field of psychology before we begin our chapter by chapter coverage of specific psychological topics.
• A brief review of the history of modern psychology and a consideration of the activities of contemporary psychologists should prepare you for this more in-depth coverage.

• It can cause-and-effect statements.

• A complete narrative of an entire phenomenon or culture is often used by psychologists to study behavior in real-life settings.

• This technique can suggest research projects using more controlled approaches.

• They assign people to groups.

• They measure the dependent variable multiple times.

• The experimenter has control of extraneous variables.

• Data and bright light are analyzed using a statistical procedure.

• Reaction time is V.

• Scientific psychology is a relatively new discipline and people have observed and studied human behavior for thousands of years.
• The first laboratory devoted to the scientific study of psychology was established in 1879 at the University of Leipzig in Germany.

• The first psychology labora tory was established by Wilhelm Wundt.
• Because the profession of psychology was not a career choice at that time, Wundt was trained as a physician and went on to work in a research career.
• After many years of assisting other professors or offering classes in which his only pay was what students offered to pay him, Wundt finally got his chance at a regular academic appointment.
• He pursued his research interests using a variety of research methods to investigate a broad array of topics.

• In addition to founding the first psychology laboratory, one of Wundt's most lasting contributions was serving as mentor to many of the psychologists who would carry the newly founded science to the United States.

• Edward B. Titchener brought the science from Germany to the United States.
• Titchener wanted to find archives of the history of psychology.

• If researchers could break down the contents of the mind into basic units like the basic elements of matter in chemistry, they could identify the structure of conscious experience and describe its major components.

• Participants who are given an orange would not describe it as a fruit but would instead describe its color, shape, and texture and other aspects of their own experience of the orange.
• The difficulty in producing similar reports across a variety of tasks raised questions about the existence of any common elements of conscious experience.
• At times conscious experience was not considered a legitimate subject of psychological research, as Structuralism was replaced by other approaches.

• Conscious experience has been rediscovered and gated using more sophisticated techniques than at the end of the 19th century.

• Cognitive psychologists study higher mental processes associated with as thinking, knowing, and deciding instead of focusing on the structure of conscious experience.

• We discuss the cognitive perspective in greater detail later in this chapter.

• A new approach to psychology was developed in the United States in the late 1800s.

• William James, one of the earliest proponents of functionalism, was interested in the stream of thinking, knowing, and consciousness.
• The elements of consciousness could not be easily broken down because they were like a continually flowing stream.
• It would lose its reality if it were broken down into elements.

• Functionalists wanted to see how people use information to adapt to their environment.

• James Rowland Angell's address to the American Psychological Association in 1906 was the peak of functionalism.

• When Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) was the leader of this group, images were continuous.
• The Gestalt began in Germany in 1912.

• Other phenomena that supported the idea that what we perceive is different from what the individual stimuli are was described by Gestalt psychologists.
• We see unified forms, not bits and pieces.

• Learning under standing how various behaviors occur is emphasized by this perspective.

• Ivan Pavlov noticed a strange phenomenon when he was studying digestion in dogs in the early 1900s.
• The dogs were about to be fed when they began drooling at the sight of the food or the keys that unlocked the rooms where they were kept.
• The dogs were learning between sounds and sights while being fed.
• Simple observation led to the development of our understanding of how organisms learn to associate events in their environments.

• The American psychologist read about the work and thought it was great.
• The mind and consciousness should not be the focus of psychology.
• The principles of the laboratory were led by the application of his digestion in dogs.
• He expanded his research to include human associate events in their environment after observing how animals made excellent subjects for his research.

• Many strong proponents of the behavioral tradition were found.
• Skinner's approach to psychology was simple: Behavior changes for emphasizing that our perception as a result of its consequences.
• Human behavior is shaped by environmental consequences not of a whole.
• The goal of the behavioral psychologist is to change the environmental conditions that control behavior.

• Skinner's followers used many of his basic principles to alter human behavior in Perspective that focuses on a variety of settings.
• The basis for many behaviorism was provided by the founder.

• If you've ever visited an amusement park that features trained dolphins, seals, whales, or other animals, you've seen applications of Skinner's principles.

• Skinner's approach followed the development of behaviorism.

• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), across the Atlantic, was digging beneath observable behaviors at the same time asWatson was defining psychology as the study of observable behavior.
• Few people have had such an impact on the way we think about ourselves as Freud, and few have been so controversial.

• Freud was not trained as a psychologist.
• The patients who came to him had a variety of problems.

• The unconscious mind exerts great control over behavior according to Freud.
• The observations that led him to this conclusion were "slips of the tongue," in which the patients' true feelings were apparently revealed, and analysis of his patients' dreams.
• Freud believed that the mind hides dreams so that the dreamer isn't aware of their true meaning.

• Early childhood experiences are a major influence on personality development.
• If you want to understand a person's personality, you need to look at his or her early experiences.
• Freud gained fame by suggesting that people are driven by sexual motives.

• Freud abandoned hypnotism when he realized that not everyone could be hypnotized.
• Freud believes that the sources of distress can be brought to awareness in other fields.

• The psychodynamic and behavioral approaches were questioned over time.
• The behavioral approach was seen as unattractive by many psychologists.
• The idea that all behavior is controlled by environmental circumstances left no room for personal freedom and the suggestion that we are doomed to behave in environmentally determined ways was unattractive to these psy chologists.
• Critics believed that be haviorists avoided positive qualities of human behavior, such as creativity and love.
• The argument was that their views of human nature were either neutral or negative.

• The psychodynamic approach was not appealing to some because it was seen as a result of irrational forces that were not under control.
• Psychoanalysts studied people with a variety of logical problems, while behaviorists studied lower animals under controlled laboratory conditions.
• A new approach to psychology was developed.

• Humanistic psychologists viewed themselves as an alternative to the behavioral and psychodynamic perspectives in psychology.

• The freedom they believed characterizes human be havior was the focus of the proponents of this approach.
• People have choices in their lives, and we can't understand them by studying animals in laboratories or people with adjustment problems.

• Rogers and Maslow sought to understand each person as a unique individual rather than trying to develop general principles.
• Each person experiences the world in a different way.
• Human beings have a basic need to grow to their fullest potential according to one of the most important humanistic principles.
• The development of a variety of psy chotherapeutic techniques was one of the major contributions to psychology by the humanists.

• In Chapter 2, we discuss that every behavior of human beings and animals is related to some change within the body.
• There is a special interest in the functioning of the brain and the rest of the nervous system.
• They use sophisticated equipment that can create images of the brain to assess neurological function.
• Different areas of the brain are different depending on the task a person is given.

• Scientists have identified a number of different neurotransmitters, and each approach to psychology seems to play a special role in a variety of normal and abnormal behaviors.
• Most drugs with abraham Maslow and carl influence our emotions and behaviors by altering levels of the neurotransmitters Rogers.

• A number of psychologists look at the wide range of changes that occur when we are under stress.
• Their processes can be understood and research has determined that illness is not simply a function of the presence of disease explained by studying the underlying cause.

• These organisms are more likely to live and reproduce than other organisms.
• Organisms with different characteristics are less likely to survive.
• Researchers who work from an evolutionary perspective ask what role a structure or behavior plays in helping the organisms survive and adapt to its environment.
• The evolutionary explanation has been applied to many areas, such as mate selection, aggression, kin selection, care of offspring, and parenting.

• Let's look at an evolutionary explanation for a behavior.
• Consider a cat.
• An evolutionary researcher would like to understand how this contributed to the survival of the species.
• The most plausible explanation is that when the hairs are erect, the animal looks larger and more intimidating.
• Millions of years ago, cats that were frightened were more likely to survive and have their genes passed down to future generations.
• This once-adaptive behavior continued to be displayed.

• Let's look at an evolutionary explanation for a human behavior.
• Aggressive organisms are able to acquire resources and defend their own territories, so it is likely that aggression has the potential to aid in adaptation to the environment.
• There isn't any reason to make that distinction.

• There is a distinction between men and women.
• Women will show more indirect aggression than men, according to these theorists.
• High amounts of maternal care given to offspring require that women minimize their risk of physical injury.
• Indirect aggression reduces the chances of injury compared to direct aggression.

• Evolutionary psychologists are interested in why certain physical structures developed and how they contribute to adaptation.
• Consider the evolution of the hand.

• Because they focused only on observable behaviors, behaviorists did not study cognitive processes such as thinking, remembering, and determining how material is organized and stored in the mind as part of the mainstream of psychological research.

• From the 1920s to the 1960s, psychologists devoted little research to such processes.
• observable behavior should be the sole subject of psychology according to some psychologists.
• The study of cognitive processes was advocated by Gestalt psychologists.
• The appearance of a widely read article supporting the study of cognitive processes combined with the computer's ability to mimic human thought processes generated considerable interest and research.
• Research is conducted in the area of cognitive processes, where the focus is on how thought occurs, memory processes, and information storage and utilization.

• You are likely to be surrounded by many different types of psychologists when you attend a major meeting of psychologists.
• Many are employed by colleges and universities, where they can teach, conduct research, or work in a psychological clinic.
• The first woman to be elected to that position was the 14th president of the american psychology association.

• This has not always been the case, as psychology is becoming more diverse.

• Women and ethnic minorities were limited in access to the field in the past.
• Mary Whiton Calkins, who was a student of William James at Harvard University, was refused the degree she had earned because the university did not grant degrees to women.
• Calkins was the first woman to be elected president of the American Psychological Association and founded one of the first psychology laboratories in the United States.

• The careers of the first female psychologists were hampered by family ties.
• Christine Ladd-Franklin was not considered a suitable candidate for any regular academic position because she was married.
• Milicent Shinn, the first woman to receive a PhD from the University of California Berkeley in 1898, was cut short by the tradition of the eldest daughter tak ing care of her aging parents.
• Shinn was a leading expert on the mental and physical growth of infants and seemed poised for a career in psychology until her parents' illness forced her back to her family farm.
• Her career ended completely at that point.

• Women are entering the field of psychology in great numbers a century after Harvard refused to award a PhD to Calkins.
• More than 94,000 researchers who were denied undergraduate degrees were awarded psychology degrees.
• 72,000 were regular academic positions for women.
• There were 5,477 doctorate degrees she was married to.

• The struggle of racial minorities to become recognized professionals is similar to that of early women psychologists.
• During the late 1800s and early 1900s, professional training was not an option for black Americans.
• Sumner established the psychology program at Howard University and turned it into the major source for doctorate degrees for African-American students in the first half of the 20th century.

• African-American women were not given degrees in psychology until the 1930s.
• Two women are noteworthy.
• Inez Beverly Prosser was the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in educational psychology from the University of Cincinnati in 1933.
• She passed away on September 5, 1934, after a tragic automobile accident on August 28, 1934.

• Most members of racial minority groups did not get jobs in psychology.
• The American Psychological Association elected an African American, Kenneth B. Clark, as its president in 1970.
• He was a pioneer for those who followed in his footsteps.
• He was the first African American to earn a PhD from Columbia University and the first tenured instructor in the City University of New York college system.
• There are more minority candidates receiving degrees.
• 20% of PhD degrees in psychology were given to members of minority groups.

• The American Psychological Association elected him president in 1997.
• It's not the only sign of culture and diversity if you get prestigious offices in professional associations.

• The impact of different cultures on psychology can be seen in psychological literature.
• There are psychological principles we derive from View that psychologists should be people.
• It is important for all of us to understand how cultural factors affect our behavior and the psychological processes.
• We can learn how our own population and environment viewpoint can affect our interpretation of others' behaviors by gaining such appreciation.
• In a study of the intensity of facial expressions of emotion in Americans and Japanese, researchers found that Americans exaggerated their ratings.

• The difference between the two cultures was thought to be caused by Japanese participants suppressing their ratings.
• We need to know what types of cross-cultural similarities exist in psychological principles and basic processes.
• Knowledge about the similarities should help us improve our lives.

• The late 20th century witnessed increasing concern for the effects of overpopulation on the quality of life and the environment.
• One of the perspectives of modern overpopulation or global warming is agreed upon by environmental psychologists.
• They agree that incentives like to a children's book-- make your bottle deposits encourage people to recycle, that posted reminders get them to turn off summaries short, straightforward, their lights and that conveniently placed trash cans keep them from Littering"

• These psychologists are applying psychological principles to save the planet.
• Increasing pro environmental behavior is a challenge facing these professionals.
• Their task is very important and daunting.

• The study chart shows the different perspectives.

• There are processes of thinking, memory, and organizing.
• In 1920, storing information.

• A variety of topics is what psychologists are interested in.
• At least one of the more than half-million psychologists in the world would be interested in any of the endeav ors.

• In our earlier discussion of the origins of psychology, we outlined some of the approaches present-day psychologists do not follow.

• The majority of psychology majors finish their education with a B.A.

• An advanced degree is usually earned by psychologists.
• Most psychologists who have earned advanced degrees are either self-employed or work in an educational setting.
• The legal status of psychologists is being established all over the world.
• They want to protect the public by making sure that people who represent themselves as psychologists have proper training and professional experience.

• Some psychologists engage in little or no research to advance their knowledge of human and animal behavior.
• The psychologists are inter View of psychology that combine the applications of psychology.
• A direct service provider is the largest subfield of psychology and can be found in several different approaches.

• The american Psychological association has several major groups.
• Clinical, counseling, school, and health psychologists are listed as health service providers.
• Industrial/organizational, developmental, social, and educational psychologists are research psychologists.

• Clinical psychologists are popular with students who major in psychol ogy.

• Clinical psychologists are confused with psychiatrists.
• Both professions share an interest in helping people with behavioral and emotional problems.
• Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists have different degrees that they get in other aspects of their training.
• Clinical psychologists can earn a PhD after completing an undergraduate degree.
• They are supervised by experienced clinical psychologists when they complete an internship of at least one year to develop their diagnostic and therapeutic skills.

• They finish a three-year residency after graduating from medical school.
• Major differences exist between the training of clinical psychologists and psychiatrists.
• Psychiatrists are more likely to see disorders as caused by medical conditions if they are trained in the medical assessment of disorders.

• There is a difference between counseling and clinical psychology.
• Clinical psychologists see more patients with more serious problems than counseling psychologists.

• The table summarizes the research specialties.
• Research psychologists are often confused about their duties between conducting research and teaching.

• Because modern psychology is so popular in the United States, we may see our research as applying to all other cultures.

• The importance of cross-cultural research is highlighted as psychologists recognize the increasingly diverse nature of their field.
• We need to know which of our findings are universal and which are limited to specific cultures in order to understand human behavior.
• The culture and diversity perspective has been aided by this approach.

• To determine how to increase consumer interest in a foreign country, a psychologist's primary activity is to conduct and report the results.
• Before reading further, write down some possibilities.

• The goal of the cul Branch of psychology is to influence all aspects of psychological research.
• We need to determine if research results can be very cautious in generalizing results from one culture to another.
• Even if a piece of research was done in the United States, it doesn't mean it will be applicable to all Americans.

• All research psychologists should be concerned with cross-cultural issues.

• The job of a school psychologist is to help children and youth succeed academically, socially, behaviorally, and emotionally according to the National Association of School Psychologists.
• They work with other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments that strengthen connections between home, school, and the community for all students.
• The American Psychological Association has a separate division for school psychologists, while the National Association of School Psychologists develops standards, accredits programs, and hosts an annual national convention.
• A school psy chologist needs a minimum of a specialist-level degree and at least 60 graduate-level hours.
• It takes three years of training to become a school psychologist.
• It is possible to get a PhD in school psychology.
• School psychologists can visit several schools in a district during the course of a week to make psychological evaluations, discuss students with teachers, and meet with parents.

• Their responsibilities vary with the employer, from designing a system for selecting employees to implementing an employee assistance program to deal with alcoholism/drug abuse and stress on and off the job.
• I/O psychologists can help design and evaluate training programs for new hires.
• They may be asked to design methods to measure worker productivity, increase worker motivation, evaluate work schedule efficiency, or to design systems for resolving disputes within organizations.

• Some psychologists are involved in the design of equipment.
• When designing equipment, they consider the relation between the worker and the equipment, as well as the worker's capabilities.

• A number of consumer psychologists are employed by manufacturers of con sumer products as well as university business schools.

• The basis for consumer psychologists' questions is provided by a psychologist.
• They want to know how you became aware of the product, how you evaluated various treatments for learning disabilities, and what made you choose a particular brand.

• Changing unhealthy or harmful behaviors can reduce the risk of disease.

• The proponents of psychology continually strive to discover new arenas for research and application, which is why psychology is not a static science.
• The recent additions to the field are forensic psychology, sport psychology, and social variables.

• The psychologist who provides services Chapter 4 gives testimony as an expert witness.
• For example, psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has testified many times about how stress affects the accuracy of recalled events, how observing violent crimes affects psychological principles, and how police lineups can sometimes lead witnesses to an incorrect identification of a suspect.

• They can help players recover from injuries by providing supportive therapy and encouragement.
• Techniques such as relaxation and imagery help athletes improve their performance.
• Sport psychologists have been helping US athletes prepare for the Olympics since 1978.

• It is not surprising that one of the emerging specialties in psychology is concerned with brain functioning, given that Congress designated the 1990s as the decade of the brain.
• They try to identify brain areas that are malfunctioning.
• They conduct research to identify early symptoms of Huntington's disease.
• After suffering brain damage, strokes, or traumatic brain injury, they create rehabilitation programs to help patients regain as much of their abilities as possible.
• The recent focus on concussions in athletes, from elementary school age to the professional ranks, is an area of concern and application for neuropsychologists.

• Some of your friends have said that job applicants with an undergrad degree in psychology have a hard time finding work.
• Nothing could be further from the truth.
• There are many employment opportunities for a psychology major with a bachelor's degree after graduation.
• The job possibilities are as diverse as the field of psychology.
• There are several job possibilities that are related to psychology, business, and other areas.

• With the completion of graduate training in psychology, your options and earning power increase considerably.
• If the idea of being a psychologist appeals to you, make psychology your major because you're afraid there won't be a job for you when you graduate.

• Most of you won't become psychology majors or work in a field that could be considered psychology-related, but you can still benefit from information on O*NET ONLINE.

• You can use this resource to search for information by occupation.
• You can use abilities, interests, and skills in your research.
• You will find a lot of information for each occupation, including the likely tasks, knowledge needed, skills, education required, median wages, and projected openings.
• Two psy chology majors went on to careers in psychology.

• Sharin Green spent a lot of time on music.
• It seemed like she would pursue music at college.

• Her dad is a psychologist and professor at another university, so she decided to major in psychology.

• She went to graduate school and then to the social psychology program at Miami University.
• She took her master's in social psychology after she decided that social psychology wasn't for her.
• Two years of class work is followed by an internship.
• She received a job offer from the school district that covers the area around the Miami campus and has been a school psychologist for six years, most recently working with the high school population.

• The first year of college was spent learning more about herself than her major and she switched majors five times.
• She added a second major in psychology after taking a course in social psychology during her sophomore year, when she transferred universities to be closer to home.
• She wanted to apply to graduate school in psychology, though she wasn't sure what discipline to pursue.
• She decided to pursue a PhD in industrial/organizational psychology after completing several research projects on her own.
• She spent six years at the University of Oklahoma, tailoring her education and research as a mixture of applied social, cognitive, and I/O psychology.

• When she entered the job market, she sought positions in applied research and received an offer from a financial services organization in North Carolina.
• She conducts applied research in the areas of consumer behavior, social influence, and negotiation strategies for financial services companies.

• John B. was influenced by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov.

• The research contributions are because consciousness can't be observed directly.

• Most psychologists have a PhD.

• A Psy.d.
• was also developed by Freud.
• ).

• The person was an early proponent of functionalism.

• Men earn more degrees than women.

• Women earn more degrees than men.

• We accomplish what we do due to the gender.

• It depends on the hemisphere.

• You might figure out that 2 if you expand your thinking.
• The cube of 2 is found in over 60 countries that have stars a figure 8.