chapter 15

• The communist movement wanted to overthrow the world order and the guardian countries wanted to keep it.

• The guardian countries made more drastic reforms to safeguard the existing order.
• They formed a group of liberal democratic and capitalist nation-states that were upheld by American power.
• Britain and France, as well as the defeated fascist ones, gave up their claims to worldwide power and empire and were content to be junior partners in this wide democratic grouping.

• Political differences, economic competition, and the linking of many countries in the European Community did not change the basic pattern of cooperation under the leadership of a superpower.
• The democracies dominated the international economy, pursued the modern Western goals of health, education, leisure, and abundance, and built up massive military power.
• They were powerful guardians of the existing world order.

• The communist challenge to the world order grew more formidable as communism spread from the victorious Soviet Union into eastern Europe and the Far East.
• European communist dictatorships dominated their societies in spite of occasional revolts, and the communist planned economies grew faster than those of many capitalist countries.
• The Soviet Union was able to build up armed forces because of its size and state-controlled economy.
• Communism became a second group of countries under the leadership of a superpower.

• Victorious but weakened countries gave up their empires and spheres of influence after the war, and intercontinental empires vanished more quickly than they had arisen a century earlier.

• The people who were subject to imperial rule or indirect control were not sure what they wanted next or how to get it.

• The ex-colonial peoples fought over these and other ends and means, or pursued different combinations of them.
• The worldwide ferment interacted with the rivalry of the democratic- capitalist and communist groups.

• They built up weapons against each other that they never intended to use.
• They competed for control and influence over the ex-colonial world, and they encouraged or were drawn into bloody postcolonial conflicts, such as those in Korea and Vietnam, which never changed the balance of power.
• They respected each other's vital interests, built up enough mutual trust to avoid mutual annihilation, and sometimes practiced partnership as well as rivalry.

• The information revolution made the dictatorships and state-run economies too rigid to adapt.
• The burden of the arms race became harder to bear as production stagnated and living standards dropped.
• South Korea, Taiwan, and even China loosened economic controls, which made communism lose appeal in the ex-colonial world.

• The system was restructured by the leaders who took over.
• Not content with relaxing economic controls, they allowed freedom of information and discussion.
• The result was a decline in communist power.
• The eastern European countries broke away, and then the Soviet Union did the same.
• The communist challenge was defeated by the democratic- capitalist countries.
• The world order was in the hands of the heartland countries at the moment.

• The human toll in the Second World War was higher than any previous conflict.
• 17 million people were killed when they were mobilized for military service.
• 6 million Jews were victims of the Nazi Holocaust, and there were more than 40 million civilian deaths.
• The war's political consequences were important.
• The United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union liberated France, Germany, and Africa, while Japan was stripped of its sovereignty and placed under American military rule.

• Britain and France, as well as Germany, Italy, and Japan, all of them countries that a generation before had dominated global affairs, have now fallen to the rank of secondary powers.
• The United States emerged as the strongest military and economic power in the world because it was untouched by battle.
• As it recovered from the war, determined leaders built it into a military superpower, and communism continued to have worldwide appeal.
• The time was ripe for a long conflict between the supporters of the world order and the communists.

• During the war, he joined with the British prime minister and the Russian dictator.
• Despite grave differences, the "Big Three" succeeded in defeating their enemies.
• When the war was over, Roosevelt hoped that the major powers could continue to work together for peace.
• He thought American-Soviet understanding was the key to this accomplishment.

• Roosevelt posed a new international organization, the United Nations, in order to develop understanding and cooperation.
• After Roosevelt's death, the organization came into being after the Big Three approved its general outlines.
• Roosevelt sought to avoid what he considered to be the visionary and rigid aims of his predecessor, Wilson.

• The United Nations was not based on the failed principle of collective security.
• It was not viewed as a world government.
• Roosevelt thought that the organization might be a step in the right direction, but its immediate function was to serve as an instrument that would enable the two superpowers to maintain world order.

• After the president's death, a chill descended on the East-West and hopes for cooperation evaporated.
• The reasons for the decline in relations have been debated by diplomats and scholars.

• Europe after the Second World War.
• The map shows the main changes that took place in Europe during and after the war, including the Soviet Union's expansion at the expense of its western neighbors, the westward shift of Poland, the division of Germany and Austria among four occupying powers, and the communist takeovers in eastern Europe.
• This was the shape of Europe for more than forty years, and most postwar frontiers in eastern Europe have lasted to the present day.

• There was a deep fear of communist expansion on the Western side.
• The fear was heightened by the presence of Soviet military power in central and eastern Europe.

• After Roosevelt's death, the new American leader, Harry Truman, proposed to ignore prior agreements about Allied military occupation zones in Germany.
• Truman turned down that proposal, but the Americans and British protested against Stalin's failure to provide free elections in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Albania.
• Stalin lowered the "Iron Curtain" between the East and the West.

• President Truman sent military and economic aid to Athens after communist-led guerrilla fighters threatened Greece in 1947.
• The Marshall Plan, named for his secretary of state, was a program of aid for economic recovery and integration in western Europe.

• The final steps in the division of Europe took place in 1949.
• The Amer icans, British, and French joined together to create the Federal Republic of Germany.
• The North American and western European countries formed a military alliance to defend against the Soviets.
• The treaty was supplemented with alliances in the Middle East and Southeast Asia.
• Huge arms expenditures by the United States would lead to the creation of the most powerful military strike forces ever assembled.

• In 1955, the Soviets formed a military alliance to counter NATO.
• The Warsaw Pact was a group of communist states in eastern Europe.
• The satellite states nearest to western Europe, the GDR, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, gradually turned their western borders into an Iron Curtain of barbed wire, watchtowers, and minefields so as to prevent an exodus of discontented citizens.
• The Berlin Wall was built by the GDR to keep its citizens from moving to the Federal Republic.

• Immediately after the war, the American nuclear monopoly was the most important fact.
• Russian leaders were worried that some American generals might support a war against the USSR.
• Soviet scientists worked feverishly to build a bomb of their own as a counter to the American weapon, aided by secret information supplied by agents in the West.

• In 1949, scientists and military leaders in the United States were surprised by this achievement.

• Even without the help of spies, the Russians were a match for the Americans in advanced technical undertakings.

• The Soviet demonstrations gave a degree of stability to the international situation.

• The two blocs were the most powerful forces in destabilizing the world order during the Cold War.
• The world had military and political poles in Washington and Moscow, as well as the geographical north and south poles.
• The term "the West" used to mean the North Atlantic and western European heartland of Western civilization.
• It came to be used to refer to the political and military grouping of NATO countries.

• The rival blocs grew less solid as time went on.
• The international scene was marked by growing national independence, as well as a wide variety of sociopolitical systems.
• The world was not in the hands of the superpowers.
• Even though their rivalry caused or worsened brutal local conflicts, the two groupings remained cohesive enough for the balance of terror between them to provide worldwide stability of a sort.

• The unity of the socialist camp began to break soon after it appeared.
• Even before Stalin's death, Yugoslavia's marshal, who was a communist, took actions that were more independent of Moscow.
• After Stalin's death, the new Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, uncovered the massive crimes committed by Stalin and initiated a policy of internal relaxation, "peaceful coexistence" with the West, and more freedom of action for the satellite countries.

• Khrushchev's "thaw" wasn't supposed to undermine communist dictatorship or ultimate Soviet control of the satellite countries.
• The worldwide victory of communism was expected by his successors.
• After the fall of the communist regime, the Hungarians were forced to return the limits of the freedom of the satellite countries.
• The Soviet military intervention in 1968 suppressed the "socialism with a human face" movement in Czechoslovakia.

• After Khrushchev's death, Leonid Brezhnev declared that his country had the right to intervene in any country of eastern Europe where socialism was threatened.
• The primary fear of Soviet military strategists was revealed by this declaration in the West.
• They believed that the defection of the satellite states would cause the Soviet Union to lose its "defensive buffer" against the West.
• The Polish government placed the country under martial law in the 1980s to protect Solidarity, which was under threat of another Soviet intervention.

• The island province of Taiwan was returned to the mainland by the Japanese in 1945.
• He established a rival "Republic of China" with its capital at Taipei and a claim to authority over the whole nation.

• After a period of dependence on Soviet aid, the Communist Chinese began to regard Mao as the principal ideologist of Marxism, and Beijing as the true capital of proletarian revolution.
• By 1962, there was a split between the two communist giants.
• Mao accused the Soviets of collaborating with the United States, while Brezhnev accused the Chinese of defecting from the socialist camp.
• In 1965, China successfully tested a nuclear weapon in order to deter the Soviet Union as much as the United States did.

• The United States reversed its policy towards the People's Republic of China in the 1970s, which made the Soviets more concerned about China's growing power.
• John Foster Dulles, the American secretary of state under President Eisenhower, wanted to contain the communist regime through diplomatic and economic strangulation.
• The Dulles policy had failed as other nations opened commerce with China.
• President Nixon decided to abandon the American policy in favor of the People's Republic.
• Nixon went to Beijing in 1972 under the guidance of his national security adviser, Henry A. Kissinger.
• "friendship" replaced hostility after the establishment of diplomatic missions in the two capitals.

• The Chinese wanted to counteract the American threat in order to keep their position with respect to the Soviets.
• Carter extended formal recognition to China in 1979.

• NATO was being transformed due to the swift postwar recovery of western Europe, as the communist bloc was becoming less monolithic.
• Initially, it consisted of six countries: France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
• Britain, Ireland, and Denmark joined the EEC in order to create a single trading area.
• A common set of tariffs was adopted for imports from outside the EEC.

• Europe experienced the most rapid economic advancement in its history during the 1960s and 1970s, and the rising standards of living were shared by all classes of the population.
• Food and housing were better than before the war, travel became more widespread, and class lines were blurred by increasing social mobility.
• Internal politics and ideology were affected by this prosperity.
• The Communist parties of western Europe worked out their own "democratic" Marxism, which was a departure from the Soviet political model.

• Economic growth slowed as EEC members began to feel the effects of factors such as oil price rises, decreases in birthrates, and increased costs of their welfare states.
• European countries inside and outside the Community believed in it as the key to their economic and political future.
• The Single European Act of 1986 provided for free movement of capital and labor across the frontiers of the member countries when new members joined.

• While the western European nations accepted lesser roles in global affairs, they felt a mounting urge to reestablish their traditional character and independence.
• Under the guidance of President Charles de Gaulle, France enjoyed a cultural and economic resurgence.
• The strong influence that American politicians, generals, and business representatives had in Europe after the Second World War was the reason why de Gaulle acted against the United States in NATO.
• In 1966, he ordered the U.S. military to leave France after establishing a French nuclear strike force.

• He was against any growth in power of the Community's central institutions at the expense of national governments while trying to build up France's influence in Europe in partnership with Germany.
• The policies of de Gaulle have been carried on by his successors in Paris.

• The fear of the Soviet Union was a factor in Europe's mounting spirit of independence.
• The Russian policy after Stalin's death gave no indication of a desire for military adventure on the Continent, as the American-Soviet balance of terror cast a protective cloak over Europe.
• Britain developed its own nuclear force in the late 1950s after sharing atomic secrets with the United States during the Second World War.
• The chancellor of the German Federal Republic sought to turn off the Cold War on the Continent.
• He accepted for his prospering country the postwar political boundaries of central and eastern Europe during successful talks in Moscow in 1970.

• The agreement gave formal support to East-West detente by guaranteeing "human rights" for their own citizens.
• Europe's political leaders saw no alternative to detente with the Soviet Union.

• Both blocs showed no sign of dissolving.
• The economy and armed forces of the Soviet Union were larger than those of all of its allies as well as those of its rival, China, and most of the eastern European countries remained faithful satellites of Moscow.
• The United States was less dominant in the West.
• It was dependent on a well-understood bargain with the European and other allies.
• The United States would use its military power to defend its allies, even if it cost more.
• In all military and diplomatic matters, it would act in its own interests and consult them whenever it wanted.
• In times of crisis, the allies would act together under the leadership of the U.S. During the Cold War, there was a world order, but it was not as strong as it could have been.

• The end of intercontinental empires came in the 19th century.

• Britain, France, and Japan were weakened or defeated in the war.
• In most cases, the leaders of the colonial countries were opposed to imperial rule because of the Western ideas of nationalism and progress.
• The leaders saw the chance to lead their nations to independence.

• The result was brutal wars of colonial liberation when the imperial countries resisted the demand for independence.
• The empires were no longer a source of strength and prosperity for their owners but an economic and military burden.
• The superpowers had their own imperialist traditions, but they opposed the practice of imperialism by anyone else.
• Between the late 1940s and the 1960s, the colonial empires mostly disappeared.

• The struggle for decolonization was more than just between the colonial peoples and the im perial countries.
• Conflicts between the colonial peoples and the imperial countries over control of territories that the imperial countries gave up are still unresolved today.

• The loss of the American colonies taught the British that it was hard to hold together overseas.
• The British began giving self-government to countries like Canada and Australia at the height of their power in the 19th century.
• These countries have become friends with Britain.

• They hoped to benefit from established ties of commerce and culture and keep a measure of political influence around the globe.
• The word "British" was eventually dropped from the organization's name.

• Pakistan wanted the Commonwealth to be their common property, not that of any one member.

• The freeing of India from British rule was the most important step in the end of colonialism.
• Before the Second World War, limited self-rule was granted to the 400 million people of the subcontinent.
• At the end of the war, Indian nationalists insisted on full independence.

• In 1947, the last British viceroy, Lord Louis Mountbatten, agreed to partition the colony into two independent states in order to avoid violence.
• India was the name of the Hindu portion of the subcontinent.
• India and Pakistan became members of the British Commonwealth on their own.

• The violence that Mountbatten had hoped to avoid took place.

• Muslims and Hindus retaliated against each other because they were dissatisfied with the terms of the division.
• The Hindu prince who ruled the majority Muslim population of Kashmir gave his authority to India.
• In 1949, the territory was divided along a cease-fire line that has remained in place ever since, but this has not prevented many disputes and armed conflicts between India and its unwilling Kashmiri citizens, as well as between India and Pakistan.

• The two territories of Pakistan, one in the west and the other in the east, were separated by over a thousand miles.
• The eastern territory rebelled against the central government in 1971.
• The rebels established an independent state in Bangladesh.
• India and other outside powers provided aid to this poor, war-torn land.
• Out of the conflict with India, ethnic divisions, political corruption, and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism, the remaining state of Pakistan encountered stubborn difficulties in achieving stability.
• After ten years of military rule, a civilian government headed by a woman was voted into power.
• Her party suffered defeat at the polls in 1990 due to allegations of incompetence and corruption, as well as a return to political influence by the military.

• India faced mounting economic and political problems.
• In 1975, the Indian prime minister, Indira Gandhi, suspended constitutional guarantees and tightened her personal control over the country.
• The prime minister and her Congress party were defeated in parliamentary elections.

• Gandhi and her party were swept back into power in 1980, after the opposition groups fell apart.

• The country was shocked by the fighting between government forces and Sikh rebels in Punjab state.

• Britain, France, Japan, the Netherlands, and the Soviet Union were all part of the imperial domain in 1939.
• Afghanistan, China, Japan, Mongolia, the Philippines, and Thailand are shakily independent.
• After fifteen years, British, French, Japanese, and Dutch rule ended and the Soviet rule collapsed.
• The region has twenty-nine independent countries.

• She was shot dead as an act of revenge by members of her bodyguard.
• In 1984 her son, Rajiv Gandhi, was elected as prime minister.
• He had hopes for national reconciliation.
• Five years after being voted out of power, Rajiv was assassinated by a coalition of opposition parties.

• In 1957 and 1960, the British granted freedom to the Gold Coast and Nigeria.

• Most of Africa was ruled by a few countries in the late 60's.
• South Africa was ruled by a minority of European settlers.

• Most of Africa gained independence in 1964, except in the south, where the opposition of Portugal and South Africa delayed it until the 1970s and 1980s.

• Cuba and the Soviet Union supported Marxist regimes in the 1980s.
• Forty-nine countries are independent today.

• The end of imperialism in some African territories of the British Empire was slowed by the fact that the European population did not consist only of soldiers and administrators.
• Some European settlers were unwilling to leave countries that had become their homes or give up their position as privileged elites.
• In East Africa, a white minority resisted black participation in the government, leading to a rebellion by blacks.
• After the rebellion was defeated, Britain granted independence to Kenya.
• The first African experiment in multiracial government was launched by Kenyatta, despite the British detaining him on suspicion of being involved in the Mau Mau movement.

• There was a bitter racial fight in southern Africa.
• Ian Smith, the leader of the all-white government in South ern Rhodesia, declared independence in 1965, despite the fact that there was a large and privileged European minority.
• Some blacks formed bands of armed resistance after Britain imposed economic sanctions against Southern Rhodesia.
• The British succeeded in getting all parties to agree on a new constitution and free elections in 1980.
• The country's name was changed to Zimbabwe after the black majority chose Robert Mugabe as the new leader.

• The Re public of South Africa was the territory where the white population was the largest.
• South Africa came under British rule in the 19th century.
• In 1910, it became a state within the British Empire, thanks to its resources of gold, diamonds, and coal.
• The business elite and professional classes were mostly of British origin, but a larger population of working-class and farm-owning Afrikaners ran the government through their elected representatives.

• The native Africans, Indian immigrants, and "Coloureds" of mixed race were outnumbered by whites by ten to one.
• Only whites were able to vote, and the better jobs and advanced education were only available to whites.
• In a relatively advanced industrial society, nonwhites made gains all the same, and in the late 1940s, radical Afrikaner politicians came to power who were determined to hold the nonwhites down.

• South Africa was a democracy for whites and a police state for most nonwhites for twenty years.
• The African National Congress was banned in 1960.
• Nelson Mandela spent the next quarter of a century in prison after being convicted of sabotage.
• The wind of change was blowing against South Africa.
• South Africa was forced out of the British Commonwealth in 1961.
• As South Africa became more isolated in the world and its northern neighbors began to fall under African rule, apartheid began to fall.

• After the rise of Islam, most of the population were Arabs, and the territory was once the homeland of the Jews.

• The Middle East was mostly ruled by local monarchs in 1939.
• Iran and Saudi Arabia were more independent than France in Syria and Lebanon.
• The Persian Gulf region became the world's main supplier of oil and the Soviet Union and the United States tried to take over from Britain.
• The United States became the main target of local grievances.

• At the turn of the century, Zionism appeared in Europe.
• It was seen by many Jews as the only permanent solution to the problem of discrimination in Christian states.
• The British cabinet promised support for a national home in Palestine during the First World War.

• The Arabs of Palestine saw this migration as a new form of Western imperialism.
• The Jews were thought to be an expansionist colony on the Arab shore.

• There were terrorist acts by both sides against each other and the British in 1946, when violence broke out between Jewish and Arab armed groups.
• The United Nations voted for an independent Palestine after Britain withdrew.

• The descendants of Aqaba still live.

• Many Jews fled government harassment and mob violence in Arab countries and settled in Israel.

• The existence of the Jewish state was defended by most non-Arab nations.
• Britain and France were eager to keep their influence in the Middle East.
• The three countries tried to overthrow the nationalist leader of Egypt, who had sponsored guerrilla attacks against Israel, and helped an Algeria revolt against French rule.
• The attempt came to nothing because the United States and the Soviet Union pressured all three nations to call off the war.

• The changing balance of world power was an important moment in the Middle East, as well as in other parts of the world.
• The French learned that Britain and America were not to be relied on, so that France could never again exercise worldwide influence except as a member of the European Community.
• The British decided that they needed to be part of Europe, even though they would never act independently of the United States.
• Israel decided to rely on the United States for its survival in the future.
• All three countries have kept these decisions.

• The "Six-Day War" of June 1967, was Israel's most impressive demonstration of strength.
• In a lightning attack, Israel smashed larger surrounding forces of Egyptians, Syrians, and Jordanians.
• The West Bank of the Jordan River was wrested from Jordan.
• The Arabs refused to recognize Israel and its occupation of their territories.
• The Soviet Union gave them new arms that they wanted to use in the Middle East.
• The UN Security Council passed a resolution calling for Israeli withdrawal in return for peace.
• Some Arab states did not accept the resolution in principle.
• Israel needed the West Bank and Gaza for its security and the west had a historic right to those areas.
• Israel settled its citizens in the occupied territories.

• After six years of waiting, the Egyptians and Syrians attacked the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur in 1973.
• Israeli forces, hastily reinforced by weapons from the United States, recovered from heavy initial losses.

• The embargo on shipments to all nations supporting the cause of Israel was imposed by the Arab oil-exporting states as a war measure.
• The industrialized countries were dependent on oil and pressed Israel to come to an agreement with the Arabs.

• Egypt shifted from relying on the Soviet Union to having a close relationship with the United States.
• The United States was in a position to influence the Israeli course of action because it had become the only ally that Israel relied on.
• Henry Kissinger, the American secretary of state at the time, did not bring a peaceful settlement to the Middle East in his "step-by-step" diplomacy.

• The first break in the feud between Israel and the Arabs was caused by the growth of American influence in the Middle East.
• The Egyptian president made a "surprise" flight from Cairo to Jerusalem in 1977.
• He proposed a permanent settlement to the Israeli prime minister on the basis of "land for peace" in return for Egypt's recognition of Israel and the establishment of normal diplomatic relations.
• The terms were worked out at a series of summit meetings chaired by President Jimmy Carter.

• In particular Libya, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, Sadat's negotiations were viewed as a separate peace with a common enemy.
• The understandings between Israel and Egypt were mostly fulfilled.

• In 1982 Begin, a believer in the historic right of the Jews to possess the West Bank territories, made an effort to settle the issue on terms favorable to Israel.

• The Israeli army invaded Lebanon to clear out anti-Israeli guerrilla units of the Palestine Liberation Organization that were based there, and at the same time to destroy Palestinian hopes that the PLO would ever form an independent government.
• Christians would follow the example of Egypt and sign a peace treaty if a friendly government in Lebanon was installed by the Israelis.

• In the course of the invasion, the Israeli forces killed thousands of people in Lebanon.
• There was revulsion in Israel against the savagery of these methods and the Israeli forces suffered a lot of losses.
• Ronald Reagan ordered American troops to the capital of Lebanon in order to support the Israeli effort to set up a client government.

• In 1983, a suicide bomber drove a truck full of explosives into a building that was being used by the U.S. marines.
• In one of the worst disasters in Marine Corps history, more than 220 marines died in their beds.
• The president said that terrorist acts wouldn't force the United States to run out of commitments.
• American ground and naval forces were withdrawn from Lebanon within a few months.
• After 1985 Israeli troops withdrew gradually, occupying a small strip of land north of Israel's border with Syria in the course of peace negotiations.

• The Lebanon war made it clear to the Israelis that they were not strong enough to impose peace on any Arab country by force, and that the Americans would back down in the face of truck bombs.
• The guerrilla campaigns against both countries were encouraged by Syria.
• The fighting between Christians, Sunni Muslims, Shiite Muslims, and Palestinians that had been going on since 1972 ended when its troops occupied most of the country.
• Lebanon developed into an uneasily functioning democracy in the 1990s, where different religious groups had their share of political power.

• The French tried to bring their colonies into closer political association than the British.
• They offered them membership in the French Union.
• The approach failed because it only appealed to a small group of colonial subjects who had been educated in French schools and had come to respect and admire French culture.
• After the Second World War, Charles de Gaulle promised the colonies that assisted him a free choice of status.
• The French Community was a short-lived association that resembled the British Commonwealth.
• Despite their political choices, the former French territories in Africa still rely heavily on French military aid, investment, and trade.

• In Algeria, where there was a large minority of European settlers, and in Indochina, where the independence leaders were communists, the French went to war in a vain attempt to hold political power.
• They were forced to withdraw from both after brutal fighting and heavy losses.
• Algeria became independent in 1962.
• Vietnam was temporarily divided by an international conference into a communist-ruled north, after securing their independence from France in 1954.
• The United States took up the fight to prevent a communist victory in the southern half of the country after the French gave up.

• After the Second World War, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Portugal tried to regain their colonies.
• The Dutch lost control of the East Indies to the Japanese in 1942.
• The state of Indonesia has a population of over 100 million.
• In 1960, the rising tide of nationalism forced the Belgians to agree to freedom without adequate preparation.

• The Portuguese were determined to keep their hold on the southern African territories, which they viewed as part of Portugal.
• The native resistance forces used guerrilla tactics to break the will of the colonial masters.
• Portuguese commanders observing the futility of their own military efforts brought about a turnover in the imperial home government in Lisbon.
• The Portuguese government granted independence to these territories in 1975.

• The turn to dependence went ahead even though the resistance movement remained unified.
• The Portuguese withdrawal led to a civil war among three competing parties, which was complicated by intervention from outside powers.
• There was an official peace in 1991, but fighting continues.
• South Africa had an illegal occupation of Namibia from 1990 to 1990.
• The international agreement provided for free elections in the country.

• The idea of superiority of the white race over the other races of the world was one of the justifications for nineteenth-century imperialism.
• The imperialists argued that the nonwhite races were incapable of governing themselves on the Western level, or at least they would need many decades or even centuries of white rule before they were up to the task.

• The Nazi atrocities had shown the horrors to which racism could lead, and these ideas had always been opposed by the imperialist countries.
• The Second World War made it hard to claim that people of European origin were superior to other peoples of the world, and in any case, biology was not in favor of that idea.
• The idea of white racial superiority ceased to be respectable even among whites themselves, and social and political orders based on this idea came to be recognized as oppressive.

• The United States was most affected by decolonization.
• The countries that it directly ruled, as opposed to those that it indirectly influenced, had never been large, and some of those countries, such as the Philippines, had already won independence before the Second World War.
• The United States came into being as a result of European expansion.
• It practiced slavery on a massive scale after wresting its actual home territory from earlier inhabitants.
• The United States has a long history of racism and racial oppression.

• The first Europeans to arrive in the United States were in New England and Virginia.
• The tribes were nearly wiped out over the years and their culture was destroyed.
• The Indian policy was reversed by the Roosevelt administration.
• The new policy aimed at respecting and protecting the cultures of the Native Americans, though other serious problems affecting their welfare have persisted.

• Other minority peoples in the United States have also been directed with racism.

• Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans are both growing rapidly.
• African Americans have played a special role in U.S. history.

• The lynching of black men accused of serious crimes against whites was one of the consequences of the end of legal slavery.
• In civil, political, social, and economic affairs, African Americans began to approach equality with whites in the middle of the twentieth century.

• This decision ended the principle of "separate but equal" education for black children and called for progressive integration of the races in public-supported schools and colleges.
• The decision was resisted by whites in many communities, but by 1970, it appeared to have been accepted in principle.
• The tradition of the "neighborhood school" and resistance to the busing of children to different schools "for racial balance" kept schools substantially segregation in spite of the ruling.

• Black leaders worked harder to end "Jim Crowism" and place more blacks on voter registration rolls.
• During the 1960s, these efforts were supported by sit-ins, boycotts, mass demonstrations, and civil disobedience.
• Aggressive legal actions were taken by the NAACP and the Baptist minister Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.

• King was for full integration of the races, equal opportunity, and non violence.
• The younger members of the black community fell away from his leadership in the late 1960s.
• Poor food and housing is still a problem for blacks in the urban ghettos.
• The white power structure needs to be persuaded that more needs to be done for blacks.
• There were cries for "black power," militancy, and violence.
• Most blacks hated the police because they patrolled black neighborhoods like soldiers of an occupying army.
• In the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles and in Detroit and Washington, there were riots after police clashed with the people.

• The assassination of Martin Luther King was a blow to the black movement.
• The movement was pushed further toward militancy by it.
• The growing number of black converts to Islam was motivated by unhappiness with their situation in a society dominated by white Christians.
• The "law and order" issue in the country was worsened by a white backlash.
• Police forces were enlarged and more heavily armed, they sought out militant groups, kept them under watch, raided their headquarters, and often brought court charges against their leaders.

• The 1970s and 1980s saw a decrease in violence, but racial tension remained high.
• There was division within the African American community between those who favored continued efforts toward integration and those who preferred racial separation.
• Blacks who were successful displayed a stronger spirit of pride, independence, and energy than ever before.
• In the advance of black athletes in competitive sports, this spirit was visible in virtually all the arts and professions.

• Despite affirmative action programs designed to employ more minorities in industry and public service, business recessions have been most heavily on nonwhites.
• The majority of the country has resented these programs as "reverse discrimination" and supported moves to repeal them.
• The result of civil rights and affirmative action has been the growth of a large and prosperous black middle class, as well as a growth in political and government power, especially at the local level, with African American mayors elected in many large cities.
• Louis Farrakhan was the leader of the Nation of Islam.
• Black Republicans are a minority among African Americans in the upper reaches of the George W. Bush administration.

• The leaders of the liberated peoples of Asia and Africa, as well as of Latin American nations that hoped for freedom from foreign dominance in the newly decolonized world--knew that there was no going back to the old times before the colonial empires.
• They wanted their people to be able to reproduce some of the achievements of their former imperial rulers, in particular, national freedom, unity, and power, and the possibility of health, wealth, and leisure for all.
• The nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America could take their rightful place in the world because of the building of powerful nation-states and wealthy industrial economies.

• In the world in which they won independence, the former imperial nations still had the lion's share of wealth and power, even if they were divided between the West and the socialist camp.
• Many Asian, African, and Latin American nations hoped to change the world order into a "tripolar" one that would better reflect their interests and values.

• The ideal of a united Third World as a pillar of a reformed world order has great appeal in the ex-colonial nations, but from the start, many realities worked against it.

• There were many different traditions of civilization in the Third World countries.
• In many cases, their borders had originally been drawn by the colonial powers.
• Many Third World countries were peasant societies in which a few powerful groups held most of the wealth and competed for power.
• The corruption, government instability, rule by dictatorial strongmen, and horrible international and civil wars were all caused by this.

• It was difficult for Third World countries to give up their traditional role as suppliers of raw materials and food to other countries.
• They depended on these countries for access to markets, financial credit, and technical aid as often as not.

• Many Third World countries were caught in a web of political and economic dependency on their former rulers, even after independence, because of their internal conflicts and economic weaknesses.

• There were two possible paths for Third World countries to go in order to gain national power and industrial wealth.
• To oppose the political and economic dominance of the West on the pattern of earlier opposition to imperial rule was one of the paths of resistance.
• To acknowledge the West as a senior partner in an interdependent world in the hope that junior partnership would speed development and lead in the end to equality was the path of cooperation.

• Many Third World countries deviated from the path they chose when it led to failure or conflict.
• In Muslim countries, an international movement of Islamic fundamentalism grew up that rejected both partnership with the West and resistance just for the sake of escaping political and economic dependency.
• The new movement proclaimed Jihad against the West in the name of the one truth about the one God.
• It still wanted unity and power, but on a religious basis.
• It was not opposed to the pursuit of wealth, health, and leisure as long as the societies pursued the Islamic truth.

• Others were on good terms with the West, but their governments wanted to declare economic and social as well as political independence.
• The path of resistance was likely to be followed by all such countries.
• They were likely to nationalize foreign-owned companies and introduce government planning.
• They wanted to take advantage of the world order by playing one bloc against the other so as to get the maximum help from both.

• The movements would bring down the Western country's anger and turn it into support for the socialist camp.
• Resistance would turn into confrontation between the local radicals and the patron country, as well as between the rival blocs.
• Cuba and Vietnam were the places where the most noteworthy confrontations took place.

• Cuba won independence from Spain in 1898 with the help of the United States, but this did not lead to real independence before or after the Second World War.
• The United States was heavily involved in Cuban affairs.

• From 1933 to 1959 it was influenced by one man, a former army sergeant.
• He was the real force in most of the Cuban governments with or without elections.
• The hated dictator was ousted in 1959 by a revolutionary movement.
• Castro's first act in power was to nationalize the country's agriculture and industry, which had been owned by Americans.
• Cuba became an authoritarian model of national liberation from a foreign-controlled political and economic establishment.

• The goal of Castro's movement was to put the resources of the country at the disposal of its own people.
• Castro and the other leaders were aware that continued independence and the effective use of resources depended on health care and improved education; universal literacy was essential if their purposes were to be understood and their programs successfully carried out.
• Technical education was emphasized so that the young men and women of each new nation could operate the complicated machines that promised a better future.
• The cost of education and resources were found to be high by the new leaders.
• Popular disappointment and frustration was the result.
• In Cuba, many thousands fled their homeland to seek a freer and more comfortable life in the United States.

• Castro faced grave internal and external handicaps in carrying his program forward.
• The United States has maintained a trade embargo against Cuba, despite President John F. Kennedy's approval of the "Bay of Pigs" invasion.
• The CIA plotted the assassination of Castro after the invasion failed.

• Lyndon B. Johnson sent troops into the Do minican Republic in 1965, in order to protect the United States from communism in the Western Hemisphere.
• After his election in 1968, President Richard M. Nixon proposed a shift in means for areas outside the hemisphere.
• Native troops with American arms would be expected to fight against communist forces there.
• Normally, combat assistance from the United States would be limited to air and sea units.
• The strategy was confirmed by President Gerald Ford in 1975.
• Jimmy Carter followed a more restrained policy of intervention, but Ronald Reagan, who became chief executive in 1981, ordered stronger action and a build up of American military forces overseas.

• After the French left, Americans replaced them in South Vietnam with special forces.
• As the South Vietnamese were unable to suppress a guerrilla uprising inspired from the North, President Johnson decided to take full-scale American involvement.

• Hundreds of thousands of troops were sent to South Vietnam by Johnson to aid the army of the north, which was supported by hundreds of warships and thousands of aircraft.
• By the end of the Second World War, the total amount of cargo dropped by the United States was three times that of the United States.

• By 1968, it was clear that the communist forces would not give up and that the American voters were becoming more opposed to the slaughter.
• The death toll from the American war was over forty thousand, while the death toll from the Vietnam war was estimated at more than a million.

• President Johnson decided not to run for reelection.

• The "se cret plan" for peace in Vietnam was included in the platform of the next president, Richard Nixon.
• The plan called for the gradual withdrawal of American combat forces.
• The plan called for the war to be carried into Cambodia and Laos in order to facilitate the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam.

• The Nixon administration wanted the United States to remain in the South indefinitely as guarantors against a takeover by the North Vietnamese.
• Nixon's critics in Congress called for a complete withdrawal of American forces from Vietnam.
• Domestic politics in the United States have become more focused on the war.
• By the summer of 1971, the antiwar movement had displayed growing strength in mass marches on Washington and other cities.

• Nixon sent his security adviser, Henry Kissinger, to engage in peace talks with the North Vietnamese.
• The political objectives between the North and the South were irreconcilable.

• Most voters believed that the Nixon-Kissinger "magic" had ended the fighting for good and cast their votes for the president.

• In 1973, there was a time of revelation for Nixon and the American people.
• The communist forces of Vietnam believed that South Vietnam would never allow the political compromises suggested in the agreement.
• The west's armies began to give ground after most American forces were withdrawn.
• In 1975, South Vietnam was quickly taken over by "liberation" troops.
• The leaders in the North have tried to consolidate the two halves of the country, repair the enormous damages left by the war, and develop a workable national economy.
• Foreign investment came in during the 1980s and 1990s.
• The United States extended full diplomatic recognition to the Hanoi regime in 1995.

• Cambodia had a disastrous sequel to the Vietnam War.
• Cambodia fell to the Khmer Rouge, an extreme Marxist group that had fought for years as guerrillas against various governments in the capital.
• Pol Pot sealed off the country in 1976 and proceeded to transform it into a collectivized society.
• People were forced to leave the cities and clear new lands to work on irrigation projects and farms.
• Several million Cambodians perished as a result of these shocking dislocations.

• The genocidal government was overthrown by Cambodian rebels in 1978 and the Khmer Rouge fought on as guerrillas.

• The United Nations tried to resolve the political and military situation in Cambodia but could not because of the unpopularity of the Vietnamese.
• Thousands of refugees fled Cambodia, as well as other parts of Asia, over land and by sea, loaded onto rickety vessels headed for any foreign port that would accept them.

• The UN succeeded in establishing a democratic government in Cambodia in 1993, headed by a respected constitutional monarch.
• In 1996, a large group came over to the government after the Khmer Rouge refused to participate.
• The country has largely been free of civil war since then, though the democratic legitimacy of the present prime minister, Samdech Hung Sen, who staged rigged elections in 1998, is questionable.

• In the 70s, there was an effort to pursue the path of resistance through peaceful and democratic methods.
• The president is elected by regular constitutional procedures.
• While in office, Allende sought authority for sweeping landholding reforms and for state ownership of banks and basic industries; he defended democratic methods, legality, and civil liberties.
• The conservative opponents of the president used the press, the Congress, and their economic power to block Allende's legislative program and his efforts to increase national production.
• By 1973, Allende was faced with staggering inflation, internal unrest, and secret intervention by the American CIA.
• His generals and admirals staged a bloody military coup against his government.

• The president was killed by the rebels at his desk in the palace.

• The new military government, headed by General Augusto Pinochet, proceeded to kill its opponents.
• Pinochet set out to establish a laissez-faire economy with the help of American loans and financial advisers, after it was recognized by the United States government.
• The economy of the country was stable.
• Moderate leftwing and right-wing forces cooperated against Pinochet's dictatorship and he left office in 1989.
• He was able to avoid prosecution for the crimes of his regime because of his age and health.

• In Latin America, most countries remained under the control of the wealthy, the Catholic Church, and the military even after democratic forms of government were adopted.
• The first independent states of Latin America were mostly dictatorships and repressive in the twentieth century.
• A new "liberation theology" was preached by many parish priests towards the end of the century to improve the conditions of the poor.
• The rapid spread of evangelical Protestant faiths in the area diminished Catholic power as a whole.
• The main goal of the Latin nations was economic modernization, and with it came the impact of foreign capital.
• The major outside influence was American business.

• Mexico tried to conduct a foreign policy that was free of American influence.
• In Brazil, military rulers used foreign investment to pursue an independent course of economic growth.
• In 1978 Panama regained control of the Canal Zone, which had been occupied by the United States in 1903.
• The treaty of transfer was approved by the Senate despite furious objections from some senators.
• The United States regained its power in Panama in 1990.

• Bush sent an invasion force to oust Noriega.

• The Sandinista National Liberation Front brought down the regime of the corrupt Somoza family in 1979.
• In spite of ideological reservations, President Carter responded with cautious friendship and assistance after the Sandinistas installed a socialist government.
• Ronald Reagan reversed this position in 1981.

• Many Third World countries sought national power and industrial wealth through cooperation with the West rather than resistance.
• Some felt more threatened by the Soviet Union or China than by the United States or their former colonial rulers, and they hoped for the West's help in disputes with other Third World countries.
• The unpopular governments that needed the help of the West in order to hold on to power were so poor that they could not keep going without aid from their former rulers.
• To align themselves with the West against the socialist camp, and to welcome Western investment, were some of the things these countries were likely to do.

• Japan, a non-Western country that had already learned from the West, joined the ranks of the imperialist powers in the East Asian model.
• The defeat of the Second World War gave the Japanese a lot of reasons to cooperate with and learn from the West.
• Japan was bound by its peace treaty and its constitution to a nonmilitary foreign policy, it became a fully democratic system of government, and it relied on a close alliance with the United States.

• As a loyal member of the "free world," Japan followed a capi talist pattern of economic reconstruction, but it was capitalism in the service of national prosperity and power.
• Companies worked closely with each other and with the government to identify new markets and promote new technologies.
• Business leaders limited the power and independence of labor unions by not laying off or dismissing workers.
• Foreign investors were unable to gain control of Japanese companies because of many formal and informal barriers.

• Over the course of a quarter of a century, Japan transformed itself from a devas tated country into a competitive, low-wage supplier of basic industrial products and then became a high-wage exporter of every kind of high-quality manufactured goods.

• By 1970, Japan had overtaken China in gross national product and was ranked third in the world.

• As the Japanese economy grew, so did the economies of other Third World countries.

• The northern half was turned into a communist state by the Soviets, while the southern half was organized as a "democratic-capitalist" state.

• One of the powers ruled each area.

• In 1950, North Korean troops with Soviet arms attacked the south, which was saved only by swift Western military intervention, authorized by the United Nations Security Council.
• The Americans were prevented from overrunning the north by China.
• In 1951, a cease-fire was agreed, but two more years of negotiations followed before a final truce was signed.
• Korea was divided at the 38th parallel.

• South Korea, traditionally the agricultural half of the country, came out of the war as a devastated peasant society, kept going by United States aid and held together by military rule.
• South Korea was seen as an outlet for investment and a source of low-cost components by the Japanese in the 1960s.
• The South Koreans were afraid of giving control of their economy to their former imperial occupiers, even though they needed Japanese money and machinery.

• There are barriers to foreign control of South Korean companies and guaranteed employment in Japan.

• By 1980, the country's economy took off, and it was on the way to becoming an advanced industrial society, though still, for the time being, under the authoritarian government of generals.

• The communist dictatorship in North Korea had followed a different path from recovery in the 1950s to stagnation and poverty.
• The country's problems were made worse by the grotesque cult of its "Great Leader" Kim Il Song and by the pursuit of military superiority over the south, to include, in time, nuclear weapons.
• The socialist camp was embarrassed by the contrast between the two halves of Korea.

• By 1980, Japanese investment and Japanese-style economic and indus trial practices were bringing prosperity to other Far Eastern countries, above all Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand.

• European industries vied for markets with Far Eastern competitors.

• The United States could not convince Japan to change its restrictive policies on imports because it owed the country billions of dollars.
• The path of cooperation turned the East Asian countries into rivals of the West.

• Islam claims to have a special knowledge of and close relationship to the almighty God.
• It has been a formative force in many societies that stretch across the Eastern Hemisphere from West Africa to Indonesia.
• A new division has appeared in the Islamic world due to new secular ideologies and deep social changes.
• On the other hand, there are Muslims who are influenced by secular ideologies who are optimistic about the effect of social change.

• Christianity and Judaism have the same split between modernizers and fundamentalists.
• The changes and challenges that Islam is facing today are not from the Muslim world.

• The values and ways of a different civilization are what Muslim modernizers are trying to introduce into their societies.

• Muslim modernizers have failed to give Islamic societies a place in the world equal to that of the West.
• Many reforms were introduced by the Muslim monarchs of the 19th century, but most of their countries ended up as part of a European empire.
• A new generation of modernizing leaders of Islamic countries who were committed to the Third World goal of reproducing the achievements of the West came after decolonization.
• Third World problems included corrupt elites, ethnic and tribal rivalries, struggles over the inheritance of the colonial empires, and dependency on one or other of the power blocs.

• In the Middle East, both blocs were determined to wield the maximum influence as they both had vital interests there.
• The soviet union did not want the west to become too powerful in a region that lay directly on its southern border.
• The inability of secular-minded Arab nationalist leaders to stop the Jewish state of Israel from coming into being was the single greatest failure of the Islamic modernizers.

• For these reasons, fundamentalism in Islam has been more radical than in Christianity or Judaism.
• Its appeal is felt by groups in Islamic societies whose lives have changed the most under Western influence, such as peasants who move to the towns or college students.
• In spite of its traditionalism, its belief and practice are more rigorous than in the past and are promoted by Western-style methods.
• A kind of religious dictatorship that is actually an innovation in Islam is called fundamentalism.

• The Islamic variety sees the West as the ultimate source of evil, not only in the Muslim world, but also in the United States.

• Iran's history goes back before Islam to the ancient Persian Empire.
• After the discovery of huge oil reserves in the early twentieth century, Britain and Russia competed for influence over Iran, but the country kept its independence.

• Iran turned to the United States as a counterbalance against the Soviets after the Second World War.
• In 1951, a nationalist leader, Muhammad Mossadeq, came to power and took control of the oil fields away from American and British companies.
• After Mossadeq was overthrown by Iran's ruler, Reza Shah Pahlavi, Iran became an absolute monarchy.

• Shah Pahlavi used American aid and his government's oil revenues.
• He started a program of rapid modernization and industrialization after lavishing funds on his armed forces.
• Many members of the Iranian middle class shared in the oil prosperity, but most of the benefits went to a few.
• The modernization efforts of the shah were against Islamic tradition.
• He used oppression and harassment to undermine the power of the Shiite clergy, made clear his sympathy with Western secular ways, and promoted a cult of himself as successor of the Persian kings of the times before Islam.
• The leaders called for a return to religious tradition and a fair economic order.

• The shah was under pressure in 1979.
• There were riots and street demonstrations.
• Thousands of people were imprisoned, tortured, or killed by the military, but at last the shah's soldiers refused to shoot at their rebelling fellow Iranians.
• The monarch was forced to flee for his life because of American support, and the leader of the revolt returned to Tehran in triumph.

• The Islamic Republic of Iran was established once the revolutionaries were in power.
• Hundreds of the shah's military and civilian officials were put on trial and executed by the new Revolutionary Council.
• It respected dress and behavior, especially for women.
• The shah's policies of expanding women's education at every level from grade school to college continued despite the regime's efforts to mobilize women in political and social organizations.
• The Iranian fundamentalists wanted to build a modern society with Islamic religious values instead of Western secular ones.

• The confrontation with America began when the hated shah received medical treatment in New York City.
• The staff of the American embassy in Tehran were taken hostage.
• In return for their release, the militant demanded the return of the shah, recovery of the enormous wealth he had transferred abroad, and an end to American interference in Iran's affairs.

• The public reaction in the United States was very angry.
• President Carter's concern for the lives of the hostages overruled the desire to resort to force.
• Carter cut off all trade with Iran and froze Iranian assets in the US in response to the crisis.
• He appealed to the UN and his European allies to take action against violators of international law.
• The Iranians did not relent.
• They were gripped by hatred for the American government and religious fervor.
• After a failed rescue mission by the Americans, the hostages were finally released in 1981.
• They did it in exchange for the unfreezing of Iranian assets and a pledge of non interference in Iranian affairs.

• The loss of Iran was a blow to American interests.
• The Carter administration was worried that the oil fields of the Middle East were in danger.
• Carter was aware of the possibility of a Soviet march into a weakened Iran, as well as the danger of Iranian-style revolutions spreading to nearby oil states.
• He responded by increasing the number of American warships in the Persian Gulf and by starting a rapid deployment force for use in the Middle East.

• The Soviets were delighted by the humiliation of the United States, but at the same time they were worried that the Islamic tide could flow from Iran to a Muslim country like Afghanistan.
• The Soviets sent troops into Afghanistan late in 1979 to install a pro-Soviet regime because of this concern.

• This move caused a negative reaction in the United States and Europe and jeopardized the detente with Russia.
• The Soviets are being made as much of a target of Islamic fundamentalist hatred as Israel and the United States.

• The conflict continued until the United Nations brokered a ceasefire in 1988.
• The United States placed a trade embargo on Iran because of their suspected support of international terrorism.

• Forty years after the end of the Second World War, the rivalry and partnership of the capitalist First World and the communist Second World, with the Third World uncomfortably straddling the other two, seemed a permanent fact of the world order.
• The world as a whole faced grave threats in the 1980s due to the rapid growth of modern civilization's technical and industrial capacities and its vulnerability to disruption.

• Population growth, re source use, and pollution are interrelated threats.
• The economic relations between the First and Third Worlds were connected to this.
• The large-scale manufacture of nuclear and thermonuclear weapons posed a problem.
• The increasing use of terrorism as a weapon in international, ethnic, and social conflicts was a third.

• There was a lot of debate about who was to blame for the problems and how they should be solved.
• There have been disagreements over these and similar questions for a long time.
• The human race faced worldwide threats that needed worldwide measures to counter them.

• We have seen advances in science and technology.
• sweeping changes in social conditions were primarily responsible for.
• Improvements in food production and medical practices led to an increase in the number of people in the world after 1800.
• The number of people added to the world's population each year was greater than ever before in the twentieth century.
• More than five billion people were added in the decade of the 1980s, bringing the cumulative increase to more than one billion.
• The total reached six billion by the year 2000.

• The food supply kept up with population growth, but there wasn't much improvement in nutrition.
• The Green Revolution, which introduced better grain seeds in the 1970s, lifted yields, but the increases were limited by inadequate supplies of water andfertilizer.
• The two-thirds of the globe where numbers rose the fastest were Asia and Latin America, where there were periodic famines.

• Nuclear power stations split atoms in radioactive materials and use the resulting heat to produce steam.
• The picture shows a reactor at Chernobyl, the day after an explosion caused by overheating and melting of the fuel.
• The aftermath shows the violence of the blast, and radioactive steam is still oozing into the atmosphere.

• The average American or European eats a lot more calories than Asian or African people.

• Other resources came up short as well.
• The residents of industrialized countries were shocked by the Arab oil embargo of 1973.
• The wheels of cars and factories slowed suddenly.
• For the first time in their lives, many consumers in the West became aware of the extended and intricate resource network on which their lifestyle rested.
• The fourfold increase in oil prices after the embargo was lifted showed the true value of a substance that had been bought cheaply and wasted.
• The flow of international monetary payments and the world balance of economic power were upset by the dramatic price hikes by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

• Fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, were urged to be replaced by atomic energy.
• The dilemma of modern technologists is that while the reactor helped fill energy needs, they created new problems such as operational safety, disposal of radioactive wastes, and the possible misuse by terrorists of the plutonium produced.

• Environmental pollution is caused by rising energy consumption, industrial waste, and the use of chemicals.
• The accidental release of a deadly gas from an American plant in India in 1985 highlighted the dangers.
• In a matter of hours or days, thousands of people were killed by this gas.
• As the upward trend in energy use continued, it seemed that there were serious possibilities for the degradation of the earth's air and water.

• Many scientists believed that the survival of the species required a reduction in total population and a reduction in energy and resource consumption.

• The poor of the Third World and their economic betters were affected by the problems of population and resources.
• In order to reach at least survivable standards of living, the poor asked for the creation of a new international economic order based on fairness and sharing rather than on power and inequality.
• They wanted control over what resources and natural advantages they had.
• The relation between prices received for their exports and prices paid for their imports needs to be changed.

• The satisfied countries accepted the fact of global dependence, but they insisted on being the ones to make the adjustments.
• The Third World was not helped by the "North-South dialogue" of the 1970s and 1980s.
• The poor countries made more mistakes in economic planning and execution in the 1980s than they did in the 1970s.

• There was a rise in the number of immigrants to the better-off states because of the contrasting living standards among nations.
• Europeans migrated to the New World in the 19th century.
• The United States and Third World countries were the main destinations of emigration in the twentieth century as Europe became more prosperous.

• The migrants were joined by refugees from political oppression, ethnic cleansing, and social chaos.
• The number of refugees increased from 2.5 million in 1973, to 19 million in 1993, according to a United Nations study.
• Millions more migrated for the simple reason of crushing poverty in their homelands.
• Governments were strained to deal with private humanitarian aid agencies that were unable to meet the needs.

• Germany, France, Britain, the United States, and others faced the inflow.
• Immigration, legal and illegal, became a big problem for housing, education, and medical care.
• The resulting financial cost, job competition, and social tensions with the newcomers disturbed the established residents and produced worrisome consequences.
• Extremist right-wing political parties began exploiting the situation to their advantage as antiforeign and racist sentiment mounted.

• The distribution of strength in the 1980s was military as well as economic.
• The superpowers spent hundreds of billions of dollars annually in a technological struggle for superiority despite their existing "overkill" capabilities.
• The contest was futile and wasteful for military power is only relative and neither side gained in security or influence.
• Retaliating in kind is a way to deter the other side from attacking it.

• Nuclear arms were the most dangerous and costly contest.
• The first atomic bomb was dropped on Japan in 1945.
• The Americans let the world know of their ability and will use these "ultimate" weapons when they see fit.
• During the 1950s, the race went on for more efficient warheads and for faster and more accurate means of delivery, as the Soviets responded by building nuclear bombs of their own.
• The Americans were ahead in both technological advances and the number of warheads.

• The most critical area of competition was in long-range strategic weapons that could reach the homeland of the other superpower.
• Most of the United States's are in land-based missiles and bombers.

• By 1970 it was clear that the population of the other side would be wiped out by each side's warheads.
• Each side sought a breakthrough that would give it superiority over the other side.
• The final say in disputes with the other superpower would be gained by the nation that gained first-strike capacity.
• Both sides wanted the advantage and the other side couldn't gain it.

• Nuclear war planners turned to defensive weapons as a way to gain the advantage because it became obvious that neither side would be allowed to win superiority by adding more offensive weapons.
• The first side would have gained the desired first-strike capacity if one side had a "near- perfect" defense against enemy warheads.
• About 1970 a race began to build antiballistic missile defenses.

• It was realized that this added another threatening and expensive side to the arms race, one that neither side could afford to lose.
• Nixon and the Soviet leader signed a treaty limiting the building of ABM systems.
• Efforts were made to achieve "arms control" after this agreement.
• The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty was signed in 1979 by Jimmy Carter and Brezhnev.
• The race for offensive weapons remained open even though the U.S. Senate failed to approve the treaty.

• Nuclear arms were being produced by Britain, France, and China.
• The nations were not in the same league as the powers that be.
• Their relatively small supply could not give them a first-strike capacity, and they viewed their weapons only as a last resort, to be held as a deterrent threat against any nation that might plan to attack them.
• India tested a weapon to prove that it could build them, and Israel had nuclear weapons of its own.
• Iraq, North Korea, and Pakistan were trying to acquire such weapons, and many other countries had the ability to build them.

• They had a lot of other types of arms, which were growing in power and accuracy.

• In order to achieve political and military goals, indiscriminate killing and destruction is nothing new.
• The Conquerors suppressed uprisings by massacring villagers and burning their crops and the sides in the Second World War bombed cities.
• Terrorists generally involve not large-scale but relatively smallscale (though still indiscriminate) killing and destruction.
• Modern civilization spreads fear through the mass media and widens the damage through its complex web of transport and communications.

• This is the reason why terrorism is a good weapon for small groups.
• The need for revenge is satisfied by the fact that it expresses rage against real or imagined injuries arising out of ethnic, social, and national conflicts.
• To crush terrorist groups costs a lot and often leads to atrocities that keep hatred against them alive.
• If a terrorist group doesn't achieve its stated goals, it can produce a bloody stalemate that hurts the repressors more than the terrorists.

• Terrorists sometimes achieved their goals.
• It was used by nationalist movements against the French in Algeria and the British in Palestine.
• The success of these early campaigns, together with new opportunities for spectacular operations presented by the growth of airline travel, led to new campaigns in the 1960s and 1970s by Palestinian exiles against Israeli and Jewish targets.

• The new campaigns had a lower chance of success.
• Car bombs might encourage the British to evacuate Palestine, which is not a national interest for them.

• Cuba and Israel had no choice but to fight against airplane hijackings that were intended to overthrow communist rule or the Jewish state.
• From the point of view of the terrorists, the bloody stalemate was better than no conflict at all.
• This view was shared by the rulers of countries under Arab nationalist or Islamic fundamentalist rule like Syria or Libya, which sponsored terrorism as a weapon against adversaries like Israel or the United States.
• By the 1980s, terrorism had become a recognized worldwide problem, though it was not considered as serious as nuclear proliferation or the balance of terror.
• The priorities would change in the 1990s.

• The political and economic order that had existed throughout the West since the Second World War was changed during the 1980s.
• The functioning of the welfare state was seen as a brake on economic growth and rising standards of living.
• While dictatorships continued to rule their home countries, a new militancy appeared in relations with the socialist camp.

• The changes did not represent a break with the past.
• Few politicians of any stripe doubted that the socialist camp would be the West's rival and partner for the future, despite the fact that no Western leader tried to dismantle the welfare state.
• The political leaders of the socialist camp were growing frustrated.
• At the end of the decade, the socialist countries broke with the past and gave up their effort to build a world order alternative to the West.

• The liberal policies that had prevailed in the West from 1933 until about 1980 caused this reaction.
• The revolt against hereditary privilege and absolute monarchy was seen as a sign of liberalism.
• In the twentieth century, liberalism stood for individual rights and openness to social reform, but came to be most strongly identified with social democracy and the welfare state.
• The welfare state's social and moral changes were linked to liberalism.

• In Britain and the United States, the conservative reaction to the changes was decisive.
• Margaret Thatcher led her party to victory in Parliament during the decade after she was chosen as leader of Britain's Conservative party in 1979.
• She was able to make changes with large majorities in the House of Commons.

• Thatcher gained and held power because of the splits within the Labour party, which were not pleasant to many British voters.
• She was replaced as party leader and prime minister in 1990 by John Major, a member of her cabinet.
• Many of the "Thatcherite" changes became permanent features of the British way of life.

• In the United States, the conservatives did not have complete control over the federal government.
• The constitutional provision for "checks and balances" gives authority to the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
• The election and reelection of Richard Nixon as president in 1968 and 1972 signaled widespread discontent with liberal social reforms, but Nixon had disappointed conservatives by maintaining both the welfare state and detente.
• He left office in 1974 under threat of impeachment, following the discovery of his role in covering up a political burglary at the Watergate office and apartment complex in Washington, D.C., as well as in numerous other abuses--illegal financial contributions, misuse of government agencies, campaign " Ronald Reagan, the governor of California, took several years for the conservatives to regroup.

• By 1980, conservative opinion makers were setting the national mood.

• Like the liberals, the conservatives had a lot of interpreters.

• The central thrust of the movement was becoming clear.
• To restore and keep American institutions and lifestyles as they were thought to have been around 1930 is what their common wish was.
• The welfare state was introduced in 1933 by Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal and they objected to many of its features.
• The conservative program had an opposition to the expanding functions of government, which included business regulation, welfare services, deficit spending, high taxes, and opposition to social "permissiveness".

• There was a huge demand for prayers in public schools and a huge response to television preachers.

• Both the 1980 and 1984 elections had clear issues between conservatives and liberals.
• The Republican party stood in opposition to most of the reforms of the New Deal.
• The New Deal made the Democratic party identify with liberalism.

• Ronald Reagan was the president of the United States in 1980.

• Reagan wanted to reverse the tendency of Franklin Roosevelt to look to government to solve the nation's problems and help its citizens.
• In keeping with that declaration, he cut income tax rates, which in turn put heavy pressure on Congress to make up for the loss in government revenues by cutting spending on social programs.
• Reagan insisted on large increases in military spending.
• The federal budget couldn't be balanced and the huge annual deficits had to be made up through government borrowing.
• The tax cuts left the country with a mountain of government debt and an unprecedented level of private debt, but they stimulated substantial economic growth and left more money for businesses to invest and consumers to spend.
• The total amount of interest on the federal debt was estimated to be $250 billion for the fiscal year 1991.

• Reagan and his advisers claimed that a growing economy would eventually yield higher revenues even with lower tax rates.
• In 1990 his successor, President George H. W. Bush, decided to make substantial cuts to the annual deficit.
• Deficits were reduced in the 1990s.
• The burden of debt on the economy and essential public services increased again in the new millennium.

• Reagan wanted deregulation of the economy.

• This was favored by the business community.
• Lax supervision of the savings and loan industry was a factor in allowing gross mismanagement and fraud.
• The losses to taxpayers would run into hundreds of billions of dollars if Congress had guaranteed savings accounts.
• The Environmental Protection Agency was one of the federal agencies Reagan wanted to eliminate.

• He succeeded in cutting their funds and choosing agency heads who would limit their effectiveness, even though he was unable to get congressional approval to abolish them.
• His most significant impact was on the courts of the land.

• Reagan was able to name hundreds of federal judges, most of whom shared his conservative political and social views, and whose lifetime tenure on the bench would run many years beyond their appointment.

• Reagan's second term was not as revolutionary as his first.
• Widespread support for his conservative policies contributed to his reelection, but much of his support came from his personal appeal: his good looks, humor, and confident public assurances.

• Other conservative candidates did not fare as well as he did.
• Republicans lost control of the Senate in congressional elections.
• Conservatives and liberals were at odds after Democrats took control of both houses of Congress.
• Reagan's vice president, George H. W. Bush, was unable to bring about a majority for his party in either the Senate or the House of Representatives in the election of 1988.
• The political pendulum swung in 1992 when President Bush lost the White House to Bill Clinton.

• The Soviet Union had been engaged in a lengthy build up of nuclear and conventional arms when Reagan became president.
• This was done in order to force the United States to treat it as equal in their partnership, but also to gain an advantage in their rivalry.
• The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and their support for left-wing governments in Central America and southern Africa seemed to be changing the balance of power and undermined detente.
• Reagan was eager to take up the challenge of the west taking up the challenge.
• He wanted to deal with the Soviets from a position of strength, which meant superior strength.

• Reagan took a hard line against communism.
• When the island of Grenada fell into a political crisis in 1982, he sent the United States military to occupy the island and install a prodemocratic government.
• He supported the government of the Central American republic of El Salvador in a brutal war against Marxist guerrillas, as well as backing guerrilla uprisings against Marxist governments in other countries.
• None of these wars were as easy to win as that against Grenada, and in all three countries they dragged on, at huge cost in human suffering, until the end of the Cold War.
• The conflicts ended in compromise once the Marxists were no longer able to count on Soviet support.

• Reagan wanted to change the nuclear balance of terror in favor of the United States.
• By 1980, the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union was at an end.
• The powers that be had reached rough equality.
• After the Second World War, Reagan and his advisers began steps to regain nuclear superiority, and they were not satisfied with parity.
• The military spending doubled from $150 billion in 1981 to $300 billion in 1985 and continued to increase thereafter.
• The strategic standoff persisted after the Soviets matched the build up.

• Reagan proposed to build a defensive system against intercontinental nuclear missiles in 1983 in order to gain superiority through offensive weapons at a dead end.
• The idea of a return to an earlier idea in the arms race was rejected by both sides in 1972.
• Some weapon scientists advised the president to try again because of advances in technology.
• Reagan wanted to build a space-based system that could give the United States a first-strike capacity and give up the "stability" of the existing nuclear balance.
• The news media dubbed Reagan's plan "Star Wars" because he called it the Strategic Defense Initiative.

• Even if the technical problems could be solved, a workable Star Wars system would cost hundreds of billions of dollars and the Soviets would build up their offensive missile force so that it would overcome any defense system by sheer weight.
• The time was ripe to reduce tension between the two countries, and neither side was eager for a new arms race that would be more costly than before.

• Reagan and Gorbachev discussed the issue of Star Wars at a summit in November of 1985.

• Reagan showed a definite shift in his tone and words to the Soviets after responding to concessions and fresh initiatives from Gorbachev.
• The shift was welcomed by America's European allies as well as people who feared war between the superpowers.
• The Star Wars project was eventually put on hold due to the fact that it was a critical turning point in the arms race.
• The end of the Cold War and the fall of communism can be attributed to the revelation that what the Soviet leaders called the "correlation of forces" was not moving in their favor.

• During the 1980s, conservative reforms were taking shape in western Europe and America, but the eastern bloc showed little change until the end of the decade, when the region exploded in radical political, social, economic, and cultural changes.

• Since the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Communist party's hold on the Soviet Union had appeared to be unbreakable.
• It had a forty-year hold on the countries of East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria.
• There were some outspoken dissidents.
• The socialist camp's instruments of control were so powerful that no major change could be made.
• The "historical surprise" of the century was the sudden collapse of communism.

• Even before 1980, serious doubts about the viability of the communist system had begun to grow among some of the higher officials of the Soviet party.
• As far back as the 1930s, the Stalinist regime had been criticized by a man who had called for more flexibility in the economy.
• Nikita Khrushchev introduced some relaxation measures after Stalin's death.
• The views and actions of the party were not sustained.

• It wasn't until a generation after Khrushchev that it became a rising force.
• Party members as well as ordinary citizens were concluding that the promises of communism were not being fulfilled.
• They were discouraged by the failure of many years of weapons build up to change the "correlation of forces" between the Soviet Union and the United States.
• As a result, they became convinced that changes had to be made to rescue their faltering economy and that if only to lighten the burden of military spending, they must end the worldwide power struggle with the West.

• The central committee of the party chose Gorbachev as their agent of change.
• Similar efforts were being made in other states.

• Gorbachev urged "new thinking" for his own and other countries.
• A new era of cooperation was needed to address the real problems of the planet.
• The main factors that led to the revolutions of eastern Europe were articulated and pursued by Gorbachev.
• The awarding of the Nobel Prize for Peace to Gorbachev in 1990 was a sign of global recognition of his historic role.

• The progress of change within the Soviet Union was not consistent.
• Those who wanted to move faster and those who wanted to hold back reforms were both powerful domestic critics of Gorbachev.
• swift action was taken to implement glasnost Thousands of political prisoners were released.
• The abolition of the Communist party's monopoly on political power was the most significant constitutional reform.
• There were new elections throughout the USSR.

• The restructur ing of the economy was Gorbachev's main frustration.
• Some people wanted to move quickly from a centralized control to a market economy.
• Others believed that a rapid move would be too disruptive and painful for workers and consumers.
• A plan combining features from both sides was proposed by Gorbachev.
• In October 1990 his compromise was approved by the newly elected soviet parliament and he was authorized to set it in motion by executive decree.

• Gorbachev's plan was too little and late.
• The central planning establishment made critical mistakes over the years, as well as lack of provision for individual incentive and initiative, gross neglect of ecological considerations, and overall political and social rigidity.

• The most decisive cause was the Cold War with the United States and its NATO allies.
• The diversion of resources and manpower from peaceful production to pursuit of the extravagant arms race greatly strained the American economy and left it with a huge burden of debt; but the arms race brought to the "enemy" Soviets what Washington had sought: the fatal crippling of their economic system.

• The dissolving of ties between the Soviet Union and the rest of the world made the economic situation worse.
• Gorbachev's policy of repudiating the use of military force to keep the country unified opened the door to long-awaited desires for independence from the multinational state.
• The Baltic republics were the first to declare their own sovereignty.
• The Russian Republic was the largest by far of the fifteen.
• The Russian Republic faced this dilemma.
• Yeltsin was elected president of the new republic in 1991.
• He said that Russia would press toward a market economy by a much faster route than Gorbachev had thought.

• August 1991 gave Yeltsin's plan added force.
• The right launched a coup against Gorbachev and the reformers in the Russian Parliament.
• Thousands of people filled the streets to defend their parliament as the coup lasted only 72 hours.
• This effort to overthrow the legal order was strongly condemned by opinion elsewhere in the country.

• The map shows the triumph of nationalism.
• Germany is united again.
• In most of the states of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia, one nation dominates.
• The challenge of the future will be for the European nations to fulfill their ideal of national unity and independence.

• Within days, reformers in the Parliament began to change the functions of the secret police, loosen controls over the media, and ensure that the armed forces were under the command of loyal officers.
• The individual republics were able to achieve complete independence by allowing their elected leaders to negotiate with one another and with foreign countries.

• The governing organs of the USSR ceased to exist after these actions.
• The presidents of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus met in December 1991 to announce the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
• Most of the other new republics joined this association.
• The British Commonwealth of Nations was the inspiration for the idea of the CIS.
• Many of its members have taken steps for economic cooperation, and in 1997 Russia and Belarus agreed on a "union" with a common currency and citizenship, though still being separate and independent states.
• The "Antifascist Defense Wall" was built by the East German government to stop its citizens from moving to the West.
• Ronald Reagan went to the Berlin Wall in 1987 and challenged Gorbachev to tear it down.
• In November 1989 an East German policeman reaches down from the wall to get a rose from a West German woman.
• The Cold War is over, the wall is about to come down, and Germany will soon be reunified.

• The United States and the European Community welcomed the declaration.

• On Christmas Day 1991, Gorbachev resigned his empty office as president of the now-dissolved multinational state.
• Gorbachev wanted to reform communism and maintain the unity of its political domain.
• He was overshadowed by the swelling popular demand for radical economic change and national self-determination in the country's critical time of troubles.

• They were allies of the USSR under the Warsaw Pact of 1955.
• They were viewed as a buffer by the Soviets to protect their homeland from future attacks by Germany and the West.
• The economies of these states had suffered from the same paralysis that the Soviets had.
• The popular movements against the communist regimes exploded when Gorbachev said force wouldn't be used to hold them.
• The reunification of West Germany and East Germany was achieved after the West Germans persuaded both their allies and their enemies that they wouldn't use it to reverse the results of the Second World War.

• The Czech Republic and Slovakia were divided into their own countries in 1993.
• Yugoslavia took a similar course of democratization and separation into its component republics after not being part of the Warsaw Pact.

• The former Soviet republics faced a complicated transition to a new kind of economy--from state-owned enterprises and central planning to privatization and production for the free market.
• The socialist camp admitted defeat and joined the West in order to end the long struggle.
• Communism collapsed quickly and peacefully.
• Replacing it would be difficult and full of conflict.

• The World History Resources Center at http://history.wadsworth.com/west_civ/ offers a variety of tools to help you succeed in this course.