Chapter 9

• In the context of a developing organisms, all of these pro research methods take place.

• Large segments of the culture in the United States can have differences in sensory abilities.

• The various periods of growth are shown in Table 9-1.

• Cognitive processes and social interactions are some of the qualitative changes.
• We think in different ways about ourselves, our friends, and our environment.

• If he could control the environment, he could teach any child to be a doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, or even a thief.

• Many parents and most present-day psychologists don't agree with the idea that the environment can influence ment.

• Parents are environmentalists until they have more than one child.
• It seems like it's possible to get rid of anything that happens with one child.
• Parents realize that they did not treat the two children differently enough to account for the behavioral differences between them when their second child turns out to be different from the first child.

• If you want to understand how behavior geneticists look at how people behave, you need to understand some of the differences you see in your friends and relatives.
• Before reading further, you should write down some of your observations.

• Some people may have exceptional musical talent, while others may be tone-deaf.
• Some of your friends and relatives are shy.

• One of the most significant discoveries of behavior ge theory is that environmental factors are experienced differently by children in the same and cognitive development family.
• Twins who share the same genetic makeup.
• They don't have the same personality points to the influence of environmental factors.

• If we want to understand the development of human thoughts, we must learn to distinguish the influences of nature and nurture.
• Special factors research methods are used by developmental psychologists.

• There are unique challenges faced by psychologists conducting research on developmental processes.

• Human development research may take longer than other areas of psychology.
• velopmental research can take months, years, or even decades.

• You may be interested in how the visual ability of young people changes over time.

• You would use a sequential design to study this phenomenon.

• Longitudinal studies allow the researcher to see behavioral trends over time, whereas cross-sectional studies allow the researcher to answer a specific question.
• Longitudinal studies can be very time consuming.
• Cross sectional studies don't tell the researcher about behavioral trends over time.

• The children in this grade school class are all the same age.

• The effects on shyness of being born in different decades from 1950 to 1990 are determined by the differences among cohort.
• There is an increase in the validity of a research finding if it is verified across cultural and age groups.

• A human grows from a cell that is smaller than the tip of a pin.
• A man releases a lot of sperm in a single ejaculation.
• The sperm begin their journey from the woman's vagina to her fallopian tubes, where they may meet and penetrate an ovum, which is many times larger than the sperm.
• Most sperm are attacked by the woman's white blood cells when they are on the way to the fallopian tubes.
• It is amazing that any sperm can survive the journey to the ovum.
• A healthy couple having sex without contraception has only a 25% to 30% chance of having a baby.
• Most conceptions occur on the day of ovulation or dur fertilization when the sperm are present.

• The uterus is a fist-sized, pear shaped organ that is attached to the inner wall of the fallopian tubes.

• During the next nine months, cell division continues at a furious pace, eventually producing an individual with billions of cells, all of which contain the same genetic information.

• Nearly one-third of implanted zygotes are rejected from the uterus due to spontaneous abortion.
• Some of the early mis carriages have defects.

• fertilization occurs when the sperm and ovum give birth to a baby, which will inherit the genetic material that will influence its development.

• All human cells except the sperm and ovum contain 46 chromosomes, which is an embryo, between two weeks and nine weeks after conception.

• There are 23 pairs with one member contributed by each parent.

• Large segments of DNA are called chromosomes.

• Our understanding of the mechanisms of heredity can be traced to the work of a monk, who conducted a series of experiments using gar den peas.
• The key principles of hereditary transmis sion are still relevant today.

• People believed that a child's traits were a blend of the par process of cell division in which the child's genes were similar to eye color.
• When peas were bred with purple information, the offspring had purple flowers instead of pink ones.

• There are units of hereditary material.
• Normal hemoglobin has a red color and carries oxygen to the body.
• The amount of oxygen in the blood is affected by the form drop.
• The low oxygen level causes cells to be crescent-shaped.

• There is genetic material in the chromosomes.

• Each cell has a nucleus.

• The sperm and ovum have 46 chromosomes.

• There are genes on each of the chromosomes.

• The children of two carriers have a one-in-four chance of having normal hemoglobin, a one-in-two chance of being a carrier, and a one-in-four chance of having sickle-cell anemia.
• African Americans have a higher incidence of the blood disorder because they are more likely to have the same genes as other people.
• People from families of Eastern European Jewish origin are more likely to have the disease.

• The mother is a carrier of the disease.

• One-half of the normal genes will be carriers and one-fourth will have the disease.

• Skin color, intel principle of heredity, and temperament are examples of polygenic inheritance.

• The resemblance of these children to each other is not as great as that of other children of the same parents.
• The cell immediately divides into two different types of cells.
• Researchers can study the relation of heredity and environment with identical twins.
• Twins sharing the same genetic material would reflect genetic influences, while differences would reflect environmental causes.

• The sex of a child is not the basis for divorce if the mother fails to produce male offspring.
• The sex chromosomes are the 23rd pair of chromosomes.

• Both sex chromosomes are labeled XX in females.
• The sex of the sperm may be X or Y.
• The baby will be female if the sperm contributes an X chromosomes.
• The baby will be male if the sperm contributes a Y chromosome.

• A sex by one sperm is called a sex by the X or Y genes.
• The X and Y chromosomes are identical and carry monozygotic twins.

• Males are more vulnerable to inheritable disorders than females.
• In females, a defect can be dominated by a gene on the other X chromosomes, while in males, the Y chromosome may not have the dominant gene.
• Sex-linked traits are those that are related.

• About 8 of every 100 males in the United States have red-green color blindness.
• The most common form of color blindness is controlled by genes.
• A female may have two genes on one X chromosomes, one for color blindness and the other for normal vision, which is dominant on the other X chromosomes.
• A male with a color blindgene has no dominant gene for normal color vision on the Y chromosome, so he will be color blind.
• The inability of the blood to clot is a sex-linked disorder.

• Major until birth organ systems are formed during the second to ninth weeks after fertilization, when the developing human is called an embryo.

• The developing organ that develops in the uterus will have male external genitals if they start secreting testosterone.
• The development of a female is caused by the absence of testosterone.

• The fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce when it is 3 months old.
• The arms, legs, hands, and feet are visible and move in response to stimulation.

• Although it is immersed inamniotic fluid, the fetus begins to move as early as the end of the third month of pregnancy.
• When the fetus is large enough to be felt through the abdomi nal wall, the mother begins to feel movement.

• The exchange of waste products from the mother to the child is possible through the use of the placenta.

• The fetus's blood is taken up by the mother's blood and sent to the fetus's body.

• There are barriers to DevelOpment.
• If a pregnant woman's diet is not adequate, the baby is more likely to be born premature or with a low birth weight.
• Babies with low birth weight are 40 times more likely to die before their first birthday.
• It has been shown that low-weight newborns who received massage therapy for 5 to 10 days had a 31% to 47% weight gain.

• Canada, Germany, Iran, Japan, China, and Norway have high numbers of low-birth-weight infants.

• The developing baby (fetus) Agency, 2011.
• Lack of adequate financial resources is the most important factor in causing this high rate of infant mortality.
• Adequate care for pregnant women also means avoiding stress.
• The body is being stressed by the cord.

• Drugs, alcohol, and viruses are some of the factors that can affect a fetus.
• There is a chance that the virus that causes the German mea sles can cross the placenta to the fetus.

• The chances of a specific time during the development of birth defects are zero if the mother contracts rubella after 16 weeks.

• The critical period is when the effects of rubella should take place.
• Mothers who drank the first eight weeks of development are more likely to give birth to teratogens.
• If the mother has AIDS, a baby may contract it as well.
• The baby may be exposed to the mother's blood head circumference during delivery, or the baby may be exposed to the AIDS virus by lower birth weight.

• antibiotics, barbiturates, large doses of vitamins A and B, and an acne preparation are some of the drugs that cross the placenta freely.

• Babies who are born to mothers who are addicted to cocaine will also suffer a painful withdrawal process.
• Babies born to cocaine-addicted mothers may exhibit behaviors such as hypertension, rigidity, and poor sleep-wake schedules, which can be used in the example of the ultrasound procedure.
• Other detrimental effects include impairments in motor development, ability to regulate attention, and language.

• Fetal tobacco syndrome can occur if a mother smokes less than five cigarettes per day during preg nancy.
• Maternal smoking of cigarettes and marijuana increases the level of carbon dioxide in the blood of the fetus and is related to higher rates of infant death.
• According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 16% of pregnant women in the United States smoke.

• Scientists have known for a long time that children of alcoholic parents have learning and development problems.
• Doctors discovered that the mother's drinking habits could affect her baby's health.

• Small head, flat midface, hearing loss, and low intelligence are some of the signs of FAS.
• Maternal alcohol use is associated with intellectual deficiencies, poor concentration, motor difficulties, and learn ing problems.
• About 12% of pregnant women use alcohol while pregnant, with less than 1% reporting heavy drinking, according to recent statistics.

• The ability to detect defects in the developing fetus has been improved by technological advances.

• There are a number of techniques that can be used for this purpose.

• The sounds bounce back like waves from a submarine.

• If the mother's age is over 35, a family history of ge for all of the terms defined in the margins of the section netic defects, or detection of gross abnormality byechocardiography suggest the need for more precise testing by amniocentesis.

• A sufficient amount ofamniotic fluid can be present 14 to 16 weeks after conception.
• Fetal loss and foot deformity can be caused by an increase in amniocentesis tests.
• Fetal cells are analyzed after floating inamniotic fluid.

• Amniocentesis is not risk-free.
• There is a small chance of a woman miscarrying.

• Down syndrome is one of the most common chromosomal anomalies and can be found in about 1 in 800 births.
• In most Down syndrome cases, the individual has three rather than two chromosomes.
• Children with Down syndrome are often in the mild-to-moderate range of mental retardation and may also have behavior disorders such as depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
• If these malfor mations are not corrected, they are at risk for premature death, relative to normal children.
• Several other sex-linked chromosomal abnormality may occur depending on the number and type of chromo somes present.

• Turner's syndromes, fragile X, and Klinefelter's are some of the anomalies.
• These anomalies can result in physical and mental retardation.

• Amniocentesis will provide answers for Mike and his wife, who are worried about having a Down syndrome baby because Mike's brother has the syndrome.
• The fact that Mike's brother has Down syndrome doesn't mean that he and Mike are at risk.
• The most important risk factor is the age of the person.
• She is less likely to have a Down syndrome child if she is under 40.

• Most newborns emerge red and with facial injuries due to the narrow reflexes in which the infant turns its ness of the birth canal.
• The baby is covered with a substance resembling cheese, and the head in the direction of a touch head is not straight.
• The "bundle of joy" on its face is only capable of crying, sleeping, and excreting.

• After birth, a baby's motor behavior appears to be uncoordinated and purposeless, however, newborns enter the world with several reflexes.

• If you lightly press a noise or the sensation of being finger in a baby's palm, it will grasp with more force than you might think.
• The toes fan upward when the bottom of the newborn's foot is stroked.

• A baby that is unable to do more than move reflexively may look like a picture of psy chological incompetence.
• Newborns are remarkably competent, a closer look at them shows.

• When a baby is born, its hearing is very advanced.
• Babies can hear their mother's voice just hours after birth.
• While the baby is in the uterus, that recognition ability may develop.
• 12 women were asked to read a Dr. Seuss story twice a day during the last five to six weeks of their pregnancies.
• Three days after birth, their babies varied the way they sucked on a pacifier depending on whether or not they heard a story or not.
• The babies sucked more in response to the story they had heard while in the womb compared with a new story.

• Estimates of the newborn's visual acuity range from 20/300 to 20/800, but it improves to about 20 by 6 to 8 months.
• Babies with less than perfect vision can focus on objects that are about 8 to 10 inches away, which is the distance between the baby and the care giver.
• Babies are fascinated by faces whether they are presented in two or three dimensions in the flesh or on film.
• Babies without prior experience with cultural standards of beauty prefer to look at attractive faces, even though they don't have that experience with their mother's face.

• By the fourth month of the baby's development, smell and taste receptors are likely to be present.
• Premature infants are capable of smell, suggesting that the fetus is capable of smell.
• The first few weeks after birth seem to be when the baby's smell sensitivity increases the most.
• Babies can discriminate between bitter and sour tastes.

• Newborns are able to see the world around them.

• In Chapter 6 we saw that John and Rosalie Rayner were able to condition fear in an older infant, Albert.
• Researchers have shown that newborn infants can be conditioned.

• When appropriate stimulation is presented, you must select a behavior that occurs frequently.
• There are other components that need to be considered.
• Try to remember the name of the element.
• Chapter 6 will be reviewed.
• Write down your answers.

• The unconditioned re sponse is when sucking is a frequent and automatic response.
• A nipple placed in a baby's mouth is an unconditioned stimulation.
• The mother could repeat the question if chapter nine lost the nipple.
• We did this in Chapter 6.

• Reinforcement can help infants learn.

• A research study shows that infants as young as two months after birth can learn to kick when a mobile is suspended over the crib.
• The research shows that the memory of this learning session can be retained for several days.

• Researchers have looked at how infants learn.
• Neonates as young as 72 hours old were found to imitate two behaviors: protruding the tongue and moving the head.
• Think about the elements of the task that must be performed by a 3-day-old baby if you stick your tongue out and move your head to imitate another person.
• Children are able to discriminate between tongue and head movement.
• The ability of the baby to imitate the behavior of an adult must be turned into a behavioral imitation.

• The next step is to generalize the source.

• The development of the motor and nervous systems is what it refers to in humans.

• At the peak of brain development, hundreds of thousand of new cells are added each minute.
• A spurt in cell development just before birth gives the newborn most of its brain cells.
• Cells in the cortex are not yet fully connected to the lower brain centers, which are responsible for reflexes, breathing, digestion, and heart beat.
• Exposure to pollutants, such as dioxin, the industrial chemical PCB, and lead, as well as a parasites found in the fecal matter of cats, can affect the connections among these cells.

• During the rest of a person's life, the rate of physical development is not equal.
• By the first birthday, height has increased from 20 to 30 inches and weight has tripled from 7.5 to over 22 pounds.

• Our discussion of nature and nurture shows that inher physical development owes a lot to her environment and the frequent use of her t-ball set.

• The source is adapted from frankenburg et al.

• The table shows the physical skills that develop during the first two years of life, and the approximate age at which they are mastered by children in the United States.

• Babies and toddlers perform motor behaviors at younger ages than shown in Table 9-2.
• The average child takes longer to develop.
• Preco cious development is a source of pleasure and pride for parents, but slower motor development is not necessarily a cause for concern or alarm.

• There are steps that can be taken when a baby's development is delayed.
• The Scales of Infant Development can be used to determine whether steps are required.
• The scales give indications of average, below-average, and above-average responses for a range of behaviors and stages of intellectual development for children between the ages of 2 months and 2.5 years.

• The physical development that occurs during infancy and childhood is impressive.

• In the next sections, we can see that cognitive and psychosocial development occur at an impressive rate.

• A single parent, she works to support her daughter.
• There are growing waiting lists at day-care centers.
• Little is known about the impact day care has on the development of young children.

• The effects of day care are studied by psychologists who are interested in the development of young children.
• The development of the individual'spsycho as well as factors that influence the ability to interact with other people are considered.
• Newborns prefer human faces to other visual stimuli.
• By the time a child is a year old, social behaviors begin to emerge.

• The differences they observed in their own children were obvious even during the first weeks of life.
• They were impressed by the low correlations between environmental influences and the child's psychological development.
• They decided to look at the causes and consequences of temperament differences.

• Their mood was mostly positive.

• These early findings lead to the research of additional dimensions of temperament such as fearful distress, irritable distress, activity level, attention span, persistence, and positive affect.

• The child's temperament is likely to last throughout infancy.
• Some char acteristics, such as being highly fearful or highly reactive, may continue into adoles cence.

• Freud was the first person to suggest that the early years of life are important for personality development.
• The way in which children resolve conflicts between their biological urges and the demands of society was the subject of his theory.
• Chapter nine is a series of stages for a child.
• The stages are described more fully in Chapter 11.
• Freud believed that each stage had the potential to affect the personality of the developing child.

• A stage theory of personality development was proposed by the man.
• Erikson did not stress the need to resolve biological needs.
• Our personality is shaped by the way we deal with crises as we get older.
• Some paths will be more appropriate in one culture than others.
• The child may have a psychological need to be independent.
• Everything is fine if this child grows up in a Western society that values independence.
• If this child grows up in a collectivist society that does not value independence, he will develop more group related activities and behaviors.

• Babies experience two crises.
• There will be development that stresses the importance of food.

• The development of a sense of trust is helped by loving caregivers.
• When one's caregivers and environment are important for developing trust in oneself, that is when trust in that is created.

• erikson's first psychosocial crisis begins with a sense of how their (birth to 15 months) behavior is controlled or determined.
• If children feel that their behavior is not under their control but is determined by other people or external forces, they develop an extereme relationship with their primary caregivers.
• Doubt and shame about one's ability to function frequently can be trusted by the company.

• The greater a child's internal sense of con children, the more independence he or she will feel and exhibit.

• Children can begin to do things on their own if they have a sense of independence.

• Some behaviors, such as playing by the rules and obeying one's par, in which children ents, can produce desirable consequences; others, such as cheating or not obeying one's begin to evaluate the consequences parents, produce undesirable consequences.

• It is time for children to learn to become productive members of society by acquiring the skills and knowledge that will allow them to become productive mems of society once they have developed basic trust, autonomy, and initiative.

• Supporters of the theory say that it captures the reality of the changes that occur as we grow and develop through a child and an adult.
• The summary preference for holding or clinging the chart is on page 395 of the chapter.

• If you read the sections carefully, you will see that personal teddy bears are developed in the context of significant other people.
• The attachment comfort and warmth of parents to their children is a major factor in shaping their personality.

• The first mental studies on the effects of attachment were done by Harry and Marguerite Harlow.
• Babies were separated from their mothers around 8 hours after birth.
• The monkeys were raised in mental chambers where they were exposed to an object that was a surrogate mother.
• The baby monkeys were allowed to come into contact with both objects.

• The baby monkeys preferred the soft, cloth-covered mother.
• They ran to the mother for safety and security when confronted with a frightening situation.

• The Harlows found that raising baby monkeys in isolation in the laboratory had a detrimental effect on their social behavior.
• The juvenile monkeys were returned to their colony after the labo ratory testing was complete.
• The monkeys didn't do well in the colony.
• They avoided contact, fled from touch, curled up, and tried to attack the most dominant monkey in the group, often getting seriously injured in the process.

• The conclusion of the Harlows' research was that attachment did not ensure normal social development.
• This kind of development requires environmental contact with members of one's own species.

• Bowlby believes that infants are protected when parents are near because of its adaptive value.

• Babies emit behaviors that bring them into contact with humans.
• Babies don't mind being left with unfamiliar adults.

• When separated, infants begin to respond to adults but do not protest.

• Attachment to a familiar person is obvious.
• Babies show distress when their caregivers leave.
• In cultures around the world, such separation anxiety begins in 6 to 7 months and increases to 15 months.

• The child understands that the caregivers will come back as language develops.

• The child can make requests and bargain with the caregivers.

• Bowlby believes that the experiences of these four stages result in the child's understanding of the parent-child bond.
• The stage for close relationships is set by this understanding.
• In support of Bowlby's theory, Hazan and Diamond (2000) have shown that attachment can have an impact on mate selection.

• Babies are equipped with behaviors such as crying at birth that promote close relationships with their caregivers.

• The attachment behaviors are simply emitted, rather than directed toward any specific person, but gradually the baby begins to discriminate one person from another and to direct attachment behavior differentially.

• Babies can differ in the quality of attachment they form.

• Four groups of babies were securely attached.
• A small group of babies did not want to be put down.

• They didn't greet their mother on her return.
• They interacted with a stranger the same way they did with their mother.
• When the mother came back, they rejected her comfort.
• The panic reaction began before the mother left.
• The baby resisted contact and comfort when the mother came back.

• The attachment patterns are linked to the rejections of the caregivers.
• The disorganized attachment style has been linked to frightened or frightening behavior being shown by the care giver.

• The percentage of different types of attachment may vary from culture to culture.
• More German infants than infants in the United States, Israel, or Japan are anxious to be with you.

• In Israeli kibbutzim, sleeping out of the home in communal ar rangements may lead to an increase in anxious ambivalent attachment.

• Babies' attachment styles are well documented, and the type of attachment with teachers influences the complexity of play or social competence of preschoolers.
• Not much is known about how these styles influence adults.
• The attachment style reported by the parents of college students was related to the students' preferred type of relationship as adults.
• There was a link between reported infant attachment style and preferred type of adult relationship for both men and women.
• Adults who had trusting attitudes toward others grew into securely attached babies.
• The effects of attachment style in other cultures can be seen in a longitudinal study of German children.

• We have described the attachment between an infant and its family.

• The emphasis is placed on the mother-infant attachment.

• There are different types of in teractions displayed by fathers with their infants.
• Fathers spend more time playing with their children than they do cleaning or feeding them.
• Fathers and mothers engage in different forms of play.
• fathers are more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play than mothers are.

• The rough-and-tumble play has been found to have an effect on the de velopment of aggression and emotional regulation in children.
• It appears that it is important for the father to exert a dominant role in rough-and-tumble play.
• Children whose fathers were less dominant had higher levels of aggression and lower levels of emotional regulation than children whose fathers were more dominant during this type of play.

• Both parents form bonds with their children.

• Chapter nine results in the father spending more time with the child, having higher expectations for the child, and being more nurturing.

• The father-absent pattern is not common in all cultures.

• maternal employment is a reality in American society.
• The issue to day is not whether infants should be in day care but how to make their experiences there and at home supportive of their development and of their parents' peace of mind.
• Some parents might be concerned that day care could affect their child's attachment.
• Comparisons of the attachment of infants who attended day-care centers with that of infants who were cared for at home by their mothers in the United States reveal that infants who attended day-care centers did not differ from infants who were raised at home.
• It seems that the concern that full-time day care results in more anxious children is not true.

• The benefits of good day care may be more important for children from disadvantaged homes.

• The National Association for the Education of Young Children is an accredited agency for day care centers.
• To become accredited by the NAEYC, day-care providers must address 10 standards.
• A good day-care center should function like a good parent.
• The social and cognitive foundations established in a high-quality day-care center carry over to the kindergarten and preschool experiences that mark the end of early childhood.
• The beginning of formal education in middle childhood can be traced back to these experiences.

• There are lessons to be learned about how to get along in a group.
• As interactions with other children become more frequent, newly acquired social skills may be tested on the parents.
• The peer group can help develop self-esteem.
• Peer group influences can be negative.

• A youth may start to shoplift, smoke, and drink alcoholic beverages because of peer group members.
• For children with low prestige in the peer group, it will be nearly impossible to say no; to do so would surely mean the loss of what little status and popularity they might have and likely encourage hostility and aggressive ret ribution.
• Evans shows that children from low-income families may be at a disadvantage.
• Children with less access to books, computers, and TV are less likely to be read to.
• Group of neighborhood children, family violence, more instability, and less social support than their more affluent classmates, or selected friends counterparts.
• School of the same age related achievement is not always supported by parental attitudes.

• She is fixing lunch for her two younger brothers.
• She gave equal amounts of milk but it looks like more in tommie's cup because he has a shorter and fat glass.

• French children were given intelligence tests by a Swiss psychologist.
• He was curious about the children's answers.
• Children of the same age gave the same wrong answers and shared the same way of thinking.
• Piaget concluded that a child's mind is not a miniature version of an adult's mind after interviewing and observing numerous children over the course of many years.

• The processes by which children gain new knowledge were identified by Piaget.
• A child has never seen a cow.

• The child is familiar with dogs and tries to understand the cow by using the cognitive development in a young dog.
• The child integrates the cow into the dog.

• The fact that some birds don't fly had to be included.

• All human beings go from concrete to more abstract changes in their thought thoughts through a series of orderly and predictable stages of cognitive development.

• They experience the world in a direct manner and learn basic alterations of existing lessons before moving on to more complex thoughts.

• The baby will be surprised to see the toy when the cloth is lifted.

• If you had secretly removed the cloth-covered toy, the child would not be surprised to find it still there, but would be upset.

• The young child does not look for the toy when it is hidden.

• Children in this stage are allowed to play with dolls and toys that represent a real baby or a real car.
• They use a symbol system to ask for a drink instead of walking to the sink and pointing.
• A child in the preoperational stage would look around and think.

• She would aim the buggy at the doorway.

• Their abilities are limited.
• A child is talking on the phone to his grandpa.
• The child looks at objects that nod his head silently.
• The child ignores the fact that Grandpa can't see and can't move his head.
• He didn't take Grandpa's point of view into account.

• Thought becomes more logical during this stage.

• She is familiar with baseball cards.
• The third stage of cognitive objects can be manipulated with mental representations.

• There is a 4-year-old who does not like carrots.

• He will say this even after seeing the water in the tall glass.

• A child will believe that changes in the shapes and sizes of objects indicate changes in quantity if he or she doesn't know how to conserve.
• The study chart shows the stages of cognitive development by Piaget.

• It's the Ory.

• There is more impact and importance to Piaget's theory.
• It isn't a major force in research anymore.

• The social context in which a child learns is stressed by Lev Vygotsky.
• Vygotsky's theory focuses on society and culture instead of dealing with internal development.

• Children in different cultures may not be able to tell if they are able to solve problems in different ways.
• The distance between the water and the zone is the zone.
• By middle childhood, the ability level the child has reached on his or her own and the level of potential the child has acquired, will be able development that can be reached with guidance or supervision.
• The role of the teacher to tell that the two glasses contain an adult is to provide help or assistance during a teaching session.

• The child gradually assumes more responsibility for the task as the teacher changes or adjusts the scaffolding to reflect the newly acquired skills.

• Toddler explores the environment through sensory and motor behavior.
• The concept of object permanence has been developed.

• The cognitive changes proposed by Piaget have been challenged.

• Children de velop a sense of right and wrong in addition to developing in the physical, cognitive, and linguistic realm.
• Consider the following example.
• Fred was told not to go into the dining room, but he wanted to help his mother set the table, so he entered the room, bumping into a tray of cups and breaking eight of them.
• Barney was angry at his mother because she told him he couldn't go to the movies.
• He broke a cup in the dining room.

• There are three levels of moral development: the preconventional level, the level of conventional role conformity, and the level of autonomously moral principles.
• Each of these levels has two stages associated with it; thus the individual progresses through a total of six stages of morality as the three major levels are mastered.

• If a road sign says stop, the child expects you to stop.
• Children are reprimanded by their parents for driving faster than the speed limit or not stopping at a stop sign.
• Fred and Barney are in the dining room.
• Fred is naughtier than Barney because he broke eight cups.
• The level of damage is more relevant than the level of intentional ity.

• Children at this level are still controlled by external rules, but they want to behave well to please important people in their lives.
• Charlie wants to please his grandfather by being good.
• Children follow the rules of their peer group at Stage 4 because they have promised to do so.
• Even though the commitment is still to an external rule, the promise to obey it has become more visible.

• By age 13, this level development may be reached.
• Some people reach it in young adulthood while others never do.
• The internalization of con is observed in order to receive the benefits of true morality.
• At Stage 5 of the social contract, we find the adolescent or young reinforcement because it benefits the group.
• The person decides at the second stage of Stage 6 whether a particular behavior is moral development or not, regardless of what others think or of any legal restrictions that exist.
• One may adopt the belief that life is sacred and may feel that killing is to be avoided at any cost, if the rules and standards example is used.

• According to Lyons and Hanmer, the theory was developed only with the third stage of moral male participants but has been applied to women as well.
• Gilligan argues that men and women view moral situations in the same way and that they control over moral not.
• Chapter nine of morality is concerned with justice and not interfering with the rights of others.
• Women are more concerned with care.
• Gilligan proposed a theory for moral development in women.
• She uses the same levels but interprets them differently.
• Gilligan believes that there is an emphasis on caring for the self and self-preservation.
• At the postconventional level there is interde pendent caring for the self and others, whereas at the concrete level there is caring for others.

• There is some degree of overlap between men and women in moral behavior.
• She believes that a plete theory of moral development should stress both viewpoints.
• As men and women enter adulthood, their moral reasoning may become more simi lar.
• Adults view morality in a different way than children because of the complexity of life's experiences.

• Another challenge to the stage theory of moral development is cross-cultural research.
• More Israeli children raised in kibbutzim, in which they received training in the governmental structure and laws of the kibbutz, reached Stages 4 and 5 sooner than American children.
• The level of moral development that a person reaches is influenced by training in cultural laws.

• The resolution of moral dilemmas may be seen as a problem for the entire society.
• Gilligan's theory is challenged by cross-cultural research.
• Gilligan predicts in terms of moral conflicts and decision making that male and female Japanese adolescents do not differ.
• A comprehensive theory of morality is hard to come by.

• The de tress, activity level, attention span, persistence, and positive affect have become accepted in day-care centers.

• erik erikson proposed that cognitive development progresses determinants of personality.

• Changes in size or shape do not affect the amount of recognition.

• Warmth and contact comfort were important factors for attachment.

• You need to know that the survivors will be honored by their village.

• The transition period links childhood and adulthood.
• The period is called adolescence.

• The years between 12 and 20 are filled with trouble and turmoil.
• adolescence is characterized by major physical, intellectual, psychological, and social changes.
• The hormonal changes and differences in brain functioning associated with adolescence appear to be part of the cause of this trouble and turmoil.
• The extent of the storm and stress that the adolescent experiences are influenced by culture.

• Secondary sex characteristics appear during pubescence.

• The years between spurts show that not all children enter pubescence at the same time.

• Sex is one of the most important factors in determining pubescence.

• Girls achieve sexual maturity earlier than boys.
• The period of rapid growth, maturation age range for girls entering pubescence is from 8 to 14; the typical girl begins at age of sexual organs and appearance 10 or 11.
• The typical age range for boys entering pubescence is from 10 to 16 years old.
• A person who has reached puberty is still considered an adolescent.

• In the late 1980s this trend seemed to have leveled off in Europe and North America.

• The shoulders and hips of boys and girls broaden.
• Boys have a strength advantage over girls for the first time in their lives because they have more large-muscle growth at an earlier age.

• The lips, nose, and ears grow faster than the head.
• There are complex hormonal changes seen during pubescence.

• Primary and secondary sex characteristics are different during pubescence.
• The development of the uterus, vagina, and ovaries is part of the maturation of these characteristics in girls.
• The testes, penis and seminal vesicles are some of the primary sex characteristics in boys.

• Adjustment to reproduction lems can be caused by the maturational differences we have mentioned.

• The beginning of menstruation is more obvious than their classmates.
• They have large feet and breasts that cause teasing.
• India, where many marriages are arranged, has sex-related problems because early maturation does not create adolescence.

• A boy presents a different picture.
• He sees that he is outdistanced by the girls in his class, and then he is passed by most of the other boys.
• His lack of physical development becomes a source of shame.
• The late-developing boys are less relaxed than their peers.

• The exact point at which a person enters adulthood varies greatly from society to society.
• A ritual such as jumping off a platform can mark the passage to adulthood.
• The definition in the United States is based on age.
• Almost all countries have a devel opmental period that intervenes between childhood and adulthood.

• The ability to think in terms of possibilities as opposed to concrete reality is what this stage is characterized by.
• A high school student can read about the issue of noise pollution and then design and conduct an experiment to determine the effects of being exposed to loud noises.

• Although age may have something to do with entering this stage of development, the adolescent's assumption that they have reached a certain age does not guarantee that they will be capable of formal operations.
• Many adults remain at the level of concrete operations unless they are provided with educational opportunities and stimulation.

• Many adolescents can think and solve problems in an adult way, but they still face many of the same issues as an adolescent.

• There is a lot of apparent hypocrisy among adolescents.
• During a war, adolescents may join a peace movement.
• They may cause violent confrontations with people who support the war.

• You were in middle school or early high school.
• Teenagers feel like they are being watched and evaluated by others, which leads to feelings of self-consciousness.

• The kind of understanding and empathy that form the basis of mature adult relationships can be established through continued interactions in which adolescents become aware that other people have different, equally valid views and that their self-consciousness is greatly exaggerated.
• A diary in which adolescents express their thoughts, feelings, and emotions may be an important component of this maturing process.

• Social change appears to be the rule throughout the lifespan.
• Changes and challenges can affect our personality.

• The search for an identity and a place in society is most important for the adolescent who is experiencing a major growth spurt and developing signs of progressing to formal adulthood.
• This search can be very frustrating.

• The new roles open to the adolescent are influenced by ethnic and racial values.
• A 15-year-old girl from rural Minnesota is unlikely to see her place in society the same way a 15-year-old girl from Boston did.
• Both adolescents look for a place in society, but what is expected is different.
• For the comparison of adolescents in the United States with adolescents in other countries, the same could be said.
• Due to lack of goals and general tries, such as Italy, the parents' occupation will likely become that of their children.

• The adolescents have a good sense of well-being.

• In other instances, the frustration of this stage of development may cause ado lescents to accept their parents' values and desires.
• Dennis is a successful dentist.
• Dennis could have become a talented graphic artist if he had continued to enjoy drawing as a young boy.

• He became a dentist because his father wanted him to be one.
• Dennis didn't ask what he wanted to do with his life.
• It does not have the same stigma that it does in the United States, and it may be the norm with regard to occupation, family, and role according to birth order.

• Some adolescents find their identity unacceptable but can't replace it with an acceptable alternative.
• Ken's family expected him to become a lawyer.
• Ken dropped out of school after a bad semester of law school and now drives a cab to support his passion for building computers.
• The in dividual doesn't have an identity and isn't motivated to find one.

• Finally, some adolescents may go through a period in which they try out different sev eral identities without intending to settle on a specific one.
• The years spent in college may be seen as a moratorium.
• A student may sample several different subject areas before deciding on a major and career.

• The peer group defends against identity confusion during adolescence.
• The peer group can have a big influence on an adolescent.

• It is possible to have a positive influence if you belong to a group such as the French club.
• Many students begin middle school with close friends.
• Not all adolescent groups help develop a strong and productive sense of identity and an appropriate adjustment to society.
• A sense of identity is promoted by the prevalence of teenage gangs.

• The crime and violence in the nation's cities have increased.

• Through the process of experimentation, adolescents find out which behaviors and personality characteristics will be accepted and which will be rejected.
• The feedback is provided by peer groups.

• The peer group is made up of people who are experiencing the same social and physical changes.

• It is hard for adolescents to seek help from their parents during adolescence because they are questioning the behavior, standards, and authority of adults.
• This important function is served by the peer group.

• Any peer group can perform these functions.
• If adolescents are to become contributing members of society, they need to be associated with a positive peer group.

• Increasing concerns for teens, parents, and school officials about the occurrence of bully is one of the topics.
• "Bullying is a conscious, willful, and deliberate hostile activity intended to harm, induce fear through the threat of further aggression, and create ter ror" A bully is a child who targets another child of a perceived lower status.
• It is an experience that many children have to face day in and day out and can lead to feelings of inadequacy, depression, and even suicide.

• Verbal bully, physical bully, and relational bully are some of the forms of bullied.

• Girls and boys use the same amount of verbal and physical bully, but boys use more physical bully than girls.
• The cycle of bullied children is created by the fact that we don't see it as a threat.
• Many people think that every child needs to learn how to stand up for himself or herself if they want to be safe.
• Adolescent bystanders of a bullied child are either frightened to stop the incident for fear of being retaliated against or they join in on the torment.
• Teens that are bullied are often reluctant to reach out to school officials or their parents because of shame, fear of retaliation, or a belief that the adult can't or won't intervene.

• There are a few warning signs that parents can watch out for, because many teens are unwilling to talk to an adult about the harassment.
• Children who don't want to go to school may be being bullied.
• Other possible warning signs include unexplained injuries and torn clothes, physical symptoms, and withdrawing from friends and family.

• The importance of the adolescent's peer groups should not lead you to believe that the family has stopped influencing them.
• Family attitudes play a major role in determining whether or not a girl develops an eating problem.

• Family relations are an important variable in predicting juvenile delinquency and other instances of adolescent distress; parenting is the most powerful and effective way to reduce adolescent problem behaviors.
• Good family relations were found to be important for good mental health and reducing depression in adolescents.

• The stage of life in which most individuals begin to make personal commitments is adolescence.
• The adolescent develops a sense of accomplishment.

• The decision to become sexually active has important consequences.
• In the case of teenage pregnancy in the United States, there is more importance to this deci sion than any other.
• The teenage pregnancy rate in the United States has dropped dramatically in the past few decades.
• The UN reported a rate of 90 preg nancies per 1,000 girls in 1991.
• The 2008 rate was 39 pregnancies per 1,000 girls.
• The rate is still higher than other industrialized countries.
• A high teenage abortion rate and a high percent of births to unwed teenage mothers are associated issues that need to be addressed.

• A variety of issues not encountered in the United States are raised when adolescent abortion is viewed in an international context.
• The legal age at which young women can marry and are considered adults varies from country to country.
• Many teenagers turn to parenthood as a way of entering adulthood when careers and educational opportunities are out of reach.

• The impor tance of using contraceptives, teaching teenagers to understand the problems of sexual activity, and simulating the responsibility that raising an infant involves are some of the effective procedures for encouraging teenagers not to be sexually active.
• The adolescent role-plays pressures to be sexually active and learns to say no.
• It is easier for adolescents to say no when they are role-playing.
• It has been shown that successful programs to deal with teenage pregnancies need interventions and consensus at the community level.
• The cultural context will affect the type of prevention program that works best.
• In Mexico, where contraception was illegal until 1972 and sex education is still controversial, a prevention program that works well in the US might not work as well.

• Most people embark on careers, marry and have children, and become established members of society during this time.

• Good health is a hallmark of early adulthood.
• The peak of physical and sensory fitness can be reached at this time.
• In our early twenties, we have our greatest strength and sensitivity in vision and hearing.

• The physical and sensory abilities of young adults are more evident in professional athletes.
• Most athletes retire by the time they are in their mid-thirties or early forties.
• The physical abilities of young adults are seen in their leisure activities.

• Good health, a good diet, and exercise help us deal with stress.
• Health later in life can be impacted by engaging in healthy practices during early adulthood.
• During middle adulthood and old age, the way you treat your body affects your health.
• If you don't smoke, your lungs will be less susceptible to cancer; if you exercise, your risk of heart disease is decreased.

• Our intellectual abilities may decline as we grow older if our physical abilities begin to decline during early adulthood.
• Whether intellectual abili ties decline during adulthood is a subject of debate.

• Give this question some thought and write down some answers.

• A cross-sectional approach could be used to compare the scores of people in different age groups on an intelligence test.

• The cohort effect has not been taken into account.
• For example, people who are currently 80 to 90 years old are unlikely to have finished high school, but to day's 40-year-olds they are likely to have received at least that much education.
• The 40- and 80-year-olds differ in terms of ag ing and educational experience.
• We don't know if the different ages of our participants are due to their past experiences or if they are due to the different ages of our participants.
• Most normal adults don't begin to show a decline in intelligence until they are older.

• Researchers found that they were dealing with several types of intelligence when they examined the proposed decline in intel ligence.

• There are a lot of questions about whether intelligence declines with age.
• The answer depends on the type of intelligence that is measured.
• Creative solutions are needed to solve environmental problems, such as the need to recycle.
• fluid intelligence is reflected in the ability to see new relations.

• A second type of intelligence appears to increase over time.
• A crossword puzzle is an example of the use of intelligence.

• Those with the greatest usable store of knowl edge are the best crossword puzzle solvers.
• Older people who have been using their store of knowledge for a long time benefit from this type of intelligence.
• Most people have never heard of words and meanings that are reflected in the ability to remember them.
• The re search that used the longitudinal approach indicates that the decline in fluid intelligence is not significant.

• Women may have an edge over men when it comes to emotional memory.

• Along with the physical and intellectual changes of adulthood come personality and social changes.
• In collectivist cultures, family responsibilities, group has been learned and stored, and obligations to others may be the norm.

• It may be hard to believe that one can manage a crisis when one is in the best of health and at the peak of their emotions.
• This is what he suggests.
• An individual who cannot establish intimate relationships becomes isolated.
• Adolescents who have developed a strong sense of personal identity and worth are better prepared to make the compro the task of establishing a strong mises and sacrifice required in a successful relationship.

• A young adult who is able to establish intimate relationships faces a number of important decisions.
• Whether to marry, co habit, or stay single are some of the decisions that need to be made.
• Staying single for a longer period of time is the current trend.
• The average age for marriage is 26 for women and 28 for men.

• Some interesting results have arisen from research on cohabitation.
• The willingness to cohabit was shown by older students who had lower levels of religiosity, more liberal attitudes toward sexual behavior, and less traditional views of marriage and sex roles.
• Cohabitation does not last longer than a year.
• There are benefits and costs to marriage and cohabitation.
• People who are married tend to be happier.
• Marriage is difficult in the United States, with nearly a million divorces granted each year.

• When to have children is one of the major issues of young adulthood that has both costs and benefits.
• The average age at which women have their first child has risen since the 1960s.

• If you wait until you are in your mid- to late twenties or older to have children, you will have greater earning power, and you will be able to provide a better lifestyle and education for your children.
• Your career goals will be more developed.
• As a parent, your role and responsibilities will be clearer, and you will have more time to enjoy your children.

• The effects of aging are related to the advantages of having children when you are younger.
• Younger parents may be able to deal with the demands of caring for a baby more effectively than older parents because they are more active and energetic.
• Another factor is health.
• The health risks to both mother and child increase as the age of childbearing increases.
• As the mother's age increases, the risk of having a child with Down syndrome increases.
• Career ambitions may be a factor in the case of Megan and Marshall.
• Marshall wants to become a lawyer, while Megan wants to become a college pro fessor.
• Sometimes their schedules conflict and create tension between them, they have been forced to make compromises as partners in a dual-career marriage.

• There are several benefits.
• A closer relationship between a father and his children can result from the sharing of child-care sibilities.
• With wives who do not work outside the home, the wife in a dual-career couple has more opportunities to develop her skills and build her self-esteem outside of her parenting role.
• Conflicts between family and work roles, insufficient time to meet children's needs, and changes in family processes can all result from dual careers.

• Over the past 40 years, a shift toward more equal parenting has taken place as more mothers have adopted antonio expectations of marriage.

• Men who hold egalitarian attitudes have higher levels of source.

• Whether to place their children in a day-care center is just one of many decisions parents face.
• The decisions reflect prevailing child-rearing practices and parenting styles as well as the preferences of individual parents.
• Parents shape and control their children's behavior according to a set standard; they emphasize the importance of obeying and use punishment to reduce misbehavior.

• Parents have more knowledge, skill, control, resources, and physical power than their children, yet they believe that the rights of parents and children are the same.
• They are willing to listen to the child's point of view, although they do not always accept it.
• They are less likely to use physical punishment.

• Parents demonstrate less control than either authoritarian or author itative parents because they believe children must learn how to behave through their own experience or because they don't take the time to discipline their children.
• Children are given a lot of freedom to set schedules and choose activities.
• They are willing to tolerate immature behavior.

• Parents show little love and warmth while showing little control over their children.
• The parents are abusive.
• The basic needs of their child are provided by them.

• Each parenting style has its own set of habits and behaviors.

• Children of authoritarian parents are more drawn than other children.
• Children of permissive parents are more dependent.
• The children tend to be spoiled and have a lot of demands on their parents.
• Children of authoritative parents are liked, independent, and cooperative.
• Children's behav ior are influenced by these parenting styles even after they have left home.
• Trice found that the types and number of e-mails sent home by college students were related to their parenting styles.
• Students from authoritative fami lies did not seek as much academic and social advice.

• Students from families with authoritarian tendencies made the most requests.
• The families that made the most contacts were permissive.

• Some cultures emphasize different parenting styles.
• The Chinese parenting styles emphasize strict discipline and respect for elders.

• Having been raised with a particular parenting style may help one adapt to a particular culture.
• Children raised by parents who are authoritarian are more likely to function well than children raised by parents who are laissez faire.

• Young adults face a lot of career development tasks.
• Conflict between career develop ment and family values is important.
• If career development and family values conflict, both job and life dissatisfaction are likely to occur.
• A discussion of career development used to focus on developing a well exclusively for men.
• There has been a dramatic increase in the number of women entering the workforce.

• Chapter nine has changed the situation.
• Despite the increase in the number of women in the workforce, they still face barriers, such as lack of equity in salaries.
• Even though they perform the same job as men, women are paid less in almost all occupations.
• Those who succeed in male-dominated careers are often viewed negatively by their male and female coworkers.

• Take a look at the case of antonio, a successful business executive.

• Many of the changes of middle adulthood are the result of a decline.

• During middle adulthood, the physical changes that began during early adulthood become more noticeable.
• New ways of adapting to the environment may be needed to change sensory abilities.
• Presbyopia is caused by a stiffening of the lens of the eye.
• Due to the fact that these frequencies are not crucial to everyday behavior, they are often not noticed until they interfere with speech perception.
• A loss of sensitivity in other senses, such as taste and smell, doesn't happen until you're 50.

• The gradual decline that began in early adulthood eventually results in a reduc period from the age of 40 to the age of 65.

• As we grow older, reaction time slows and may be more noticeable than the decline in strength; for example, it may develop during middle adulthood and take longer to step on the brakes when driving.

• Some women mourn the loss of their middle adulthood hearing reproductive capacity, even if they have not given birth in many years, while others are happy with reduced ability in their freedom from worry about pregnancy and the discomfort of monthly periods.

• If the calcium intake is high, the bones will not lose strength.

• The most popular treatments are calcium supplements and weight-bearing exercise.

• The reproductive changes of middle adulthood are not as dramatic in men as they are in women.

• There is a decrease in the amount of semen and sperm for men older than 60 years old.
• Even though sexual functioning may decline, sexual desire may not.

• During middle adulthood, there may be a slight decline in fluid in telligence.
• People in their forties and fifties are better at using a store of practical knowledge to solve problems.
• Information about everyday problems and ways to solve them has been accumulated and should be considered when middle adulthood is reached.
• A seasoned physician can use years of patient care to diagnose a disease.

• Middle adulthood is when one's occupation takes on added significance.
• These are the "golden from osteoporosis" because she may be suffering prestige, productivity, and earning power never being greater.
• The importance of one's job during this stage has changed, in which the bones become thinner in two different types of research.
• One set of studies of middle adulthood shows what people would do if they suddenly became millionaires.
• 80% of participants said they would keep working after the study.

• Workers who have been laid off report feeling depressed, emptiness, and being lost.
• According to Clay, "midlife adults experience more 'overload' stressors--basically juggling too many activities at one time"

• This section was opened by the description of Antonio.
• Middle adulthood brings with it a midlife crisis for some men in Western countries.
• Rapid action is needed to correct the situation or regain one's youth if one is dissatisfied with their life.
• Few men can avoid the midlife crisis, but only a small percentage of people do.

• There is a different pattern of midlife changes in women.
• When parenting responsibilities have decreased and there is time to deal with other issues, women tend to experience age-related stress later in the late forties and early fifties.
• The likelihood of a midlife crisis is decreasing as more women return to college and enter the labor force.
• College training and job satisfaction give important buf fers against midlife difficulties.

• Many of the same issues are involved in the midlife crisis as they are in the period social crisis of middle adulthood.

• To be generative is to have concern for the next generation and for the perpetuation of one's accomplishments life.
• Teaching, coaching, and parenting show an obvious desire to share one's talents and knowledge, so this concern is frequently expressed through such activities.

• As their children grow older crisis, which occurs during middle and leave home to begin their own careers, middle-aged American parents must con adulthood and reflect concern or front another challenge.
• The par period of adjustment for parents must be reacquainted now that there are no children at home.

• Many people report an improvement in their marriage after their children leave.
• Write down your answers.

• After the departure of children, a number of factors appear to be responsible for an increase in marital satisfaction.
• First, the family's financial situation usually improves, and second, there are less worries about financial matters.
• The goal of raising a family has been accomplished.
• Many of the anxieties associated with this goal are reduced once the children leave home.
• There is more time for the husband and wife to do things.

• Aging parents of middle-aged Americans may require additional care and attention because of the benefits of having raised independent children.
• When parents live with their children, the stress of attending to their needs increases.
• Such strains can lead to violence.
• There are 1.5 million cases of elder abuse in the United States each year.
• Counseling and support groups for people who care for the elderly have been developed because of the stress caused by this problem.

• The return of the birds to the nest is a source of stress that may be reintroduced after the empty nest adjustment period.
• In times of economic hardship, many young couples are forced to return home to live with their parents.
• A daughter and her children may return to live with their parents after a divorce.
• The needs and desires of additional family members must be addressed.

• Girls reach puberty before boys.

• Girls reach puberty before boys.

• Kathy is in her fifties.

• John and Grace have retired.

• Whether you agree with the theory that we grow old because of wear and tear on the body or the theory that we are genetically programmed to grow old, aging is an inevitable part of the development cycle.

• You can use the following statements to think about old age.

• Before reading further, make sure each one is true or false.

• With age, physical strength tends to decline.

• Younger workers perform better than older workers.

• 25% of elderly citizens live in institutions such as nursing homes, mental hospitals, and extended-care facilities.

• Low priority is given to senior citizens by medical practitioners.

• We will respond to these statements throughout the rest of the chapter, but we want to focus on those that are related to physical changes.
• Despite the physical changes that occur in late adulthood, chronological age may not be a good predictor of ability or performance in elderly people.
• A person who is 85 or older can be classified as young-old, whereas a person in their late 60s can be classified as old-old.

• Predictable physical changes come with age.
• Many older people have hearing and vision problems.
• The world's leading cause of blindness is cataracts.
• Many people refuse to use hearing aids because they are a sign of old age.

• Older people don't like eating as much because their food doesn't taste as good as it used to.

• In Chapter 3 we saw that taste and olfaction had an influence on each other.
• We may not eat as much as we should if we can't smell our food.
• Malnourishment may become a problem for some elderly people.

• The ability to regulate body temperature decreases as you get older.

• Older relatives and friends may find their homes very hot during the winter.
• It is hot for you but comfortable for them.

• Most of the tasks and activities can still be done effectively and enjoyably.
• Activities that help elderly people stay physically fit and have positive benefits for cognitive function are important.

• There is an increase in the time required to process information due to the slowness of old age.
• Older people are more likely to be involved in accidents.
• Older people are unable to process information from traffic signals like stop signs and turn signals as quickly as they did when they were younger.

• The appearance of the body changes with age.
• People shrink as they get older.
• The disks between the back of the spine are compressed.
• Older people are more likely to stoop when they stand.

• Changes in sleep patterns are experienced by elderly people.
• They spend less of their time in bed actually sleeping as noted in Chapter 5.
• A reduction of Stage 4 sleep and an increase in the light sleep of Stage 1 results in more frequent awakenings.
• Older people may take a nap during the day to counteract the loss of sleep.

• Old age causes most of the body's systems to be more susceptible to disease.
• Heart disease is the most common cause of death for people over the age of 65.

• Cancer, stroke, and diabetes are some of the leading causes.

• Increasing susceptibility to disease is accompanied by an increase in the number of medications taken.
• Some drugs may combine or interact with one another in ways that are potentially deadly.
• Drugs may be prescribed in larger quantities than necessary or by different physicians who are not aware that other drugs have been prescribed.

• The aged population is given low priority by most medical practitioners.
• Many elderly people are difficult to work with.
• Potential financial risks are made possible by limited re sources.
• Elderly people get less attention and care than younger people.

• An easy and quick exercise that mimics some of the problems old age may bring you and one or more friends can do just about anywhere.
• The supplies you will need are plastic wrap, cotton, and masking tape.
• Put the wrap in place so that it doesn't fall off.
• Put cotton in your ears to mimic hearing loss, and put masking tape around your knuckles to mimic arthritis.
• If you are really daring, try to navigate around your dorm room, house, or apartment outdoors.
• Someone is watching your behavior.
• You can trade places with your friends once you have experienced old age.
• Here are some questions you should try to answer once your entire group has experienced the old-age experience.
• Sometimes dementia is caused by a blood clot in the brain.
• Many people who have expe rienced dementia are able to resume normal functioning if the problem is corrected.
• Others are not as fortunate.

• The number of people predicted to suffer from dementia is increasing.

• Drug treatment that alleviates symptoms in some patients shows promise.
• Alzheimer's disease is a brain condition that causes loss of intelligence, memory, and general awareness.
• Alzheimer's disease may affect one-third of people who live to be 85 or older, so it is receiving a lot of attention.

• The brains of Alzheimer's disease patients have changed.
• Many of the axons in the brain are twisted and tangled, and there may be a loss of complete cells.
• The brain could not be expected to function well.

• To answer this question, we need to consider two different types of the disease.
• One type, which occurs at a somewhat earlier age, is thought to be caused by a genetic defect.
• We might be able to find a cure for this form of the disease if we could identify and isolated the gene responsible for it.
• The more common form of Alzheimer's disease occurs after age 65.
• Concentrations of aluminum in the brain may be the cause.

• A clear picture of this disease will be provided by continued research.
• The factors that led some of the nuns to develop Alzheimer's disease were not found in other nuns.
• Intellectual decline was nearly as bad.
• Alzheimer's disease can be prevented by avoiding head trauma, and other factors that may help prevent old age.

• The average life expectancy in the United States increased from 47 in 1900 to 78 in 2011.
• The number of active years has been extended by better medical care and improved nutrition.
• People who do things for others live longer.

• Rapid growth of the elderly population is expected to continue because of the increase in life expectancy.
• Women have longer life expectancies than men.
• The disparity was small at the beginning of the 1900s.

• Although longer life expectancies are a new phenomenon in the United States, some areas of the world are famous for their longevity.

• There has been an increase in research on the intelligence and personality of senior citizens as a result of the increase in the proportion of older people.
• For some people fluid intelligence may begin to decline at the end of young adulthood.
• Researchers are trying to figure out the cause of the decline in fluid intelligence.

• In Chapter 4 we talked about the storage and retrieval of memory.
• The decline in fluid intelligence may be related to a problem with one of the memory processes.
• Consider the natives.
• Storage problems can be ruled out with the excellent memory shown during the late adult hood.
• There are already stored memories that are not being lost.
• As we grow older, some people will experience dif ficulties in successfully decoding new material.
• It might be possible to increase the memory abilities of the elderly by teaching them techniques that help them memorize.
• A level of reten tion similar to that shown by younger people was achieved by providing elderly individuals with a list of names.

• The answer is yes, according to the results of a study in which elderly individuals were provided with memory prompts.
• Performance on other verbal tasks improved when cues or prompt were presented.
• The results show that the memories had been stored but the pants had trouble retrieving them.

• The memory abilities of elderly indi viduals who had been intellectually active and smart throughout their lives were comparable to those of undergraduate students.
• The results point to the advantage of being intellectually active throughout life.

• Because they play board games such as Scrabble, John and Grace, continuing to be intellectually active, may help prevent a decline in mental active and mentally sharp.

• Many people don't hold this view.

• You responded with images of feeble individuals hobbling with canes and not development according to erikson's stage theory of personality.
• Understand what is said to them by using different colors.

• Discrimination can be caused by the use of such adjectives.

• In many instances, ageism leads to isolation of elderly citizens and keeps them from making valuable contributions to society.
• A person who sits in a retirement apart ment watching television contributes less than someone who has a part-time job or is active in other ways.
• Older adults in less developed countries don't officially retire because there are no pension plans or Social Security.
• We may see a decrease in ageism as the number of elderly people in our society increases.

• To accept one's impending death, one needs to attach meaning to it and put one's life in perspective.
• A sense of integrity is achieved by achieving this goal.

• People who can't find meaning in their lives may feel sad and wish they could have lived differently.
• The study chart shows the stages through out the lifespan.

• The way people adapt to retirement reflects the crisis of integrity versus despair.
• It is possible to envision elderly people enjoying a vacation-like life in ideal climates like Florida or Arizona.
• Condominiums and retirement houses are not accurate.
• Retirement is a major change.
• Some people look forward to retirement.
• Retirement can be a time of frustration, anger, and possibly depression for some.

• There are a number of factors involved.

• Good planning and preparation, satisfaction with one's accomplishments, good health, and freedom from financial worries are some of the keys to successful retirement.
• The transition to retirement is easier for those who attend to these issues during middle adulthood.
• Research shows that negative emotions decrease in older people.
• Retirement and old age can be one of the most enjoyable times in a person's life, thanks to this finding and an increase in positive memory bias.

• Elderly people prefer to live in their own homes or apart ments and maintain their independence as long as possible.
• It is possible to achieve this objective with some careful planning.
• Consider the case of a woman who lost her husband 10 years ago.
• She has lived in her house for over 40 years.

• Not all elderly people are able to live in their own homes in this style due to physical or financial limitations.
• erikson's eighth psychosocial crisis, houses that contain state-of-the-art electronic monitoring systems that help facilitate which occurs during late adulthood, are included in an increasing number of new home construction.
• The responsibilities are handled by life in many cultures.

• The basic distrust environment can be trusted if children are in contact with their primary caregivers.

• We can expect to see more arrangements of this nature as the lifespan increases.

• Jim and Judy lost their son in a car accident.
• Give a brief description of each fact's effects.

• They only talked about their son when you had dinner with them last week.

• Death is seen as the final event in a person's life.
• Other people are influenced by their memories of that person, even though it marks the end of that person's development history.
• We look at attitudes toward death and the process of grieving.
• Different stages of development are associated with different attitudes towards death.

• Children don't have an accurate conception of death until they are able to perform concrete operations.
• They believe that a dead friend can come back to life.
• Children don't realize that adolescents who idolize a seemingly all living thing eventually die and that all functions cease at the time of death.
• The hero may not believe death can be avoided.

• Although adolescents understand the nature of death, they don't respect its implications.
• Death may be glamorized and associated with heroic individuals.
• Ian Fleming's James Bond, the international spy, is depicted as an individual whose daring actions bring him to the brink of death, but Bond, however, never seems to be con cerned.
• Death may not be seen as an event to be feared by adolescents because they idolize individuals who express such feelings.

• Death may be the only way out of an intolerable situation for some adolescents.
• Their self-centered and self-conscious thoughts place a premium on how they lead their lives and who their friends are.
• Teenage suicide may be caused by inability to lead one's life in a desired manner.
• Being popular in school, dating the right people, and having the right car are important to adolescents.
• The number of teenage suicides has risen in recent years as a result of the increased pressures of our complex society.
• There are warning signs that should be taken seriously, such as a sudden decrease in school attendance, social withdrawal, a break-up in a romantic relationship, previous suicide attempts, and publicized suicides by other adolescents.
• Take adolescents seriously if they talk about committing suicide.

• Death is not considered a possibility for many adolescents because they believe they are invulnerable.

• Young adults believe that the future has a lot to offer them because of their physical and sensory abilities.
• They don't think of their own deaths.
• They tend to fear death more than older adults, and the occurrence of a life-threatening illness usually provokes extreme anger and rage.
• Young adults with a terminal illness are often poor hospital patients and feel like they are being robbed of their future.

• After the death of one's own parents, there is a realization that death is inevitable.

• In the case of a midlife crisis, the individual may change his or her lifestyle to become more physically fit and live as long as possible.

• Although death may be imminent, the elderly are more accepting of it than younger adults.
• Elderly people understand that death is a normal part of the developmental cycle.
• They are at the devel opmental stage of integrity.

• One's death is COnfrOntinG.
• We must all face death.
• The five stages of dealing with and understanding death are denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.
• Although a person may experience each of these stages at one time or another, he or she will not necessarily proceed through them in an orderly manner.
• Even though the theory is popular and influential, research has challenged its validity.
• The cultural attitudes toward death are different.

• bereavement, grief, mourning, and support the people whose emotions and roles change because of death.
• A wife becomes a widow, a husband becomes a widower, and a child becomes an orphan.

• In addition to adjusting to living alone, widows and widowers must assume the emotional and psychological sibilities of their deceased spouse.
• The orphans have to adjust to a new life.

• There is a small group of people for whom grief is more intense and more lasting.

• Researchers are studying grief more fully.

• The variables that affect grief are the focus of a lot of research.
• A child's death is more likely to result in complicated grief than a violent death.

• The older the deceased, the less intense the grief is.

• The expression of grief is caused by the nature of the relationship with the deceased.
• The caregivers who reported positive meaning in their care reported less intense grief.
• Social support that is appreciated reduces the grief reaction.

• People with higher self-esteem, people who are more optimistic, and people who are more resilient experience less intense grief.

• Social support is important in dealing with death.
• The delivery of support services in Western nations has been led by the Hospice movement.
• Hospice physicians and staff are trained to give more personalized care and more time to patients and their families, in addition to providing normal medical services for the dying.
• The philosophy of warm, personal concern and care can be implemented in the home just as effectively as in the hospital.
• Hospice patients and their families have better attitudes and adjustments than comparable hospital patients.

• In the Orthodox Jewish community, a strict set of rules will govern the conduct of some mourning rituals.

• Death ends the individual's history.