Rating
0.0(0)
Explore Top Notes
Chapter 6 Language Communication and Belief
Note
Studied by 5 people
4.0 Stars(1)
Chapter 1 - The Earth (copy)
Note
Studied by 37 people
4.5 Stars(2)
Factorisation (copy) (copy) (copy) (copy)
Note
Studied by 22 people
5.0 Stars(1)
Chapter 9 - Jacksonian Era
Note
Studied by 20 people
5.0 Stars(2)
Chapter 11 - The Growth of Democracy, 1824-1840
Note
Studied by 21 people
4.0 Stars(1)
Photons
Note
Studied by 12 people
5.0 Stars(1)
Section 17.4
Food Preservation by Radiation 267
Unfortunately some damage to healthy tissue is unavoidable. As a result, this treatment is often accompanied by the symptoms of radiation sickness (diarrhea, nausea, loss of hair, loss of appetite, and so on). If long-lived isotopes are used in the therapy, the material must be removed after a prescribed period.
Short-lived isotopes, such as gold 198 with a half-life of about 3 days, decay quickly enough so that they do not need to be removed after treatment.
Certain elements introduced into the body by injection or by mouth tend to concentrate in specific organs. This phenomenon is used to advantage in radiation therapy. The radioactive isotope phosphorus 32 (half-life, 14.3 days) mentioned earlier accumulates in the bone marrow. Iodine 131 (half-life, 8 days) accumulates in the thyroid and is given for the treatment of hyperthyroidism.
An externally applied beam of gamma rays or X-rays can also be used to destroy cancerous tumors. The advantage here is that the treatment is administered without surgery. The effect of radiation on the healthy tissue can be reduced by frequently altering the direction of the beam passing through the body. The tumor is always in the path of the beam, but the dosage received by a given section of healthy tissue is reduced.
17.4
Food Preservation by Radiation
Without some attempt at preservation, all foods decay rather quickly. Within days and often within hours, many foods spoil to a point where they become inedible. The decay is usually caused by microorganisms and enzymes that decompose the organic molecules of the food.
Over the years, a number of techniques have been developed to retard spoilage. Keeping the food in a cold environment reduces the rate of activity for both the enzymes and the microorganisms. Dehydration of food achieves the same goal. Heating the food for a certain period of time destroys many microorganisms and again retards decay. This is the principle of pasteurization. These methods of retarding spoilage are all at least 100 years old. There is now a new technique of preserving food by irradiation.
High-energy radiation passing through the food destroys microorganisms that cause decay. Radiation is also effective in destroying small insects that attack stored foods. This is especially important for wheat and other grains which at present are often fumigated before shipping or storage. Chemical fumigation kills the insects but not their eggs. When the eggs hatch, the new insects may destroy a considerable fraction of the grain. Radiation kills both the insects and the eggs.
Gamma rays are used most frequently in food preservation. They have a great penetrating power and are produced by relatively inexpensive isotopes Chapter 17 Nuclear Physics such as cobalt 60 and cesium 137.
High-speed electrons produced by accelerators have also been used to sterilize food. Electrons do not have the penetrating power of gamma rays, but they can be aimed better and can be turned off when not in use.
In the United States and in many other countries, there are now a num ber of facilities for irradiating food. In the usual arrangement, the food on a conveyor passes by the radioactive source, where it receives a controlled dose of radiation. The source must be carefully shielded to protect the operator.
This problem is relatively simple to solve, and at present the technical problems seem to be well in hand. One plant for irradiating food, in Gloucester, Massachusetts, initially built by the Atomic Energy Commission, has been operating successfully since 1964. It can process 1000 lb of fish per hour.
There is no doubt that irradiation retards spoilage of food. Irradiated straw berries, for example, remain fresh for about 15 days after they have been picked whereas strawberries that have not been treated begin to decay after about 10 days. Irradiated unfrozen fish also lasts a week or two longer. Tests have shown that the taste, nutritional value, and appearance of the food remain acceptable. The important question is the safety of the procedure. Irradiation at the levels used in the treatment does not make the food radioactive. There is, however, the possibility that the changes induced by radiation may make the food harmful. Over the past three decades, there have been many test programs both with animals and with human volunteers to ascertain the safety of food irradiation. At this point, the technique has been judged safe and is in commercial use (see Exercise 10-3).
17.5
Isotopic Tracers
Most elements have isotopes differing from each other by the number of neutrons in their nuclei. The isotopes of a given element are chemically identical—that is, they participate in the same chemical reactions—but they can be distinguished from each other because their nuclei are different. One difference is, of course, in their mass. This property alone can be used to separate one isotope from another. A mass spectrometer is one of the devices that can perform this task. Another way to distinguish isotopes is by their radioactivity. Many elements have isotopes that are radioactive. These isotopes are easily identified by their activity. In either case, isotopes can be used to trace the various steps in chemical reactions and in metabolic processes. Tracer techniques have been useful also in the clinical diagnoses of certain disorders.
Basically the technique consists of introducing a rare isotope into the pro cess and then following the course of the isotope with appropriate detection techniques. We will illustrate this technique with a few examples. Nitrogen is one of the atoms in the amino acids that compose the protein molecules.
In nature, nitrogen is composed primarily of the isotope 14N. Only 0.36% of natural nitrogen is in the form of the nonradioactive isotope 15N. Ordinarily the amino acids reflect the natural composition of nitrogen.
It is possible to synthesize amino acids in a laboratory. If the synthesis is done with pure 15N, the amino acids are distinctly marked. The amino acid glycine produced in this way is introduced into the body of a subject where it is incorporated into the hemoglobin of the blood. Periodic sampling of the blood measures the number of blood cells containing the originally introduced glycine. Such experiments have shown that the average lifetime of a red blood cell is about four months.
Radioactive isotopes can be traced more easily and in smaller quanti ties than the isotopes that are not radioactive. Therefore, in reactions with elements that have radioactive isotopes, radioactive tracer techniques are preferred. Since the 1950s, when radioactive isotopes first became widely available, hundreds of important experiments have been conducted in this field.
An example of this technique is the use of radioactive phosphorus in the study of nucleic acids. The element phosphorus is an important component of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. Naturally occurring phosphorus is all in the form 31P, and, of course, this is the isotope normally found in the nucleic acids. However, as discussed earlier, by bombarding sulphur 32 with neutrons, it is possible to produce the radioactive phosphorus 32P which has a half-life of 14.3 days. If the 32P isotope is introduced into the cell, the nucleic acids synthesized in the cell incorporate this isotope into their structure. The nucleic acids are then removed from the cell and their radioactivity is measured. From these measurements it is possible to calculate the rate at which nucleic acids are manufactured by the cell. These measurements, among others, provided evidence for the roles of DNA and RNA in cell functions.
Radioactive tracers have been useful also in clinical measurements. In one technique, the radioactive isotope of chromium is used to detect internal hemorrhage. This isotope is taken up by the blood cells, which then become radioactive. The radioactivity is, of course, kept well below the danger level.
If the circulation is normal, the radioactivity is distributed uniformly throughout the body. A pronounced increase in radioactivity in some region indicates a hemorrhage at that point.
17.6
Laws of Physics and Life
We have discussed in this book many phenomena in the life sciences that are clearly explained by the theories of physics. Now we come to the most fundamental question: Can physics explain life itself? In other words, if we Chapter 17 Nuclear Physics put together the necessary combination of atoms, at each step following the known laws of physics, do we inevitably end up with a living organism, or must we invoke some new principles outside the realm of current physics in order to explain the occurrence of life? This is a very old question which still cannot be answered with certainty. But it can be clarified.
Quantum mechanics, which is the fundamental theory of modern atomic physics, has been very successful in describing the properties of atoms and the interaction of atoms with each other. Starting with a single proton and one electron, the theory shows that their interaction leads to the hydrogen atom with its unique configuration and properties. The quantum mechanical calculations for larger atoms are more complicated. In fact, so far a complete calculation has been performed only for the hydrogen atom. The properties of heavier atoms must be computed using various approximation techniques.
Yet there is little doubt that quantum mechanics describes all the properties of atoms from the lightest to the heaviest. The experimental evidence gathered over the past 100 years fully confirms this view.
The interactions between atoms, which result in the formation of molecules, are likewise in the domain of quantum mechanics. Here again exact solutions of the quantum mechanical equations have been obtained only for the simplest molecule, H2. Still it is evident that all the rules for both organic and inorganic chemistry follow from the principles of quantum mechanics. Even though our present numerical techniques cannot cope with the enormous calculations required to predict the exact configuration of a complex molecule, the concepts developed in physics and chemistry are applicable. The strengths of the interatomic bonds and the orientations of the atoms within the molecules are all in accord with the theory. This is true even for the largest organic molecules such as the proteins and DNA.
Past this point, however, we encounter a new level of organization: the cell.
The organic molecules, which are in themselves highly complex, combine to form cells, which in turn are combined to form larger living organisms, which possess all the amazing properties of life. These organisms take nourishment from the environment, grow, reproduce, and at some level begin to govern their own actions. Here it is no longer obvious that the theories governing the interaction of atoms lead directly to these functions that characterize life. We are now in the realm of speculations.
The phenomena associated with life show such remarkable organization and planning that we may be tempted to suggest that perhaps some new undiscovered law governs the behavior of organic molecules that come together to form life. Yet there is no evidence for any special laws operating within living systems. So far, on all levels of examination, the observed phenomena associated with life obey the well-known laws of physics. This does not mean that the existence of life follows from the basic principles of physics, but it may. In fact the large organic molecules inside cells are sufficiently complex to contain within their structures the information necessary to guide in a predetermined way the activities associated with life. Some of these codes contained in the specific groupings of atoms within the molecules have now been unraveled.
Because of these specific structures, a given molecule always participates in a well-defined activity within the cell. It is very likely that all the complex functions of cells and of cell aggregates are simply the collective result of the enormously large number of predetermined but basically well-understood chemical reactions.
This still leaves the most important question unanswered: What are the forces and the principles that initially cause the atoms to assemble into coded molecules which then ultimately lead to life. The answer here is probably again within the scope of our existing theories of matter.
In 1951, S. L. Miller simulated in his laboratory the type of conditions that may have existed perhaps 3.5 billion years ago in the atmosphere of the primordial Earth. He circulated a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen through an electric discharge. The discharge simulated the energy sources that were then available from the sun, lightning, and radioactivity. After about one week Miller found that the chemical activities in the mixture produced organic molecules including some of the simple amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Since then, hundreds of other organic molecules have been synthesized under similar conditions. Many of them resemble the components of the important large molecules found in cells. It is thus plausible that in the primordial oceans, rich in organic molecules produced by the prevailing chemical reactions, life began. A number of smaller organic molecules combined accidentally to form a large self-replicating molecule such as DNA. These, in turn, combined into organized aggregates and finally into living cells.
Although the probability for the spontaneous occurrence of such events is small, the time span of evolution is probably long enough to make this scenario plausible. If that is indeed the case, the current laws of physics can explain all of life. At the present state of knowledge about life processes, the completeness of the descriptions provided by physics cannot be proved. The principles of physics have certainly explained many phenomena, but mysteries remain. At present, however, there seems to be no need to invoke any new laws.
EXERCISES
17-1. Describe the basic principles of magnetic resonance imaging.
17-2. What is your (considered) opinion of food preservation by radiation?
17-3. Through a literature search describe the most recent use of fMRI.
17-4. Discuss some of the most notable attributes of living systems that dis tinguish them from inanimate ones.
In this section, we will define some of the fundamental concepts in mechanics.
We assume that the reader is familiar with these concepts and that here a simple summary will be sufficient. A detailed discussion can be found in basic physics texts, some of which are listed in the Bibliography.
A.1
Speed and Velocity
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position with respect to time. Both magnitude and direction are necessary to specify velocity. Velocity is, therefore, a vector quantity. The magnitude of the velocity is called speed. In the special case when the velocity of an object is constant, the distance s traversed in time t is given by s vt
(A.1)
In this case, velocity can be expressed as v s
(A.2)
t
If the velocity changes along the path, the expression s/t yields the average velocity.
272
Section A.2 Acceleration A.2
Acceleration
If the velocity of an object along its path changes from point to point, its motion is said to be accelerated (or decelerated). Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity with respect to time. In the special case of uniform acceleration, the final velocity v of an object that has been accelerated for a time t is v v0 + at
(A.3)
Here v0 is the initial velocity of the object, and a is the acceleration.1 Acceleration can, therefore, be expressed as a v − v0
(A.4)
t
In the case of uniform acceleration, a number of useful relations can be simply derived. The average velocity during the interval t is vav v + v0
(A.5)
2
The distance traversed during this time is s vavt
(A.6)
Using Eqs. A.4 and A.5, we obtain s v0t + at 2
(A.7)
2
By substituting t (v − v0)/a (from Eq. A.4) into Eq. A.7, we obtain v2 v2 + 2as
(A.8)
0
1Both velocity and acceleration may vary along the path. In general, velocity is defined as the time derivative of the distance along the path of the object; that is,
s
v lim
ds
dt
t → 0
t
Acceleration is defined as the time derivative of the velocity along the path; that is, ds a dv d
d2s
dt
dt
dt dt 2 Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics
A.3
Force
Force is a push or a pull exerted on a body which tends to change the state of motion of the body.
A.4
Pressure
Pressure is the force applied to a unit area.
A.5
Mass
We have stated that a force applied to a body tends to change its state of motion. All bodies have the property of resisting change in their motion. Mass
is a quantitative measure of inertia or the resistance to a change in motion.
A.6
Weight
Every mass exerts an attractive force on every other mass; this attraction is called the gravitational force. The weight of a body is the force exerted on the body by the mass of the Earth. The weight of a body is directly proportional to its mass. Weight being a force is a vector, and it points vertically down in the direction of a suspended plumb line.
Mass and weight are related but distinct properties of an object. If a body were isolated from all other bodies, it would have no weight, but it would still have mass.
A.7 Linear Momentum
Linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity; that is,
Linear momentum mv
(A.9)
A.8 Newton’s Laws of Motion The foundations of mechanics are Newton’s three laws of motion. The laws are based on observation, and they cannot be derived from more basic principles. These laws can be stated as follows:
First Law: A body remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted on by an applied force.
Section A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum Second Law: The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a body is equal to the force F applied to it.
Except at very high velocities, where relativistic effects must be considered, the second law can be expressed mathematically in terms of the mass m and acceleration a of the object as2
F ma
(A.10)
This is one of the most commonly used equations in mechanics. It shows that if the applied force and the mass of the object are known, the acceleration can be calculated. When the acceleration is known, the velocity of the object and the distance traveled can be computed from the previously given equations.
The Earth’s gravitational force, like all other forces, causes an acceleration. By observing the motion of freely falling bodies, this acceleration has been measured. Near the surface of the Earth, it is approximately 9.8 m/sec2. Because gravitational acceleration is frequently used in computations, it has been given a special symbol g. Therefore, the gravitational force on an object with mass m is
Fgravity mg
(A.11)
This is, of course, also the weight of the object.
Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This law implies that when two bodies A and B interact so that A exerts a force on B, a force of the same magnitude but opposite in direction is exerted by B on A. A number of illustrations of the third law are given in the text.
A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum It follows from Newton’s laws that the total linear momentum of a system of objects remains unchanged unless acted on by an outside force.
2The second law can be expressed mathematically in terms of the time derivative of momentum: that is, mv(t + t) − mv(t) dv
Force
d (mv) m ma t → 0 t
dt
dt
Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics FIGURE A.1 The radian.
A.10
Radian
In the analysis of rotational motion, it is convenient to measure angles in a unit called a radian. With reference to Fig. A.1, the angle in radian units is defined as θ s
(A.12)
r where s is the length of the circular arc and r is the radius of rotation. In a full circle, the arc length is the circumference 2πr. Therefore in radian units the angle in a full circle is θ 2πr 2π rad
r
Hence, 1 rad 360◦ 57.3◦
2π A.11 Angular Velocity
The angular velocity ω is the angular displacement per unit time; that is, if a body rotates through an angle θ (in radians) in a time t, the angular velocity is ω θ (rad/sec)
(A.13)
t
Section A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum A.12 Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration α is the time rate of change of angular velocity. If the initial angular velocity is ω0 and the final angular velocity after a time t is ωf, the angular acceleration is3
ωf − ω0
α
(A.14)
t
A.13 Relations between Angular and Linear Motion
As an object rotates about an axis, each point in the object travels along the circumference of a circle; therefore, each point is also in linear motion. The linear distance s traversed in angular motion is s rθ
The linear velocity v of a point that is rotating at an angular velocity ω a distance r from the center of rotation is v rω
(A.15)
The direction of the vector v is at all points tangential to the path s. The linear acceleration along the path s is a rα
(A.16)
A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum
The equations for angular motion are analogous to the equations for translational motion. For a body moving with a constant angular acceleration α and initial angular velocity ω0, the relationships are shown in Table A.1.
3Both angular velocity and angular acceleration may vary along the path. In general, the instantaneous angular velocity and acceleration are defined as ω dθ ; α dω d 2θ dt
dt dt 2 Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics TABLE A.1 Equations for α constant) ω ω +
0
αt
θ
ω0t + 1αt2
2
ω2 ω2 + 2αθ
0
+ ω)
ω
(ω0
av
2
A.15 Centripetal Acceleration
As an object rotates uniformly around an axis, the magnitude of the linear velocity remains constant, but the direction of the linear velocity is continuously changing. The change in velocity always points toward the center of rotation. Therefore, a rotating body is accelerated toward the center of rotation. This acceleration is called centripetal (center-seeking) acceleration.
The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is given by ac v2 ω2r
(A.17)
r where r is the radius of rotation and v is the speed tangential to the path of rotation. Because the body is accelerated toward its center of rotation, we conclude from Newton’s second law that a force pointing toward the center of rotation must act on the body. This force, called the centripetal force Fc, is given by Fc mac mv2 mω2r
(A.18)
r where m is the mass of the rotating body.
For a body to move along a curved path, a centripetal force must be applied to it. In the absence of such a force, the body moves in a straight line, as required by Newton’s first law. Consider, for example, an object twirled at the end of a rope. The centripetal force is applied by the rope on the object.
From Newton’s third law, an equal but opposite reaction force is applied on the rope by the object. The reaction to the centripetal force is called the centrifugal force. This force is in the direction away from the center of rotation.
The centripetal force, which is required to keep the body in rotation, always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion and, therefore, does no work Section A.17 Torque TABLE A.2 Moments of Inertia of Some Simple Bodies
Body
Location of axis
Moment of inertia
A thin rod of length l Through the center
ml2/12
A thin rod of length l Through one end
ml2/3
Sphere of radius r
Along a diameter
2mr2/5
Cylinder of radius r
Along axis of symmetry mr2/2 (see Eq. A.28). In the absence of friction, energy is not required to keep a body rotating at a constant angular velocity.
A.16
Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia in angular motion is analogous to mass in translational motion. The moment of inertia I of an element of mass m located a distance from the center of rotation is
I mr 2
(A.19)
In general, when an object is in angular motion, the mass elements in the body are located at different distances from the center of rotation. The total moment of inertia is the sum of the moments of inertia of the mass elements in the body.
Unlike mass, which is a constant for a given body, the moment of inertia depends on the location of the center of rotation. In general, the moment of inertia is calculated by using integral calculus. The moments of inertia for a few objects useful for our calculations are shown in Table A.2.
A.17
Torque
Torque is defined as the tendency of a force to produce rotation about an axis.
Torque, which is usually designated by the letter L, is given by the product of the perpendicular force and the distance d from the point of application to the axis of rotation; that is (see Fig. A.2), L F cos θ × d
(A.20)
The distance d is called the lever arm or moment arm.
Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics FIGURE A.2 Torque produced by a force.
A.18 Newton’s Laws of Angular Motion
The laws governing angular motion are analogous to the laws of translational motion. Torque is analogous to force, and the moment of inertia is analogous to mass.
First Law: A body in rotation will continue its rotation with a constant angu lar velocity unless acted upon by an external torque.
Second Law: The mathematical expression of the second law in angular motion is analogous to Eq. A.10. It states that the torque is equal to the product of the moment of inertia and the angular acceleration; that is, L Iα (A.21) Third Law: For every torque, there is an equal and opposite reaction torque.
A.19 Angular Momentum
Angular momentum is defined as Angular momentum Iω
(A.22)
From Newton’s laws, it can be shown that angular momentum of a body is conserved if there is no unbalanced external torque acting on the body.
Section A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques FIGURE A.3 The resolution of a force into its vertical and horizontal components.
A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques
Any number of forces and torques can be applied simultaneously to a given object. Because forces and torques are vectors, characterized by both a magnitude and a direction, their net effect on a body is obtained by vectorial addition.
When it is required to obtain the total force acting on a body, it is often convenient to break up each force into mutually perpendicular components. This is illustrated for the two-dimensional case in Fig. A.3. Here we have chosen the horizontal x- and the vertical y-directions as the mutually perpendicular axes. In a more general three-dimensional case, a third axis is required for the analysis.
The two perpendicular components of the force F are Fx F cos θ
(A.23)
Fy F sin θ
The magnitude of the force F is given by
F F 2 x + F 2
y
(A.24)
When adding a number of forces (F1, F2, F3, . . .) the mutually perpendic ular components of the total force FT are obtained by adding the corresponding Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics components of each force; that is, (FT)x (F1)x + (F2)x + (F3)x + · · ·
(A.25)
(FT)y (F1)y + (F2)y + (F3)y + · · ·
The magnitude of the total force is FT (FT)2x + (FT)2y
(A.26)
The torque produced by a force acts to produce a rotation in either a clockwise or a counterclockwise direction. If we designate one direction of rotation as positive and the other as negative, the total torque acting on a body is obtained by the addition of the individual torques each with the appropriate sign.
A.21 Static Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium if both its linear and angular acceleration are zero. To satisfy this condition, the sum of the forces F acting on the body, as well as the sum of the torques L produced by these forces must be zero; that is,
P
P
F 0 and
L 0
(A.27)
A.22
Work
In our everyday language, the word work denotes any types of effort whether physical or mental. In physics, a more rigorous definition is required. Here work is defined as the product of force and the distance through which the force acts.
Only the force parallel to the direction of motion does work on the object. This is illustrated in Fig. A.4. A force F applied at an angle θ pulls the object along the surface through a distance D. The work done by the force is Work F cos θ × D (A.28)
A.23 Energy Energy is an important concept. We find reference to energy in connection with widely different phenomena. We speak of atomic energy, heat energy, potential energy, solar energy, chemical energy, kinetic energy; we even speak
Section A.24 Forms of Energy FIGURE A.4 Work done by a force.
of people as being full of energy. The common factor that ties together these manifestations is the possibility of obtaining work from these sources. The connection between energy and work is simple: Energy is required to do work. Energy is measured in the same units as work; in fact, there is a oneto-one correspondence between them. It takes 2 J of energy to do 2 J of work.
In all physical processes, energy is conserved. Through work, one form of energy can be converted into another, but the total amount of energy remains unchanged.
A.24 Forms of Energy A.24.1 Kinetic Energy
Objects in motion can do work by virtue of their motion. For example, when a moving object hits a stationary object, the stationary object is accelerated.
This implies that the moving object applied a force on the stationary object and performed work on it. The kinetic energy (KE) of a body with mass moving with a velocity v is KE 1 mv2
(A.29)
2
In rotational motion, the kinetic energy is KE 1 Iω2
(A.30)
2
A.24.2 Potential Energy
Potential energy of a body is the ability of the body to do work because of its position or configuration. A body of weight W raised to a height H with respect Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics to a surface has a potential energy (PE) PE WH
(A.31)
This is the amount of work that had to be performed to raise the body to height H. The same amount of energy can be retrieved by lowering the body back to the surface.
A stretched or compressed spring possesses potential energy. The force required to stretch or compress a spring is directly proportional to the length of the stretch or compression (s); that is, F ks
(A.32)
Here k is the spring constant. The potential energy stored in the stretched or compressed spring is PE 1 ks2
(A.33)
2
A.24.3 Heat
Heat is a form of energy, and as such it can be converted to work and other forms of energy. Heat, however, is not equal in rank with other forms of energy. While work and other forms of energy can be completely converted to heat, heat energy can only be converted partially to other forms of energy.
This property of heat has far-reaching consequences which are discussed in Chapter 10.
Heat is measured in calorie units. One calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C◦. The heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree is called the specific heat. One calorie is equal to 4.184 J.
A heat unit frequently used in chemistry and in food technology is the kilocalorie or Cal which is equal to 1000 cal.
A.25
Power
The amount of work done—or energy expended—per unit time is called power. The algebraic expression for power is P E (A.34) t
where E is the energy expended in a time interval t.
Section A.26 Units and Conversions A.26
Units and Conversions
In our calculations we will mostly use SI units in which the basic units for length, mass, and time are meter, kilogram, and second. However, other units are also encountered in the text. Units and conversion factors for the most commonly encountered quantities are listed here with their abbreviations.
A.26.1 Length SI unit: meter (m) Conversions: 1 m 100 cm (centimeter) 1000 mm (millimeter) 1000 m 1 km 1 m 3.28 feet 39.37 in 1 km 0.621 mile 1 in 2.54 cm
In addition, the micron and the angstrom are used frequently in physics and biology.
1 micron (μm) 10−6 m 10−4 cm 1 angstrom ( ˚ A)∗ 10−8 cm A.26.2 Mass SI unit: kilogram (kg) Conversions: 1 kg 1000 g
The weight of a 1-kg mass is 9.8 newton (N).
A.26.3 Force SI Unit: kg m s−2, name of unit: newton (N) Conversions: 1 N 105 dynes (dyn) 0.225 lbs A.26.4 Pressure SI unit: kg m−1 s−2, name of unit: pascal (Pa) Conversions: 1 Pa 10−1 dynes/cm2 9.87 × 10−6 atmosphere (atm) 1.45 × 10−4 lb/in2 1 atm 1.01 × 105 Pa 760 mmHg (torr) Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics A.26.5 Energy SI unit: kg m−2 s−2, name of unit: joule (J) Conversion: 1 J 1 N-m 107 ergs 0.239 cal 0.738 ft-lb A.26.6 Power SI unit: J s−1, name of unit: watt (W) Conversion: 1 W 107 ergs/sec 1.34 × 10−3 horsepower (hp)
B.1 Electric Charge
Matter is composed of atoms. An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus itself is composed of protons and neutrons. Electric charge is a property of protons and electrons. There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative. The proton is positively charged, and the electron is negatively charged. All electrical phenomena are due to these electric charges.
Charges exert forces on each other. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel each other. The electrons are held around the nucleus by the electrical attraction of the protons. Although the proton is about 2000 times heavier than the electron, the magnitude of the charge on the two is the same. There are as many positively charged protons in an atom as negatively charged electrons.
The atom as a whole is, therefore, electrically neutral. The identity of an atom is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. Thus, for example, hydrogen has 1 proton; nitrogen has 7 protons; and gold has 79 protons.
It is possible to remove electrons from an atom, making it positively charged.
Such an atom with missing electrons is called a positive ion. It is also possible to add an electron to an atom which makes it a negative ion.
Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C). The magnitude of the charge on the proton and the electron is 1.60 × 10−19 C. The force F between two charged bodies is proportional to the product of their charges Q1 and Q2 and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them; that is, F KQ1Q2 (B.1)
R2
287
Appendix B Review of Electricity
This equation is known as Coulomb’s law. If R is measured in meters, the constant K is 9 × 109, and F is obtained in newtons.
B.2 Electric Field
An electric charge exerts a force on another electric charge; a mass exerts a force on another mass; and a magnet exerts a force on another magnet. All these forces have an important common characteristic: Exertion of the force does not require physical contact between the interacting bodies. The forces act at a distance. The concept of lines of force or field lines is useful in visualizing these forces which act at a distance.
Any object that exerts a force on another object without contact can be thought of as having lines of force emanating from it. The complete line configuration is called a force field. The lines point in the direction of the force, and their density at any point in space is proportional to the magnitude of the force at that point.
The lines of force emanate from an electric charge uniformly in all direc tions. By convention, the lines point in the direction of the force that the source charge exerts on a positive charge. Thus, the lines of force point away from a positive source charge and into a negative source charge (see Fig. B.1). The number of lines emanating from the charge is proportional to the magnitude of the electric charge. If the size of the source charge is doubled, the number of force lines is also doubled.
Lines of force need not be straight lines; as we mentioned, they point in the direction in which the force is exerted. As an example, we can consider the FIGURE B.1 Two-dimensional representation of the electric field produced by a positive point charge (a) and a negative point charge (b).
Section B.4 Electric Current FIGURE B.2 Lines of force produced by a positive and a negative charge separated by a distance d.
net field due to two charges separated by a distance d. To determine this field we must compute the direction and size of the net force on a positive charge at all points in space. This is done by adding vectorially the force lines due to each charge. The force field due to a positive and negative charge of equal magnitude separated by a distance d from each other is shown in Fig. B.2.
Here the lines of force are curved. This is, of course, the direction of the net force on a positive charge in the region surrounding the two fixed charges.
The field shown in Fig. B.2 is called a dipole field, and it is similar to the field produced by a bar magnet.
B.3 Potential Difference or Voltage
The electric field is measured in units of volt per meter (or volt per centimeter).
The product of the electric field and the distance over which the field extends is an important parameter which is called potential difference or voltage. The voltage (V ) between two points is a measure of energy transfer as the charge moves between the two points. Potential difference is measured in volts. If there is a potential difference between two points, a force is exerted on a charge placed in the region between these points. If the charge is positive, the force tends to move it away from the positive point and toward the negative point.
B.4 Electric Current
An electric current is produced by a motion of charges. The magnitude of the current depends on the amount of charge flowing past a given point in a given period of time. Current is measured in amperes (A). One ampere is 1 coulomb (C) of charge flowing past a point in 1 second (sec).
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5 Electric Circuits
The amount of current flowing between two points in a material is proportional to the potential difference between the two points and to the electrical properties of the material. The electrical properties are usually represented by three parameters: resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Resistance measures the opposition to current flow. This parameter depends on the property of the material called resistivity, and it is analogous to friction in mechanical motion. Capacitance measures the ability of the material to store electric charges. Inductance measures the opposition in the material to changes in current flow. All materials exhibit to some extent all three of these properties; often, however, one of these properties is predominant. It is possible to manufacture components with specific values of resistance, capacitance, or inductance. These are called, respectively, resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The schematic symbols for these three electrical components are shown in Fig. B.3. Electrical components can be connected together to form an electric circuit. Currents can be controlled by the appropriate choice of components and interconnections in the circuit. An example of an electric circuit is shown in Fig. B.4. Various techniques have been developed to analyze such circuits and to calculate voltages and currents at all the points in the circuit.
B.5.1 Resistor
The resistor is a circuit component that opposes current flow. Resistance (R) is measured in units of ohm (). The relation between current (I ) and FIGURE B.3 Circuit components.
FIGURE B.4 Example of an electric circuit.
Section B.5 Electric Circuits voltage (V ) is given by Ohm’s law, which is
V IR
(B.2)
Materials that present a very small resistance to current flow are called conductors. Materials with a very large resistance are called insulators. A flow of current through a resistor is always accompanied by power dissipation as electrical energy is converted to heat. The power (P) dissipated in a resistor is given by P I2R
(B.3)
The inverse of resistance is called conductance, which is usually designated by the symbol G. Conductance is measured in units of mho, also called Siemens.
The relationship between conductance and resistance is
G 1
(B.4)
R B.5.2 Capacitor
The capacitor is a circuit element that stores electric charges. In its simplest form it consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (see Fig. B.5). Capacitance (C) is measured in farads. The relation between the stored charge (Q), and the voltage across the capacitor is given by Q CV
(B.5)
In a charged capacitor, positive charges are on one side of the plate, and negative charges are on the other. The amount of energy (E) stored in such a configuration is given by E 1 CV 2
(B.6)
2
FIGURE B.5 A simple capacitor.
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5.3 Inductor
The inductor is a device that opposes a change in the current flowing through it. Inductance is measured in units called henry.
B.6 Voltage and Current Sources
Voltages and currents can be produced by various batteries and generators.
Batteries are based on chemical reactions that result in a separation of positive and negative charges within a material. Generators produce a voltage by the motion of conductors in magnetic fields. The circuit symbols for these sources are shown in Fig. B.6.
B.7
Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity and magnetism are related phenomena. A changing electric field always produces a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field always produces an electric field. All electromagnetic phenomena can be traced to this basic interrelationship. A few of the consequences of this interaction follow:
1. An electric current always produces a magnetic field at a direction perpendicular to the current flow.
2. A current is induced in a conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field.
3. An oscillating electric charge emits electromagnetic waves at the frequency of oscillation. This radiation propagates away from the source at the speed of light. Radio waves, light, and X-rays are examples of electromagnetic radiation.
FIGURE B.6 Circuit symbols for a battery and a generator.
Review of Optics C.1 Geometric Optics
The characteristics of optical components, such as mirrors and lenses, can be completely derived from the wave properties of light. Such detailed calculations, however, are usually rather complex because one has to keep track of the wave front along every point on the optical component. It is possible to simplify the problem if the optical components are much larger than the wavelength of light. The simplification entails neglecting some of the wave properties of light and considering light as a ray traveling perpendicular to the wave front (Fig. C.1). In a homogeneous medium, the ray of light travels in a straight line; it alters direction only at the interface between two media. This simplified approach is called geometric optics.
The speed of light depends on the medium in which it propagates. In vacuum, light travels at a speed of 3 × 108 m/sec. In a material medium, the speed of light is always less. The speed of light in a material is characterized by the index of refraction (n) defined as n c
(C.1)
v where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed in the material.
When light enters from one medium into another, its direction of propagation is changed (see Fig. C.2). This phenomenon is called refraction. The relationship between the angle of incidence (θ1) and the angle of refraction (θ2)
293
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.1 Light rays perpendicular to the wave front.
is given by sin θ1 n2
(C.2)
sin θ2
n1
The relationship in Eq. C.2 is called Snell’s law. As shown in Fig. C.2, some of the light is also reflected. The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence.
In Fig. C.2a, the angle of incidence θ1 for the entering light is shown to be greater than the angle of refraction θ2. This implies that n2 is greater than n1 as would be the case for light entering from air into glass, for example (see Eq. C.2). If, on the other hand, the light originates in the medium of higher refractive index, as shown in Fig. C.2b, then the angle of incidence θ1 is smaller than the angle of refraction θ2. At a specific value of angle θ1 called the critical angle (designated by the symbol θc), the light emerges tangent to the surface, that is, θ2 90◦. At this point, sin θ2 1 and, therefore, sin θ1 sin θc n2/n1. Beyond this angle, that is for θ1 > θc, light originating in the medium of higher refractive index does not emerge from the medium. At the interface, all the light is reflected back into the medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. For glass, n2 is typically 1.5, and the critical angle at the glass-air interface is sin θc 1/1.5 or θc 42◦.
Transparent materials such as glass can be shaped into lenses to alter the direction of light in a specific way. Lenses fall into two general categories: converging lenses and diverging lenses. A converging lens alters the direction of light so that the rays are brought together. A diverging lens has the opposite effect; it spreads the light rays apart.
Using geometric optics, we can calculate the size and shape of images formed by optical components, but we cannot predict the inevitable blurring of images which occurs as a result of the wave nature of light.
Section C.2 Converging Lenses FIGURE C.2 (Top) Reflection and refraction of light. (Bottom) Total internal reflection.
C.2 Converging Lenses
A simple converging lens is shown in Fig. C.3. This type of a lens is called a convex lens.
Parallel rays of light passing through a convex lens converge at a point called the principal focus of the lens. The distance of this point from the lens is called the focal length f. Conversely, light from a point source at the focal point emerges from the lens as a parallel beam. The focal length of the lens is
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.3 The convex lens illuminated (a) by parallel light, (b) by point source at the focus.
determined by the index of refraction of the lens material and the curvature of the lens surfaces. We adopt the following convention in discussing lenses.
1. Light travels from left to right.
2. The radius of curvature is positive if the curved surface encountered by the light ray is convex; it is negative if the surface is concave.
It can be shown that for a thin lens the focal length is given by
1
1
(n − 1) − 1
(C.3)
f
R1 R2 where R1 and R2 are the curvatures of the first and second surfaces, respectively (Fig. C.4). In Fig. C.4, R2 is a negative number.
Focal length is a measure of the converging power of the lens. The shorter the focal length, the more powerful the lens. The focusing power of a lens is
Section C.2 Converging Lenses FIGURE C.4 Radius of curvature defined for a lens.
often expressed in diopters defined as
Focusing power
1
(diopters)
(C.4)
f (meters) If two thin lenses with focal lengths f1 and f2, respectively, are placed close together, the focal length fT of the combination is 1 1 + 1
(C.5)
fT
f1
f2
Light from a point source located beyond the focal length of the lens is converged to a point image on the other side of the lens (Fig. C.5a). This type of an image is called a real image because it can be seen on a screen placed at the point of convergence.
If the distance between the source of light and the lens is less than the focal length, the rays do not converge. They appear to emanate from a point on the source side of the lens. This apparent point of convergence is called a (Fig. C.5b).
For a thin lens, the relationship between the source and the image distances from the lens is given by 1 + 1 1
(C.6)
p
q
f
Here p and q, respectively, are the source and the image distances from the lens. By convention, q in this equation is taken as positive if the image is formed on the side of the lens opposite to the source and negative if the image is formed on the source side.
Light rays from a source very far from the lens are nearly parallel; there fore, by definition we would expect them to be focused at the principal focal point of the lens. This is confirmed by Eq. C.6, which shows that as p becomes very large (approaches infinity), q is equal to f.
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.5 Image formation by a convex lens: (a) real image, (b) virtual image.
If the source is displaced a distance x from the axis, the image is formed at a distance y from the axis such that y q
(C.7)
x
p
This is illustrated for a real image in Fig. C.6. The relationship between p and q is still given by Eq. C.6.
C.3 Images of Extended Objects
So far we have discussed only the formation of images from point sources.
The treatment, however, is easily applied to objects of finite size.
When an object is illuminated, light rays emanate from every point on the object (Fig. C.7a). Each point on the object plane a distance p from the lens
Section C.3 Images of Extended Objects FIGURE C.6 Image formation off axis.
FIGURE C.7 Image of an object: (a) real, (b) virtual.
is imaged at the corresponding point on the image plane a distance q from the lens. The relationship between the object and the image distances is given by Eq. C.6. As shown in Fig. C.7, real images are inverted and virtual images are upright. The ratio of image to object height is given by Image height −q
(C.8)
Object height p
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.8 A diverging lens.
C.4 Diverging Lenses
An example of a diverging lens is the concave lens shown in Fig. C.8. Parallel light diverges after passing through a concave lens. The apparent source of origin for the diverging rays is the focal point of the concave lens. All the equations we have presented for the converging lens apply in this case also, provided the sign conventions are obeyed. From Eq. C.3, it follows that the focal length for a diverging lens is always negative and the lens produces only virtual images (Fig. C.8).
C.5
Lens Immersed in a Material Medium
The lens equations that we have presented so far apply in the case when the lens is surrounded by air that has a refraction index of approximately 1. Let us now consider the more general situation shown in Fig. C.9, which we will need in our discussion of the eye. The lens here is embedded in a medium that has a different index of refraction (n1 and n2) on each side of the lens. It can be shown (see [15-3]) that under these conditions the relationship between the object and the image distances is n1 + n2 nL −n1 − nL − n2
(C.9)
p
q
R1
R2
Section C.5 Lens Immersed in a Material Medium FIGURE C.9 Lens immersed in a material medium.
Here nL is the refraction index of the lens material. The effective focal length in this case is 1 n2 −n1 − nL −n2
(C.10)
f
R1
R2
Note that in air n1 n2 1 and Eq. C.10 reduces to Eq. C.3.
The lens equations we have presented in this appendix assume that the lenses are thin. This is not a fully valid assumption for the lenses in the eye.
Nevertheless these equations are adequate for our purposes.
Chapters 1 to 6 6-1 Alexander, R. McNeill. Animal Mechanics. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968.
6-2 Baez, Albert V. The New College Physics: A Spiral Approach. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1967.
6-3 Blesser, William B. A Systems Approach to Biomedicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.
6-4 Bootzin, David, and Muffley, Harry C. Biomechanics. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1969.
6-5 Cameron, J. R., Skofronick, J. G., and Grant, R. M. Physics of the Body.
Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing, 1992.
6-6 Chapman, R. F. The Insects. New York, NY: American Elsevier Pub lishing Co., 1969.
6-7 Conaghan, P. G. “Update on Osteoarthritis Part 1: Current Concepts and the Relation to Exercise,” British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36 (2002), 330–333.
6-8 Cooper, John M., and Glassow, Ruth B. Kinesiology, 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: The C. V. Mosby Co., 1972.
6-9 Cromer, A. H. Physics for the Life Sciences. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1974.
302
Bibliography 6-10 Frankel, Victor H., and Burstein, Albert H. Orthopaedic Biomechanics.
Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1970.
6-11 French, A. P. Newtonian Mechanics. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1971.
6-12 Frost, H. M. An Introduction to Biomechanics. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1967.
6-13 Gray, James. How Animals Move. Cambridge, UK: University Press, 1953.
6-14 Heglund, N. C., Willems, P. A., Penta, M., and Cavagna, G. A. “Energy saving Gait Mechanics with Head-supported Loads,” Nature, 375 (1995), 52–54.
6-15 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
6-16 Ingber, D. E. “The Architecture of Life,” Scientific American (January 1998), 47.
6-17 Jensen, Clayne R., and Schultz, Gordon W. Applied Kinesiology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
6-18 Kenedi, R. M., ed. Symposium on Biomechanics and Related Bioengi- neering Topics. New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1965.
6-19 Lauk, M., Chow, C. C., Pavlik, A. E., and Collins, J. J. “Human Balance out of Equilibrium: Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics in Posture Control,” The American Physical Society, 80 (January 1998), 413.
6-20 Latchaw, Marjorie, and Egstrom, Glen. Human Movement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969.
6-21 McCormick, Ernest J. Human Factors Engineering. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
6-22 Mathews, Donald K., and Fox, Edward L. The Physiological Basis of Physical Education and Athletics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1971.
6-23 Morgan, Joseph. Introduction to University Physics, Vol. 1, 2nd ed.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
6-24 Novacheck, T. F. “The Biomechanics of Running,” Gait and Posture, 7 (1998), 77–95.
Bibliography 6-25 Offenbacher, Elmer L. “Physics and the Vertical Jump,” American Jour- nal of Physics, 38 (July 1970), 829–836.
6-26 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
6-27 Roddy, E. et al.
“Evidence-based Recommendations for the Role of Exercise in the Management of Osteoarthritis,” Rheumatology, 44 (2005), 67–73.
6-28 Rome, L. C. “Testing a Muscle’s Design,” American Scientist, 85 (July– August 1997), 356.
6-29 Strait, L. A., Inman, V. T., and Ralston, H. J. “Sample Illustrations of Physical Principles Selected from Physiology and Medicine,” , 15 (1947), 375.
6-30 Sutton, Richard M. “Two Notes on the Physics of Walking,” American Journal of Physics, 23 (1955), 490.
6-31 Wells, Katherine F. Kinesiology: The Scientific Basis of Human Motion.
Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1971.
6-32 Williams, M., and Lissner, H. R. Biomechanics of Human Motion. Phil adelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1962.
6-33 Winter, D. A. “Human Balance and Posture Control during Standing and Walking,” Gait & Posture, 3 (1995), 193–214.
6-34 Wolff, H. S. Biomedical Engineering. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
Chapter 7 7-1 Alexander, R. McNeill. Animal Mechanics. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968.
7-2 Bush, J. W. M., and Hu, D. L. “Walking on Water: Biolocomotion at the Interface,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 38 (2006), 339–369.
7-3 Chapman, R. F. The Insects. New York, NY: American Elsevier Pub lishing Co., 1969.
7-4 Foth, H. D., and Turk, L. M. Fundamentals of Soil Science. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
7-5 Gamow, G., and Ycas, M. Mr. Tomkins Inside Himself. New York, NY: The Viking Press, 1967.
Bibliography 7-6 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
7-7 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
7-8 Murray, J. M., and Weber, A. “The Cooperative Action of Muscle Pro teins,” Scientific American (February 1974), 59.
7-9 Rome, L. C. “Testing a Muscle’s Design,” American Scientist, 85 (July– August 1997), 356.
Chapter 8 8-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1962.
8-2 Hademenos, G. J. “The Biophysics of Stroke,” American Scientist, 85 (May–June 1997), 226.
8-3 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
8-4 Myers, G. H., and Parsonnet, V. Engineering in the Heart and Blood Vessels. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1969.
8-5 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
8-6 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D., eds. Physiology and Biophysics. Philadel phia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965.
8-7 Strait, L. A., Inman, V. T., and Ralston, H. J. “Sample Illustrations of Physical Principles Selected from Physiology and Medicine,” , 15 (1947), 375.
Chapters 9 to 11 11-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1962.
11-2 Angrist, S. W. “Perpetual Motion Machines,” Scientific American (January 1968), 114.
Bibliography 11-3 Atkins, P. W. The 2nd Law. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1994.
11-4 Brown, J. H. U., and Gann, D. S., eds. Engineering Principles in Physi- ology, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1973.
11-5 Casey, E. J. Biophysics, New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.
11-6 Loewenstein, W. R. The Touchstone of Life: Molecular Information, Cell Communication, and the Foundations of Life. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999.
11-7 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
11-8 Morowitz, H. J. Energy Flow in Biology. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1968.
11-9 Peters, R. H. The Ecological Implications of Body Size. Cambridge University Press, 1983.
11-10 Rose, A. H., ed. Thermobiology. London: Academic Press, 1967.
11-11 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D., eds. Physiology and Biophysics. Phila delphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965.
11-12 Schurch, S., Lee, M., and Gehr, P. “Pulmonary Surfactant: Surface Properties and Function of Alveolar and Airway Surfactant,” , 64(11) (1992), 1745–1750.
11-13 Stacy, R. W., Williams, D. T., Worden, R. E., and McMorris, R. W.
Biological and Medical Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955.
Chapter 12 12-1 Alexander, R. McNeil Animal Mechanics. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1968.
12-2 Brown, J. H. U., and Gann, D. S., eds. Engineering Principles in Phys- iology, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1973.
12-3 Burns, D. M., and MacDonald, S. G. G. Physics for Biology and Pre-Medical Students. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970.
Bibliography 12-4 Casey, E. J. Biophysics. New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.
12-5 Cromwell, L., Weibell, F.J., Pfeiffer, E. A., and Usselman, L. B. Bio- medical Instrumentation and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
12-6 Marshall, J. S., Pounder, E. R., and Stewart, R. W. Physics, 2nd ed.
New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1967.
12-7 Mizrach, A., Hetzroni, A., Mazor, M., Mankin, R. W., Ignat, T., Grinshpun, J., Epsky, N. D., Shuman, D., and Heath, R. R. “Acoustic Trap for Female Mediterranean Fruit Flies,” 48(2005), 2017–2022.
12-8 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2d ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
12-9 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
12-10 Stacy, R. W., Williams, D. T., Worden, R. E., and McMorris, R. W.
Biological and Medical Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955.
Chapter 13 13-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
13-2 Bassett, C. A. L. “Electrical Effects in Bone,” Scientific American (October 1965), 18.
13-3 Bullock, T. H. “Seeing the World through a New Sense: Electrorecep tion in Fish,” American Scientist 61 (May–June 1973), 316.
13-4 Delchar, T. A. Physics in Medical Diagnosis. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1997.
13-5 Hobbie, R. K. “Nerve Conduction in the Pre-Medical Physics Course,” American Journal of Physics, 41 (October 1973), 1176.
13-6 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
Bibliography 13-7 Katz, B. “How Cells Communicate,” Scientific American (September 1961), 208.
13-8 Katz, B. Nerve Muscle and Synapse. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966.
13-9 Miller, W. H., Ratcliff, F., and Hartline, H. K. “How Cells Receive Stimuli,” Scientific American (September 1961), 223.
13-10 Scott, B. I. H. “Electricity in Plants,” Scientific American (October 1962), 107.
Chapter 14 14-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
14-2 Blesser, W. B. A Systems Approach to Biomedicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.
14-3 Cromwell, L., Weibell, F. J., Pfeiffer, E. A., and Usselman, L. B. Bio- medical Instrumentation and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973.
14-4 Davidovits, P. Communication. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
14-5 Loizou, P. C. “Mimicking the Human Ear,” IEEE Signal Processing Magazine (September 1998), 101–130.
14-6 Scher, A. M. “The Electrocardiogram,” Scientific American (November 1961), 132.
Chapter 15 15-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962.
15-2 Davidovits, P., and Egger, M. D. “Microscopic Observation of Endothe lial Cells in the Cornea of an Intact Eye,” Nature 244 (1973), 366.
15-3 Katzir, A. “Optical Fibers in Medicine,” Scientific American (May 1989) 260, 120.
Bibliography 15-4 Marshall, J. S., Pounder, E. R., and Stewart, R. W. Physics, 2nd ed. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1967.
15-5 Muntz, W. R. A. “Vision in Frogs,” Scientific American (March 1964), 110.
15-6 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D. Physiology and Biophysics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1965.
15-7 Wald, George. “Eye and the Camera,” Scientific American (August 1950), 32.
Chapters 16 and 17 16-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962.
16-2 Burns, D. M., and MacDonald, S. G. G. Physics for Biology and Pre- Medical Students. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970.
16-3 Delchar, T. A. Physics in Medical Diagnosis. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1997.
16-4 Dowsett, D. J., Kenny, P. A., and Johnston, R. E. The Physics of Diagnostic Imaging. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall Medical, 1998.
16-5 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
16-6 Pizer, V. “Preserving Food with Atomic Energy,” United States Atomic Energy Commission Division of Technical Information, 1970.
16-7 Pykett, I. L. “NMR Imaging in Medicine,” Scientific American (May 1982), 78.
16-8 Schr¨odinger, E. “What Is Life?” and Other Scientific Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Co., 1956.
Exercises Chapter 1 1-1(b). F 254 N (57.8 lb) 1-3. θ 72.6◦ 1-4. Maximum weight 335 N (75 lb) 1-5(a). Fm 2253 N (508 lb), Fr 2386 N (536 lb) 1-6. Fm 720 N, Fr 590 N 1-7(a). Fm 2160 N, Fr 1900 N 1-8. Fm 103 N, Fr 84 N 1-10. x 19.6 cm, v of tendon 4 cm/sec, v of weight 38 cm/sec 1-11. Fm 0.47 W, Fr 1.28 W 1-12(a). Fm 2000 N, Fr 2200 N; (b). Fm 3220 N, Fr 3490 N 1-13. FA 2.5 W, FT 3.5 W Chapter 2 2-1(a). Distance 354 m; (b). Independ of mass 2-2(a). μ 0.067 2-3(a). μ 1.95; (b). with μ 1.0, θ 39.4◦, with μ 0.01, θ 0.6◦ Chapter 3 3-1. P 4120 watt 3-2. H 126 cm 311 3-3. Fr 1.16 W, θ 65.8◦ 3-4. T 0.534 sec 3-5(a). R 13.5 m; (b). H 3.39 m; (c). 4.08 sec 3-6. v 8.6 m/sec 3-7. r 1.13 m 3-8(a). v 8.3 m/sec; (b) 16.6 cm/sec 3-9. Energy expended/sec 1350 J/sec 3-10. P 371 watt Chapter 4 4-2. F 10.1 N 4-3. ω 1.25 rad/sec; linear velocity 6.25 m/sec 4-4. ω 1.25 rad/sec 33.9 rpm 4-5. v 62.8 m/sec 4-6. Speed 1.13 m/sec 4.07 km/h 2.53 mph 4-7. T 1.6 sec 4-8. E 1.64 mv2 4-9. Fall time 1 sec
Chapter 5 5-1. v 2.39 m/sec (5.3 mph) 5-2. v 8 m/sec; with 1 cm2area v 2 m/sec 5-3. h 5.1 m 5-4. t 3 × 10−2 sec 5-5. v 17 m/sec (37 mph) 5-6. Force/cm2 4.6 × 106 dyn/cm2, yes 5-7. v 0.7 m/sec, no Chapter 6 6-1. F 2 W 6-2. 0.052 mm 6-3. h 18.4 cm 6-4. 10.3 cm
Answers to Numerical Exercises Chapter 7 7-2. P 7.8 W 7-3. v [gV(ρw − ρ)/Aρw]1/2; P 1/2[W{(ρw/ρ) −1}3/2]/(Aρw)1/2 7-5. P 1.51 × 107dyn/cm2 15 atm 7-6. Volume of swim bladder 3.8% 7-7. ρ2 ρ1(W1/W1 − W2) 7-8. p 1.46 × 105 dyn/cm2 7-11. Perimeter 9.42 km 7-12. Speed 29 cm/sec Chapter 8 8-1. P 3.19 × 10−2 torr 8-2. P 4.8 torr 8-3. h 129 cm 8-4(a). p 61 torr; (b). p 200 torr 8-5(b). R1/R2 0.56 8-6. v 26.5 cm/sec 8-7. N 7.5 × 104 8-8. p 79 torr 8-9. P 10.1 W 8-10(a). P 0.25 W; (b). P 4.5 W
Chapter 9
9-2. V 29.3 9-3(a). t 10−2 sec; (b). t 10−5 sec 9-5. N 1.08 × 1020 molecules/sec 9-6. No. breaths/min . 10.4
9-7(a). Rate 1.71 liter/hr-cm2; (b). diameter 0.5 cm 9-8. P 2.87 atm
Chapter 11 11-2. t 373 hours 11-3. v 4.05 m3 11-4. t 105 days 11-5. Weight loss 0.892 kg 11-6. H 18.7 Cal/h 11-8(b). Change 22%; (c). Kr 6.0 Cal/m2-h-C◦ 11-9. Heat removed 8.07 Cal/h 11-10. Heat loss 660 Cal/m2-h 11-11. H 14.4 Cal/h Chapter 12 12-1. R 31.6 km 12-2. 1.75 times 12-3. p 2.9 × 10−4 dyn/cm2 12-6. D 11.5 m 12-8. Min. size 1.7 × 10−2 cm Chapter 13 13-1(a). No. of ions 1.88 × 1011; (b). no. of Na+ ions 7.09 × 1014/m; No. of K+ ions 7.09 × 1015/m 13-8(a). no of cells in series 5000; (b). no of cells in parallel 2.7 × 109
Chapter 14 14-1. i 13.3 amp Chapter 15 15-1. Change in position 0.004 cm 15-3. For cornea 41.9 diopters; for lens, min power 18.7 diopters, max power 24.4 diopters 15-4. 1/f −0.39 diopters 15-5. Focusing power ±70 diopters 15-6. p 1.5 cm 15-7(a). Resolution 2.67 × 10−4 rad; (b). Resolution 6.67 × 10−4 rad 15-8. D 20 m 15-9. H 3 × 10−4 cm
Absorption velocity and K c, 151–152 electromagnetic radiation, 123, 242
viscosity, 104
spectroscopy, 245
Airbag, 68–69
spectrum, 243
Alcohol, caloric value, 147
Acceleration
Aluminum angular, 277
specific heat, 119
centripetal, 278–279
thermal conductivity, 122
defined, 273
Alveoli, 129 equations of translational motion for, size, 132
30–32
Amino acid, 271
gravitational, 5, 33
Amplification, in human ear, 175
of jumper, 31–34
Amplifier, 201
Accommodation of eye, 216–217, 230
transistor, 211
Angstrom, 285
Achilles tendon, 19
Angular acceleration, 277
Actin, 95, 96
Angular momentum
Action potential, 184–186 defined, 280
in muscles, 194
equations of, 277–278
in plants, 196
Angular motion measurement, 195 forces on a curved path, 45–48 propagation, 188–190
Newton’s laws, 280
Adhesion, 90–91 pendulum strength of, 93
physical, 51–52
Adrenaline, 155
simple, 48–50
Aging, and vision, 216–217 running, 53–56
Air vs. linear motion, 277 inspired vs. expired, 130–131 walking, 50–53 motion through, 40–42
Angular velocity, 276
pressure in ear, 170
maximum, 54, 78–79
314
Index
Animal propagation vs. speed of light, 186
energetics, 136
resistance of, 186
motion, 1
sodium pump, 184
sounds produced by, 176
voltage, 184
Anvil (middle ear), 169 vs. electric cable, 186–188
Aorta, 106
blood pressure drop, 107–108
Back turbulent flow, 110–111 backaches, 18
Aperture of eye, 218–219 lever representation, 17–19
Apocrine sweat gland, 155
Bacteria, thermophilic, 145
Aqueous humor, 215–216
Ballistocardiograph, 115
Archimedes’ principle Barth´elemy, Toussaint, 249
defined, 87
Basal metabolic rate, 147 fish buoyancy and, power required to stay afloat and, Basilar membrane, 170
87–88 Bats Arteriole, 106–107, 109
chirping, 175–176
Arterisclerosis, and blood flow, 111–112 echo location, 175
Artery, 105
Battery, 292
elasticity, 112
Bernoulli’s equation, 101–102, 103
narrowing, 111, 112
stenosis and, 111
natural frequency, 112
Biceps, 7
plaque deposit, 111–112
movement of, 11–15
pressure drop, 107–108
Biological control system, 208
pulmonary, 105
features, 206–207
Astigmatism, 227
feedback, 208–210
lens for, 228, 229
in iris, 210
Atom
Biomechanics, 2
absorption spectrum, 243
Blood energy state, 241–242
adrenaline in, 155
excitation of, 242–243
cells, radioactive, 269
interactions between, 270
circulation, 105–107
nucleus, 240, 256–257
flow
structure, 239–240
arterisclerosis, 111–112
Atomic physics, 239
control, 109
Axon, 181
energetics, 110
action potential, 184–186 laminar, 103, 104, 110, 111
action potential propagation, rate, 112–113 188–190 to brain, 109 capacitance and resistance of, 186 turbulence, 110–111 circuit, analysis of, diameter of, 183
velocity, 110, 178
electrical potentials, 183–184, 185
kinetic energy, 110
electrical properties, 186–187
pressure length of, 181
arterial, 107–109
membrane at capillaries, 107
as leaky insulator, 186
measurement, 113–114
permeability, 184
systolic and diastolic, 107
myelin, 181
venal, 109
myelinated, 192–193
sugar level, 245
myelinated vs. nonmyelinated, 187
venal, 136
nodes of Ranvier, 181
viscosity, 104
Index
Bohr model of atom, 240–241, 247
Center of mass motion formation of chemical bonds, in running, 57–58
243–244
in walking, 56–57
hydrogen, 241
Centrifugal force, 45–46, 47
Bohr, Niels, 240
defined, 278
Boltzmann constant, 117–118
Centripetal acceleration, 277–278
Bone
Centripetal force, 46, 47, 277–278
density defined, 277 cuttlefish, 88–89 137Cesium, 268
electricity and, 196–197
Chatecholamine, 109
fracture
Chemical bond, formation of, 243–244 energy involved, 64–66
Chemical energy, 139 force needed to cause, 67–68
Chemical fumigation, 267
neck, 69–70
Chlorine ion, and membrane potential, 184
NMR signal, 261
Chromium isotope, in medicine, 269
osteoblasts and osteoclasts, 197
Circulatory system, 105–107
Boyle’s law, 119 body heat transfer and, 151
Brain mechanism of energy losses, 107 activity identification, 265–266 turbulent flow, 111–112
60
arteries, 109
Cobalt, 268
blood flow to, 109
Cochlea, 170–171 diagnosing disorders, 204 implants, 211–213
ischemic stroke, 112
Coefficient
nerve centers in, 150
convection, 122, 152
nerve impulses, 162
diffusion, friction, 24, 25, 46, 71
role in hearing, 175
kinetic, 25, 71
signal processing, 226
static, 25
Breathing thermal conductivity, 121
cold-blooded animals, 132
Collision heat loss by, 155–156, 157
automobile, 69–70
surfactants and, 132
duration of, 66–67
Broad jump force of, 67–68 running position, 39–40 protective device, 68–69 standing position, 37–39 Compression, 61–62 Broca, Paul Pierre, 265
Computerized tomography, 250–251, 257
Broken heart syndrome, 109
Conductance (G), 291
Bruit, 111
Conduction, thermal, 120–121
Buoyancy, of fish, 88–89 in human body, 150, 151
Conductor, 291
Calorie, 119
Cones and rods, 222, 223, 224, 225–226
intake, 148
Confocal microscopy, 232–235
Capacitor, 291
Conservation
Capillary action, 91, 92, 93
energy, 135–136
Cardiomyopathy, stress, 109
Bernoulli’s equation and, 101–102
Cardiovascular disease human physiology and, 136
arterisclerosis, 111–112
linear momentum, 275
stress cardiomyopathy, 109
Constructive interference, 166
Catfish spine fin, 27–29
Control system, 206–208
Cell, 270–271 feedback, 208–210
Center of gravity, 2
Convection, 121–122 human body, 3–4 in human body, 151–153
Index
Converging lens, 294, 295–298
molecular transport through,
Cooling mechanism, 136, 141, 150, 126–127 155–156, 158 random walk, 124–125
Cork, thermal conductivity of, 122
through biological membrane,
Cornea, 215
128–129
receive oxygen by diffusion, 133
Diopter, 219
refractive power, 220
Dipole field, 289
Coulomb, 287
Diverging lens, 294, 300
Coulomb’s law, 287–288 DNA, 143–144, 248, 250, 269, 270, 271
Critical angle, 294
Doppler effect, 178
Critical flow velocity, 104
Doughnut, energy content, 43
Cromer, A. H., 43
Dyne, 285
Crystallography, CT scan, 250–251, Cut-off blood pressure measurement,
Ear, 168
113–114
amplification in, 175
Cuttlefish, bone density, 88–89 canal, horns, 211
Davidovits, Paul, 232, 233
inner, 170–171 da Vinci, Leonardo, 1, 7–8
balance maintenance, 21
De Broglie, Louis, 246, 247
middle, 169–170
Defibrillator, 206
outer, 168–169
Dehydration, 155
performance, 171–172
Density
sound detection capability, 172–173
constant, 83
sound intensity, 173–175 of water, and floating, 87–88 threshold of hearing and pain, 173, 174 porous bones and swim bladders, Eardrum, 162, 168, 169–170, 175
88–89
Earth, forces on, 33
Depth of field, 219
Eccrine sweat gland, 155
Destructive interference, 166
ECG, See Electrocardiography
Diabetic retinopathy, laser treatment, 254
Echoes, bats and, 175
Diagnostic equipment EEG, See Electroencephalography computerized tomography, 250–251, Eel, electric, 198
257
Egger, M. David, 232, 233
electrocardiograph, 195, 202–203
Einstein, Albert, 252
electroencephalograph, 195,
Elasticity, 61
203–204
artery, 112 electromyograph (EMG), 195 insect wings, 79–80 magnetic resonance imaging, spring, 62–64
257–258
Elbow, movement of, 11–15
stethoscope, 111, 113, 177, X-rays, 249–250
Electrical technology, in biological research, 200–202
Diastolic pressure, Diathermy, 178
Electric charge, 287–288
Diffraction, 168
Electric circuit, 290–292
in eye, 224
Electric current, 289
studies with molecules, 250
effect on brain, 205
Diffusion, 123–125 sources, 292
coefficient, 127
Electric eel, 198
contact lens and, 133
Electric field, 288–289, 292
in respiratory system, 129–132
in water, 198
mean free path, 124
Electric fish, 197–198
Index
Electricity consumption in physical activity, as a natural phenomena, 180
42–43
in bone, 196–197 load carrying, 58–59 fish and, 197–198 running, 54–56
in plants, 196
electromagnetic, 122–123
magnetism and, 292
forms, 283
nervous system and, 180–196
from food, 147–149
physiological effects, 204–206
internal, 117, 139 piezoelectricity, 196–197 involved in bone fracture, 64–66
Electric shock, 204–205 kinetic, 283
Electrocardiography (ECG), 195, 202–203
insect wing in flight, 78–79
Electrode, 202 of particles in gas, 117
Electroencephalography (EEG), 195, level, 241–242
203–204
mechanical, in ultrasonic wave, 178
Electromagnetic radiation, 214 requirements, 146–149 energy and, 122–123 during pregnancy, 149 excitation of atom and, 242–243 unit and conversion, 286
Electromyography (EMG), 195
Entropy, 142
Electron, 239, 240–241
Epilepsy, 205
binding energy, 243
Equilibrium diffraction patterns, 247
human body considerations, 3–4
electric charge of, 287
stability and, 2–3 energy level, 241–242 static, 2–3, 282
excitation, methods of, 242
Eustachian tube, 170
excited state, 242
Evaporation, skin temperature control by, ground state, 241–242
155–156
high-speed (Beta particles), 256
Excited state, 242
and food preservation, 268
Exercise, osteoarthritis and, 71
impact, 242
Eye inner, 243
aging and, 216–217 in oscilloscope, 201 aperture and depth of field, 218–219 orbital restrictions, 240–241 eyeglasses, 211
orbit around nucleus, 240
focusing, 216–217, 230
outer, 243
laser treatment, 253–255 radiation and, 122–123 lens system, 219–220 shared, 244 light intensity reaching retina, wavelength, 247
207–208, 209
wavelike properties, 246
near point, 216–217
Electron microscope, 247–248 parameters, 220 EMG, See Electromyography reduced, 220–222
Emission resolution of, 223–225
spectroscopy, 245
structure, 215–216
spontaneous, 252
vs. camera, 217–218 stimulated, 252
Eyepiece, 230, 231
Emissivity, 123
of skin, 153
Falling Endoscope, 236–237 fracture due to, 67–68
Energy, 282–283 from great height, 70
chemical, 139
on snow, 70
in food, 141
Farads, 291
conservation, 135–136
Fasting, world record, 149 Index
Feedback system, 208–209 fluid, 82–86
negative feedback, 209
impulsive, 66–67
positive feedback, 209
bone fracture and, 67–68
Fetus
lines of, 288–289 energy required, 149 on a curved path, 45–48 heart, examination, 178
on the foot, 47
Fiber optics, 235 pressure in a fluid and, 82–83 fiberscopes, 236–237 static, 1–2
Fibrillation, 205–206
stopping, 69
Field line, 288
unit and conversion, 285
Fish Fourier, J. B. J., 171
buoyancy, 88–89
Fovea, 222
catfish spine fin, 27–29
Fracture electric, 197–198 due to a fall, 67–68 electronic lures, 176 energy involved, 64–66 eye, lens focusing power, 219–220 neck bone, 69–70
Flight
Frequency insect, 73–80 larmor, 259–261 hovering, 73–75 natural, of healthy artery, 112
Fluid pendulum swings, 48–49
Archimedes’ principle, 87–89
resonant, 167
blood, See Blood sound, 163, 164
body, 183
Friction, 23–24 defined, 82
at hip joint, 26–27 force and pressure, 82–86 catfish spine fin and, 27–29 friction and, 103–104 coefficient, 24, 25, 46, 71
motion of, 101
fluid, in air, 40
Bernoulli’s equation, 101–102 standing at an incline, 25–26 laminar, 103, 104
viscous, 24, 103, 107
Poiseuille’s law, 103–104, 107–108
Frog turbulent flow, 104–105
alveolal radii, 132
viscous friction, 24, 103, 107
diffusion transfer of oxygen, surface tension, 89–96
131–132
Flux, 126–127, 128
neurons in retina, 226–227
solar, 154
Fulcrum, 9–10
Focal length of lens, 295–297
Fumigation, chemical, 267
Focus, principal, of the lens, 295
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Food (fMRI), 265–266 composition and energy content, 148
Fur, 157
energy from, 141, oxidation, 147
Galvani, Luigi, 194
preservation by fumigation, 267
Gamma ray, use in food preservation, preservation by radiation, 267–268
267–268
requirements for humans, 147–148
Gas
Force behavior, 139 addition of torques and, 281–282 behavior of matter as a function of adhesive vs. cohesive, 90
temperature in, 117–119
centrifugal, 45–46, 47, 278
diffusion, 125
centripetal, 46, 47, 277–278
greenhouse, 159
contraction of muscle, 96
noble, 244
defined, 274
pressure, 118
field, 288
Generator, 292
Index
Geometric optics, 293–295
unit of, 119, 284
Gland vs. other energy forms, 138–140
apocrine, 155
Helicotrema, 170
eccrine, 155
Henry, 292
Glass
Hertz, 163
lens, 294
Hertz, Heinrich, 163
radiation and, 123, 249
High jump, 36–37
silica, 235
Hip joint
Glycerine, viscosity of, 104
friction at, 26–27
Gravitational force, 274
movement of, walking on injured, 17
Greenhouse effect, 159
Hooke, Robert, 62, 63
Greenhouse gas, 159
Hooke’s law, 62, 79
Ground state, 241–242
Hormone, 109, 207
Gyromagnetic ratio, 258, 259
Hovering flight, 73–75 power required, 76–79 Hales, Stephen, 113
Human body, See also Specific parts, Hammer (middle ear), 169 organs and systems Hearing, 168 adaptation for heat vs. cold, 156
aids, 211
critical temperature, 156
ear horns, 211
energy requirements, 146–148 brain’s role in, 175
food requirements, 147–148 cochlear implants, 211–213
metabolic rate, 146
in bats, 175–176 motion, 1–2 sound frequency and pitch, 172–173 oxygen requirements, 130–131
threshold of, 173, 174
posture, 19–21
transistorized aids for, 211
radiative heating, 154
Heart
resistance to cold, 156–157
aorta, 106
senses, limitations of, 200
atrium and ventricle, 105–106
sound production, 176 capillaries, 107 specific heat, stability of, 3–4 desynchronization of heart action, under action of external force, 4–7
205–206
sweat production, 155–156, 209
fetus, examination, 178
temperature
power produced by, 112–113
regulation, 149–151
stress, 109
regulation by convection, 151–153
Heat, 284, See also Thermodynamics regulation by evaporation, 155–156 cold and, 156–157
regulation by radiation, 153
defined, 116
Hydrogen latent, 120
Bohr model for atom of, 241
life and, 145–146 formation of molecule of, 244
loss by breathing, 155–156, 157
nuclear magnetic properties of, 258
radiative by sun, 153–154
Hydrostatic skeleton, 84–86
specific, 119, 284
Hyperopia, 227
therapeutic effects, 161
lens for, 228, 229 transfer of conduction, 120–121, 150, 151
Ice, specific heat of, 119
convection, 121–122, 151–153
Image diffusion, 123–133 of extended objects, 298–300 in human body, 149–157
on retina, 217–218
radiation, 122–123, 139, 153–154
size, 221–222, 223, 229–230
Index real, 297
Irradiation, food, 267–268 size of aperture and, 218–219
Ischemic stroke, 112
virtual, 297
Isotope, 256
Imaging oxygen, 256
computerized tomography, 250–251, 257 radioactive, 257 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), tracers, 268–269
257–258
ultrasound, 177–178
Joint with NMR, 262–265
hip
X-ray, 243, 249–250
friction at, 26–27
Impulsive force, 66–67 movement, 15–17 fracture and, 67–68 walking on injured, 17
Inductor, 292
knee problems, 71
Inertia, moment of, 279
osteoarthritis, 70–71
Infant respiratory distress syndrome, 132
Jump
Inner ear, 170–171 broad balance maintenance, 21
from running position, 39–40
basilar membrane, 170
from standing position, 37–39 cochlea, 170–171 high, 36–37 implants, 211–213 vertical helicotrema, 170 effect of gravity on, 35
Insect height of, 32–35
flight, 73
hovering, 73–75, 76–79
Kilocalorie, 284
locomotion on water, 93–95, 99
Kinesiology, 2
Microvelia, 99
Kinetic energy wing defined, 283 elasticity, 79–80 insect wing in flight, 78–79 kinetic energy when in flight, of particles in gas, 117
78–79 Kinetic friction, 23–24 muscles, 75–76 coefficient, 25, 71
Insulation, fur and feather, 122, 157
Kinetic theory of matter, 116–119
Insulator, 291
Knee joint, problems, 71
Intensity Kuhne, W., 217, 218 of light control, in reaching retina, Laminar flow, 103, 104, 110, 111
207–208, 209
Larmor frequency, 259–261
of sound, 163
Laser, 252–253 and loudness, 173–175
surgery, 253
Interference, 166–167 ophthalmological applications, Internal energy, 117, 139 253–255
Internal reflection, total, 294, 295
LASIK (Laser-assisted in Situ Ker Interneuron, 181 atomileusis), 254–255 131Iodine, 267
Latent heat, 120
Ion Lauterbur, P. C., 263 membrane potential and, 183–184 Lavoisier, Laurent, 135, 136
negative, 287
Lens, 215
positive, 287
astigmatism, 228, 229
Iris, 215 contact lens and diffusion, 133
control system, 210
converging, 294, 295–298
defined, 207
diverging, 294, 300
optical aperture, 218–219
eyepiece, 230, 231
Index Lens (cont.)
Mayer, Robert, 135–136 immersed in a material medium, Mean free path, 124
300–301
Medfly (Mediterranean fly), control of, myopia, 228, 229
177
objective, 230, 231
Membrane of eye, 219–220 axon focusing power, 216–217
as leaky insulator, 186
presbyopia and hyperopia, 228, 229
capacitance and resistance, 186
Lever, 9–11
permeability, 184
arm, 279
basilar, 170
elbow movement, 11–15 biological, diffusion through, hip movement, 15–17
128–129
spine movement, 17–19 oval window in ear, 169 standing on tip-toe on one foot, tympanic, 162, 168, 169–170, 175 19, 20
Membrane protein, solubility, 98
Light, 162, 214
Mercury, viscosity of, 104
emitted by laser, 252
Metabolic rate, 145–146 fiber-optic devices and, 237
defined, 146
intensity at retina, 207–208, 209
for selected activities, 146
penetration through tissue, 232
Metabolism, 157
properties, 215
Mho, 291
speed, 293
Micron, 285
vision and, 214–215
Microscope, 231
Limping, 17, 18
compound, 231
Linear momentum, 274
confocal, 232–235
conservation, 275
electron, 247–248
Linear motion, 277
resolution, 231–232
Lines of force, 288
Microvelia, 99
Lipoprotein, solubility, 98
Middle ear, 169–170
Lithium, 241
Eustachian tube, 170
Load carrying, energy consumption, 58–59 hammer, anvil, stirrup, 169
Logarithmic sound intensity, 174
ossicles, 169, 170, 175
Long jump, See Broad jump Miller, S. L., 271
Loudness, 173–175
Minsky, Marvin, 233
Lubrication, 25
Moisture tension in soil, 92–93 effect on human hip joint, 27
Molecule
Lumbar vertebra, fifth, 17–19
characteristic spectra, 244
Lung
diffraction studies with, 250
gas exchange in, 129–130
formation of hydrogen, 244
water vapor and, 155
organic, 270–271
X-ray, 250
transport through diffusion, 126–127
Moment arm, 279
Magnetic moment, 258, 259
Moment of inertia, 279
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 257–
Momentum
258, 262–265
angular, 280
functional, 265–266 equations of, 277–278
Magnetism, electricity and, 292
linear, 274
Marangoni propulsion, 99
conservation, 275
Mass, 274
Motion, 1–2
unit and conversion, 285
angular
Matter, kinetic theory of, 116–119
Newton’s laws, 280
Maximum angular velocity, 54, 78–79
vs. linear, 277
Index Newton’s laws, 274–275
Newton’s rotational, 30, 31
laws of angular motion, 280
equations for, 278 laws of motion thermal, 117, 124, 140
first, 274
through air, 40–42 second, 275
translational, 30–32
third, 275
Motor neuron, 181
14Nitrogen, 269
MRI, See Magnetic resonance imaging NMR, See Nuclear magnetic resonance
Muscle
Noble gas, 244
action potentials in, 194
Nodes of Ranvier, 181
biceps, 7, 11–15
Noise contraction, 8, 95–96
bruit, 111
efficiency, 42–43
laminar flow, 113
fibers, 194
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 257– insect wings, 75–76
262
myofibrils, 95
imaging with, 262–265
skeletal, 7–9, 95–96
Nuclear spin, Nucleus, 240, 256–257
spindle, 194
transmutation, 257
stimulation by electric current, triceps, 7, 11, 12
Musculoskeletal system,
Objective lens, 230, 231
interconnectedness, 21
Ohm, 290
Myelin, 181
Ohm’s law, 205, 291
Myelinated axon, 192–193
Optical spectra, 243
vs. nonmyelinated, 187
Optics, 214
fiber, 235–237
Myofibrils, 95
geometric, 293–295
Myopia, 227
vision and, 214–215
lens for, 228, 229
Oscilloscope, 201–202
Myosin, 95, 96
Osmosis, Ossicles, 169, 170, 175
Near point of the eye, 216–217
Osteoarthritis, 70–71
Neck bone, fracture, 69–70
exercise and, 71
Negative feedback, 209–210
Osteoblast, 197
Negative ion, 287
Osteoclast, 197
Nervous system Oudin, Paul, 249
action potential, 184–186
Outer ear, 168–169 action potential, propagation, 188–190
ear canal, 169
electrical phenomena and, 180–181
pinna, 168
electrical potentials in axon, 183–184, tympanic membrane, 162, 168, 169–
185
170, 175
signal propagation, 181
Oxidation of food, 147
surface potentials, 194–196
Oxygen synaptic transmission, 193–194 consumption, calories produced by, 147
vision and, 226–227
diffusion through skin, 129
Neuron, 180, 181–183
small animals, 131–132 axons and dendrites, 181, 183, See also isotopes of, 256
Axon oxidation of food, 147
classes, 181
requirement for humans, 130–131 Neutron, Newton, 5
Pacemaker, 202
Newton, Isaac, 1
electronic, 206
Index
Particle, wavelike properties, 246–247 measurement, 113–114 Pascal (Pa), 83 systolic and diastolic, 107
Pascal’s principle, 83–84 venal, 109
Pastuerization, 267
defined, 274
Pendulum fluid, 82–84 physical, 51–52, 54–56
gas, 118
simple, 48–50
in porous bones, 89
Period, of pendulum motion, 48–49
inside worm, 85
Phosphorus, radioactive, 257, 267, 269
on eardrum, 170
Photodetector, 245
Poiseuille’s equation and, 103–104
Photon, 215
sound, 164–165, 175
Photoreceptor, 222, 225–226
unit and conversion, 285
Photosynthesis, 214
Principia Mathematica, 1
Physics and life, 269–271
Projectile, range of, 37
Piezoelectric effect, 196–197
Protein
Pinna, 168
caloric value, 147
Pitch of sound, 172–173
consumption during fasting, 149
Planck’s constant, 215, 246–247, 258
resilin, 79–80
Plant solubility of membrane protein and action potential in, 196
lipoprotein, 98
electricity in, 196
specific heat, 119
soil water and, 92–93
Proton, 239–240, 287
Plaque, arterial, 111–112
Pulmonary artery, 105
Poise, 103, 104
Pupil, 215
Poiseuille, L. M., 101
defined, 207
Poiseuille’s law, 103–104
Pure tone, 163–164 estimation of blood pressure drop and, P wave, 203
107–108
Positive feedback, 209–210
Quality
Positive ion, 287
image, 218
Posture, 19–21
sound, 171
Potassium ion, axon potential and, 184
Quantum mechanics, 246–247, 270
Potential axon, 184
Radian, 276
difference, 289
Radiation, 139
energy, 283–284 electromagnetic, 122–123, 214
Power, 284
food preservation by, 267–268 defined, 78
human body, 153
generated by limbs, 88 solar, 153–154 produced by, 112–113
and soil, 159 required to hover, 76–79 therapy, 266–267 required to stay afloat, 87–88 thermal, 122
unit and conversion, 286
Radioactive Precession, 260
isotopes, 257
Pregnancy, energy requirements, 149
tracers, 269
Presbyopia, 217
Radioactivity, 256–257 lens for, 229
Random thermal motion, 124, 140
Pressure
Random walk, 124–125
Bernoulli’s equation and, 101
Real image, 297
blood
Reduced eye, 220–222 arterial, 107–109
Reflection, 165–166
at capillaries, 107
total internal, 294, 295
Index
Refraction, 165–166
Siemen, 291
defined, 293
Silver, thermal conductivity of, 122
index of, 220
Simple harmonic motion, 48 refractive power of cornea, 219–220 walking in terms of, 50–51
Resilin, 79–80
Sinusoidal sound wave, 163–164, 171, 172
Resistance of air, 40–42
Skeletal muscle, 7–9
Resistivity, 290
contraction, 95–96
Resistor, 290–291
Skin
Resolution convection and, 151–153 eye, 223–225
emissivity of, 153 microscope, 231–232 evaporative cooling, 156–157
Resonant frequency, 167
frostbite, 157
Respiratory system oxygen diffusion through, 129
diffusion process, 129–132
radiative heating of, 153–154
surfactants and breathing, 132
temperature, 150–151
Retina, 215, 222–223
control, 151
cones and rods, 222, 223, 224, Snell’s law, 235
225–226
defined, 293–294 degeneration arrest, 253–254
Sodium image size on, 221–222, 223, ions, 184, 189 229–230 pump, 184
light intensity, control of, 207–208, 209
Soil
photographic film and, 217–218
loam vs. clay, 93
Reynold’s number, 104
moisture tension, 92–93
Righting reflex, 21
specific heat, 119
Rods and cones, 222, 223, 224, 225–226 temperature, 158–159 Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 249 water, 92–93
Rolling friction, 24
Solar radiation, 153–154
Root (plant), and pressure, 92
soil and, 159
Rotational motion, 30, 31
Somatosensory system, balance equations for, 278
maintenance, 21
Running
Sound, 162
broad jump, 39–40 acoustic traps, 176–177 center of mass motion in, 57–58 bell in a jar, 163 energy expended in, 54–56
clinical uses, 177
metabolic rate, 43
frequency, 163, 164, 172–173
on a curved track, 47–48 intensity, 163 speed, 53–54 and loudness, 173–175
Rupture strength, 63
logarithmic, 174
Rutherford, E., 239, 240
perception of, pitch, 172–173
Sensitivity produced by animals, 176
of ear, 169, 172, 174–175 properties, 162–165 logarithmic, 174
pure tone, 163–164
mechanical reasons for, 175
speed, 164
of eye, 226
wave, 162
Sensory aid, 211 wavelength (λ), 164
Sensory neuron, 181
Specific heat, 119, 284
Shannon, Claude, 143
Spectral line, 240
Shark, and electric field, 198
Spectrometer, 245
Shock, electric, 204–205
Spectroscopy, 244–245 stimulation of muscle with, 206
absorption, 245
Index Spectroscopy (cont.)
Sweating emission, 245
as negative feedback, 209
Spectrum, absorption, 243
cooling mechanisms, 155–156
Speed dehydration, 155
defined, 272
rate, 155
light, 293
Synapse, 193 running, 53–54 synaptic transmission, 193–194
sound, 164
Synovial fluid, 25, 27
walking, 52–53
Systems approach, 209–210
Spindle, 194
Systolic pressure, 107
Spontaneous emission, Spring, Squid, axon of, 183
Telescope, 230–231
Stability
Temperature, 117–118 equilibrium and, 2–3 body, regulation of, 149–151 human body, 4–7 critical, 156
Standing defined, 117 at an incline, 25–26 skin, 150–151 broad jump, 37–39
Terminal velocity, 41–42 tip-toe on one foot, 19, 20
Thermal conductivity, 120–121
Standing wave, 166–167
in human body, 150, 151
Static equilibrium, 2–3
Thermal motion, 117
defined, 282
random, 124, 140
Static force, 1–2
Thermal radiation, 122
Static friction, 23–24 emitted by soil, 158–159 coefficient, 25
Thermal velocity, 118
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 123
Thermodynamics, See also Heat Stenosis, 111, 112
defined, 135
Stethoscope, 111, 113, 177
first law, 135–136
electronic, 202
of living systems, 140–142
Stimulated emission, 252
second law, 137–138
Stirrup (middle ear), 169 information and, 143–144
Strength of material, 61
Thermophilic bacteria, 145 bone, 64–68 Thompson, J. J., 239
Stress
Threshold defined, 62
of hearing, 173, 174
stress cardiomyopathy, 109
of pain, 173, 174
Stretching of vision, 225–226 longitudinal, 61–62
Tissue spring, 62–64
light penetration, 232
Stroke, ischemic, 112
thermal conductivity, 122, 150
32Sulphur, 269
Tomography, computerized, 250–251, 257
Surface potential, 194–196
Torque, 279–280 recording of, 202–203 addition of force and, 281–282
Surface tension, 89–91
Torr, 83 insect locomotion on water and, Torricelli, Evangelista, 83 93–95, 99
Total internal reflection, 294, 295
muscle contraction and, 95–96
Tracer, isotopic, 268–269 soil water, 92–93
Transistor amplifier, 211
spherical liquid drops, 91–92
Translational motion, 30
Surfactants, 97–98 energy consumption, 42–43 breathing and, 132
for constant acceleration, 30–32
secreted by insects, 99
high jump, 36–37
Index long jump critical flow, 104
standing, 37–39
defined, 272
running, 39–40
terminal, 41–42
projectile range, 37
thermal, 118
through air, 40–42
Venule, 107
vertical jump, 32–35
Vertical jump
Transmutation of nucleus, 257 effect of gravity on, 35
Transport, of molecules, 126–127 height of, 32–35
Triceps, 7
Vespertilionidae bat, echo location, movement of, 11, 12
175–176
Turbulent fluid flow, 104–105
Vestibular system, balance maintenance, blood, 110–111
21
T wave, 203
Virtual image, 297
Tympanic membrane, 162, 168, 169–170, Viscosity, and Poiseuille’s law, 103–104
175
Viscous friction, 24, 103, Vision, 214–215 astigmatic, 227, 228, 229
Ultrasonic hyperopic, 227, 228, 229
diathermy, 178
image quality, 218–219
flow meter, 178
myopic, 227, 228, 229 waves, 177–178 nervous system and, 226–227
Ultrasound imaging, 177–178
presbyopic, 217, 229
Unit range, 229–230
calorie, 119
threshold of, 225–226
coulomb, 287
Vitreous humor, 216
diopter, 219
Vocal cord, 176
dyne, 285
Voltage, 289
farads, 291
and current sources, 292
henry, hertz, 163
Walking, 50 kilocalorie, 284 center of mass motion in, 56–57
mho, 291
on injured hip, 17
newton, 5
simple harmonic motion, 50–51
of energy, 286
speed, 52–53
of force, 285
Water of length, 285
content of food, 148
of mass, 285
density of, and floating, 87–88
of power, 286
elimination from body, 148
of pressure, 285
index of refraction, 220 pascal (Pa), 83 insect locomotion on, 93–95
poise, 103, 104
latent heat of vaporization, 155 radian, 276 mean free path of molecules in, 124
siemen, 291
osmosis, 129
torr, 83
sea, 89
Uranium, isotopes of, 257
soil, sound and, 166
Vein, 105
specific heat, 119
blood pressure in, 109 speed of sound in, 164
pulmonary, 105
surface tension, 89
Velocity viscosity, 104
angular, 276
Wave, See also Sound maximum, 54, 78–79
defined, 162
Index Wave (cont.)
heat converted into, 139–140 diffraction, 168 implication of second law of thermody fundamental and harmonic, 171, 172
namics, 138
interference, 166–167
muscular movement, 42
P, 203
Worm
reflection and refraction, 165–166 hydrostatic forces in moving, 84–86 standing, 166–167
movement of, 84
T, ultrasonic, 177–178
X-ray, 243, 249–250
wavelength, 164
computerized tomography, 250–251,
Weight, 274
257
loss, 155
of lungs, 250
Whiplash injury, Work Young’s modulus, 62
chemical energy and, 42
of resilin, 79–80 defined, 43, 282
rupture strength for materials and, 65 This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank
Front Cover
Title: Physics in Biology and Medicine
ISBN 0123694116
Table of Contents (with page links)
Preface
Abbreviations
Chapter 1. Static Forces
Chapter 2. Friction
Chapter 3. Translational Motion
Chapter 4. Angular Motion
Chapter 5. Elasticity and Strength of Materials
Chapter 6. Insect Flight
Chapter 7. Fluids
Chapter 8. The Motion of Fluids
Chapter 9. Heat and Kinetic Theory
Chapter 10. Thermodynamics
Chapter 11. Heat and Life
Chapter 12. Waves and Sound
Chapter 13. Electricity
Chapter 14. Electrical Technology
Chapter 15. Optics
Chapter 16. Atomic Physics
Chapter 17. Nuclear Physics
Appendix A. Basic Concepts in Mechanics
Appendix B. Review of Electricity
Appendix C. Review of Optics
Bibliography
Answers to Numerical Exercises
Index (with page links)
Unfortunately some damage to healthy tissue is unavoidable. As a result, this treatment is often accompanied by the symptoms of radiation sickness (diarrhea, nausea, loss of hair, loss of appetite, and so on). If long-lived isotopes are used in the therapy, the material must be removed after a prescribed period.
Short-lived isotopes, such as gold 198 with a half-life of about 3 days, decay quickly enough so that they do not need to be removed after treatment.
Certain elements introduced into the body by injection or by mouth tend to concentrate in specific organs. This phenomenon is used to advantage in radiation therapy. The radioactive isotope phosphorus 32 (half-life, 14.3 days) mentioned earlier accumulates in the bone marrow. Iodine 131 (half-life, 8 days) accumulates in the thyroid and is given for the treatment of hyperthyroidism.
An externally applied beam of gamma rays or X-rays can also be used to destroy cancerous tumors. The advantage here is that the treatment is administered without surgery. The effect of radiation on the healthy tissue can be reduced by frequently altering the direction of the beam passing through the body. The tumor is always in the path of the beam, but the dosage received by a given section of healthy tissue is reduced.
17.4
Food Preservation by Radiation
Without some attempt at preservation, all foods decay rather quickly. Within days and often within hours, many foods spoil to a point where they become inedible. The decay is usually caused by microorganisms and enzymes that decompose the organic molecules of the food.
Over the years, a number of techniques have been developed to retard spoilage. Keeping the food in a cold environment reduces the rate of activity for both the enzymes and the microorganisms. Dehydration of food achieves the same goal. Heating the food for a certain period of time destroys many microorganisms and again retards decay. This is the principle of pasteurization. These methods of retarding spoilage are all at least 100 years old. There is now a new technique of preserving food by irradiation.
High-energy radiation passing through the food destroys microorganisms that cause decay. Radiation is also effective in destroying small insects that attack stored foods. This is especially important for wheat and other grains which at present are often fumigated before shipping or storage. Chemical fumigation kills the insects but not their eggs. When the eggs hatch, the new insects may destroy a considerable fraction of the grain. Radiation kills both the insects and the eggs.
Gamma rays are used most frequently in food preservation. They have a great penetrating power and are produced by relatively inexpensive isotopes Chapter 17 Nuclear Physics such as cobalt 60 and cesium 137.
High-speed electrons produced by accelerators have also been used to sterilize food. Electrons do not have the penetrating power of gamma rays, but they can be aimed better and can be turned off when not in use.
In the United States and in many other countries, there are now a num ber of facilities for irradiating food. In the usual arrangement, the food on a conveyor passes by the radioactive source, where it receives a controlled dose of radiation. The source must be carefully shielded to protect the operator.
This problem is relatively simple to solve, and at present the technical problems seem to be well in hand. One plant for irradiating food, in Gloucester, Massachusetts, initially built by the Atomic Energy Commission, has been operating successfully since 1964. It can process 1000 lb of fish per hour.
There is no doubt that irradiation retards spoilage of food. Irradiated straw berries, for example, remain fresh for about 15 days after they have been picked whereas strawberries that have not been treated begin to decay after about 10 days. Irradiated unfrozen fish also lasts a week or two longer. Tests have shown that the taste, nutritional value, and appearance of the food remain acceptable. The important question is the safety of the procedure. Irradiation at the levels used in the treatment does not make the food radioactive. There is, however, the possibility that the changes induced by radiation may make the food harmful. Over the past three decades, there have been many test programs both with animals and with human volunteers to ascertain the safety of food irradiation. At this point, the technique has been judged safe and is in commercial use (see Exercise 10-3).
17.5
Isotopic Tracers
Most elements have isotopes differing from each other by the number of neutrons in their nuclei. The isotopes of a given element are chemically identical—that is, they participate in the same chemical reactions—but they can be distinguished from each other because their nuclei are different. One difference is, of course, in their mass. This property alone can be used to separate one isotope from another. A mass spectrometer is one of the devices that can perform this task. Another way to distinguish isotopes is by their radioactivity. Many elements have isotopes that are radioactive. These isotopes are easily identified by their activity. In either case, isotopes can be used to trace the various steps in chemical reactions and in metabolic processes. Tracer techniques have been useful also in the clinical diagnoses of certain disorders.
Basically the technique consists of introducing a rare isotope into the pro cess and then following the course of the isotope with appropriate detection techniques. We will illustrate this technique with a few examples. Nitrogen is one of the atoms in the amino acids that compose the protein molecules.
In nature, nitrogen is composed primarily of the isotope 14N. Only 0.36% of natural nitrogen is in the form of the nonradioactive isotope 15N. Ordinarily the amino acids reflect the natural composition of nitrogen.
It is possible to synthesize amino acids in a laboratory. If the synthesis is done with pure 15N, the amino acids are distinctly marked. The amino acid glycine produced in this way is introduced into the body of a subject where it is incorporated into the hemoglobin of the blood. Periodic sampling of the blood measures the number of blood cells containing the originally introduced glycine. Such experiments have shown that the average lifetime of a red blood cell is about four months.
Radioactive isotopes can be traced more easily and in smaller quanti ties than the isotopes that are not radioactive. Therefore, in reactions with elements that have radioactive isotopes, radioactive tracer techniques are preferred. Since the 1950s, when radioactive isotopes first became widely available, hundreds of important experiments have been conducted in this field.
An example of this technique is the use of radioactive phosphorus in the study of nucleic acids. The element phosphorus is an important component of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. Naturally occurring phosphorus is all in the form 31P, and, of course, this is the isotope normally found in the nucleic acids. However, as discussed earlier, by bombarding sulphur 32 with neutrons, it is possible to produce the radioactive phosphorus 32P which has a half-life of 14.3 days. If the 32P isotope is introduced into the cell, the nucleic acids synthesized in the cell incorporate this isotope into their structure. The nucleic acids are then removed from the cell and their radioactivity is measured. From these measurements it is possible to calculate the rate at which nucleic acids are manufactured by the cell. These measurements, among others, provided evidence for the roles of DNA and RNA in cell functions.
Radioactive tracers have been useful also in clinical measurements. In one technique, the radioactive isotope of chromium is used to detect internal hemorrhage. This isotope is taken up by the blood cells, which then become radioactive. The radioactivity is, of course, kept well below the danger level.
If the circulation is normal, the radioactivity is distributed uniformly throughout the body. A pronounced increase in radioactivity in some region indicates a hemorrhage at that point.
17.6
Laws of Physics and Life
We have discussed in this book many phenomena in the life sciences that are clearly explained by the theories of physics. Now we come to the most fundamental question: Can physics explain life itself? In other words, if we Chapter 17 Nuclear Physics put together the necessary combination of atoms, at each step following the known laws of physics, do we inevitably end up with a living organism, or must we invoke some new principles outside the realm of current physics in order to explain the occurrence of life? This is a very old question which still cannot be answered with certainty. But it can be clarified.
Quantum mechanics, which is the fundamental theory of modern atomic physics, has been very successful in describing the properties of atoms and the interaction of atoms with each other. Starting with a single proton and one electron, the theory shows that their interaction leads to the hydrogen atom with its unique configuration and properties. The quantum mechanical calculations for larger atoms are more complicated. In fact, so far a complete calculation has been performed only for the hydrogen atom. The properties of heavier atoms must be computed using various approximation techniques.
Yet there is little doubt that quantum mechanics describes all the properties of atoms from the lightest to the heaviest. The experimental evidence gathered over the past 100 years fully confirms this view.
The interactions between atoms, which result in the formation of molecules, are likewise in the domain of quantum mechanics. Here again exact solutions of the quantum mechanical equations have been obtained only for the simplest molecule, H2. Still it is evident that all the rules for both organic and inorganic chemistry follow from the principles of quantum mechanics. Even though our present numerical techniques cannot cope with the enormous calculations required to predict the exact configuration of a complex molecule, the concepts developed in physics and chemistry are applicable. The strengths of the interatomic bonds and the orientations of the atoms within the molecules are all in accord with the theory. This is true even for the largest organic molecules such as the proteins and DNA.
Past this point, however, we encounter a new level of organization: the cell.
The organic molecules, which are in themselves highly complex, combine to form cells, which in turn are combined to form larger living organisms, which possess all the amazing properties of life. These organisms take nourishment from the environment, grow, reproduce, and at some level begin to govern their own actions. Here it is no longer obvious that the theories governing the interaction of atoms lead directly to these functions that characterize life. We are now in the realm of speculations.
The phenomena associated with life show such remarkable organization and planning that we may be tempted to suggest that perhaps some new undiscovered law governs the behavior of organic molecules that come together to form life. Yet there is no evidence for any special laws operating within living systems. So far, on all levels of examination, the observed phenomena associated with life obey the well-known laws of physics. This does not mean that the existence of life follows from the basic principles of physics, but it may. In fact the large organic molecules inside cells are sufficiently complex to contain within their structures the information necessary to guide in a predetermined way the activities associated with life. Some of these codes contained in the specific groupings of atoms within the molecules have now been unraveled.
Because of these specific structures, a given molecule always participates in a well-defined activity within the cell. It is very likely that all the complex functions of cells and of cell aggregates are simply the collective result of the enormously large number of predetermined but basically well-understood chemical reactions.
This still leaves the most important question unanswered: What are the forces and the principles that initially cause the atoms to assemble into coded molecules which then ultimately lead to life. The answer here is probably again within the scope of our existing theories of matter.
In 1951, S. L. Miller simulated in his laboratory the type of conditions that may have existed perhaps 3.5 billion years ago in the atmosphere of the primordial Earth. He circulated a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen through an electric discharge. The discharge simulated the energy sources that were then available from the sun, lightning, and radioactivity. After about one week Miller found that the chemical activities in the mixture produced organic molecules including some of the simple amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Since then, hundreds of other organic molecules have been synthesized under similar conditions. Many of them resemble the components of the important large molecules found in cells. It is thus plausible that in the primordial oceans, rich in organic molecules produced by the prevailing chemical reactions, life began. A number of smaller organic molecules combined accidentally to form a large self-replicating molecule such as DNA. These, in turn, combined into organized aggregates and finally into living cells.
Although the probability for the spontaneous occurrence of such events is small, the time span of evolution is probably long enough to make this scenario plausible. If that is indeed the case, the current laws of physics can explain all of life. At the present state of knowledge about life processes, the completeness of the descriptions provided by physics cannot be proved. The principles of physics have certainly explained many phenomena, but mysteries remain. At present, however, there seems to be no need to invoke any new laws.
EXERCISES
17-1. Describe the basic principles of magnetic resonance imaging.
17-2. What is your (considered) opinion of food preservation by radiation?
17-3. Through a literature search describe the most recent use of fMRI.
17-4. Discuss some of the most notable attributes of living systems that dis tinguish them from inanimate ones.
Appendix A
Basic Concepts in MechanicsIn this section, we will define some of the fundamental concepts in mechanics.
We assume that the reader is familiar with these concepts and that here a simple summary will be sufficient. A detailed discussion can be found in basic physics texts, some of which are listed in the Bibliography.
A.1
Speed and Velocity
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position with respect to time. Both magnitude and direction are necessary to specify velocity. Velocity is, therefore, a vector quantity. The magnitude of the velocity is called speed. In the special case when the velocity of an object is constant, the distance s traversed in time t is given by s vt
(A.1)
In this case, velocity can be expressed as v s
(A.2)
t
If the velocity changes along the path, the expression s/t yields the average velocity.
272
Section A.2 Acceleration A.2
Acceleration
If the velocity of an object along its path changes from point to point, its motion is said to be accelerated (or decelerated). Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity with respect to time. In the special case of uniform acceleration, the final velocity v of an object that has been accelerated for a time t is v v0 + at
(A.3)
Here v0 is the initial velocity of the object, and a is the acceleration.1 Acceleration can, therefore, be expressed as a v − v0
(A.4)
t
In the case of uniform acceleration, a number of useful relations can be simply derived. The average velocity during the interval t is vav v + v0
(A.5)
2
The distance traversed during this time is s vavt
(A.6)
Using Eqs. A.4 and A.5, we obtain s v0t + at 2
(A.7)
2
By substituting t (v − v0)/a (from Eq. A.4) into Eq. A.7, we obtain v2 v2 + 2as
(A.8)
0
1Both velocity and acceleration may vary along the path. In general, velocity is defined as the time derivative of the distance along the path of the object; that is,
s
v lim
ds
dt
t → 0
t
Acceleration is defined as the time derivative of the velocity along the path; that is, ds a dv d
d2s
dt
dt
dt dt 2 Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics
A.3
Force
Force is a push or a pull exerted on a body which tends to change the state of motion of the body.
A.4
Pressure
Pressure is the force applied to a unit area.
A.5
Mass
We have stated that a force applied to a body tends to change its state of motion. All bodies have the property of resisting change in their motion. Mass
is a quantitative measure of inertia or the resistance to a change in motion.
A.6
Weight
Every mass exerts an attractive force on every other mass; this attraction is called the gravitational force. The weight of a body is the force exerted on the body by the mass of the Earth. The weight of a body is directly proportional to its mass. Weight being a force is a vector, and it points vertically down in the direction of a suspended plumb line.
Mass and weight are related but distinct properties of an object. If a body were isolated from all other bodies, it would have no weight, but it would still have mass.
A.7 Linear Momentum
Linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity; that is,
Linear momentum mv
(A.9)
A.8 Newton’s Laws of Motion The foundations of mechanics are Newton’s three laws of motion. The laws are based on observation, and they cannot be derived from more basic principles. These laws can be stated as follows:
First Law: A body remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted on by an applied force.
Section A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum Second Law: The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a body is equal to the force F applied to it.
Except at very high velocities, where relativistic effects must be considered, the second law can be expressed mathematically in terms of the mass m and acceleration a of the object as2
F ma
(A.10)
This is one of the most commonly used equations in mechanics. It shows that if the applied force and the mass of the object are known, the acceleration can be calculated. When the acceleration is known, the velocity of the object and the distance traveled can be computed from the previously given equations.
The Earth’s gravitational force, like all other forces, causes an acceleration. By observing the motion of freely falling bodies, this acceleration has been measured. Near the surface of the Earth, it is approximately 9.8 m/sec2. Because gravitational acceleration is frequently used in computations, it has been given a special symbol g. Therefore, the gravitational force on an object with mass m is
Fgravity mg
(A.11)
This is, of course, also the weight of the object.
Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This law implies that when two bodies A and B interact so that A exerts a force on B, a force of the same magnitude but opposite in direction is exerted by B on A. A number of illustrations of the third law are given in the text.
A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum It follows from Newton’s laws that the total linear momentum of a system of objects remains unchanged unless acted on by an outside force.
2The second law can be expressed mathematically in terms of the time derivative of momentum: that is, mv(t + t) − mv(t) dv
Force
d (mv) m ma t → 0 t
dt
dt
Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics FIGURE A.1 The radian.
A.10
Radian
In the analysis of rotational motion, it is convenient to measure angles in a unit called a radian. With reference to Fig. A.1, the angle in radian units is defined as θ s
(A.12)
r where s is the length of the circular arc and r is the radius of rotation. In a full circle, the arc length is the circumference 2πr. Therefore in radian units the angle in a full circle is θ 2πr 2π rad
r
Hence, 1 rad 360◦ 57.3◦
2π A.11 Angular Velocity
The angular velocity ω is the angular displacement per unit time; that is, if a body rotates through an angle θ (in radians) in a time t, the angular velocity is ω θ (rad/sec)
(A.13)
t
Section A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum A.12 Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration α is the time rate of change of angular velocity. If the initial angular velocity is ω0 and the final angular velocity after a time t is ωf, the angular acceleration is3
ωf − ω0
α
(A.14)
t
A.13 Relations between Angular and Linear Motion
As an object rotates about an axis, each point in the object travels along the circumference of a circle; therefore, each point is also in linear motion. The linear distance s traversed in angular motion is s rθ
The linear velocity v of a point that is rotating at an angular velocity ω a distance r from the center of rotation is v rω
(A.15)
The direction of the vector v is at all points tangential to the path s. The linear acceleration along the path s is a rα
(A.16)
A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum
The equations for angular motion are analogous to the equations for translational motion. For a body moving with a constant angular acceleration α and initial angular velocity ω0, the relationships are shown in Table A.1.
3Both angular velocity and angular acceleration may vary along the path. In general, the instantaneous angular velocity and acceleration are defined as ω dθ ; α dω d 2θ dt
dt dt 2 Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics TABLE A.1 Equations for α constant) ω ω +
0
αt
θ
ω0t + 1αt2
2
ω2 ω2 + 2αθ
0
+ ω)
ω
(ω0
av
2
A.15 Centripetal Acceleration
As an object rotates uniformly around an axis, the magnitude of the linear velocity remains constant, but the direction of the linear velocity is continuously changing. The change in velocity always points toward the center of rotation. Therefore, a rotating body is accelerated toward the center of rotation. This acceleration is called centripetal (center-seeking) acceleration.
The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is given by ac v2 ω2r
(A.17)
r where r is the radius of rotation and v is the speed tangential to the path of rotation. Because the body is accelerated toward its center of rotation, we conclude from Newton’s second law that a force pointing toward the center of rotation must act on the body. This force, called the centripetal force Fc, is given by Fc mac mv2 mω2r
(A.18)
r where m is the mass of the rotating body.
For a body to move along a curved path, a centripetal force must be applied to it. In the absence of such a force, the body moves in a straight line, as required by Newton’s first law. Consider, for example, an object twirled at the end of a rope. The centripetal force is applied by the rope on the object.
From Newton’s third law, an equal but opposite reaction force is applied on the rope by the object. The reaction to the centripetal force is called the centrifugal force. This force is in the direction away from the center of rotation.
The centripetal force, which is required to keep the body in rotation, always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion and, therefore, does no work Section A.17 Torque TABLE A.2 Moments of Inertia of Some Simple Bodies
Body
Location of axis
Moment of inertia
A thin rod of length l Through the center
ml2/12
A thin rod of length l Through one end
ml2/3
Sphere of radius r
Along a diameter
2mr2/5
Cylinder of radius r
Along axis of symmetry mr2/2 (see Eq. A.28). In the absence of friction, energy is not required to keep a body rotating at a constant angular velocity.
A.16
Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia in angular motion is analogous to mass in translational motion. The moment of inertia I of an element of mass m located a distance from the center of rotation is
I mr 2
(A.19)
In general, when an object is in angular motion, the mass elements in the body are located at different distances from the center of rotation. The total moment of inertia is the sum of the moments of inertia of the mass elements in the body.
Unlike mass, which is a constant for a given body, the moment of inertia depends on the location of the center of rotation. In general, the moment of inertia is calculated by using integral calculus. The moments of inertia for a few objects useful for our calculations are shown in Table A.2.
A.17
Torque
Torque is defined as the tendency of a force to produce rotation about an axis.
Torque, which is usually designated by the letter L, is given by the product of the perpendicular force and the distance d from the point of application to the axis of rotation; that is (see Fig. A.2), L F cos θ × d
(A.20)
The distance d is called the lever arm or moment arm.
Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics FIGURE A.2 Torque produced by a force.
A.18 Newton’s Laws of Angular Motion
The laws governing angular motion are analogous to the laws of translational motion. Torque is analogous to force, and the moment of inertia is analogous to mass.
First Law: A body in rotation will continue its rotation with a constant angu lar velocity unless acted upon by an external torque.
Second Law: The mathematical expression of the second law in angular motion is analogous to Eq. A.10. It states that the torque is equal to the product of the moment of inertia and the angular acceleration; that is, L Iα (A.21) Third Law: For every torque, there is an equal and opposite reaction torque.
A.19 Angular Momentum
Angular momentum is defined as Angular momentum Iω
(A.22)
From Newton’s laws, it can be shown that angular momentum of a body is conserved if there is no unbalanced external torque acting on the body.
Section A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques FIGURE A.3 The resolution of a force into its vertical and horizontal components.
A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques
Any number of forces and torques can be applied simultaneously to a given object. Because forces and torques are vectors, characterized by both a magnitude and a direction, their net effect on a body is obtained by vectorial addition.
When it is required to obtain the total force acting on a body, it is often convenient to break up each force into mutually perpendicular components. This is illustrated for the two-dimensional case in Fig. A.3. Here we have chosen the horizontal x- and the vertical y-directions as the mutually perpendicular axes. In a more general three-dimensional case, a third axis is required for the analysis.
The two perpendicular components of the force F are Fx F cos θ
(A.23)
Fy F sin θ
The magnitude of the force F is given by
F F 2 x + F 2
y
(A.24)
When adding a number of forces (F1, F2, F3, . . .) the mutually perpendic ular components of the total force FT are obtained by adding the corresponding Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics components of each force; that is, (FT)x (F1)x + (F2)x + (F3)x + · · ·
(A.25)
(FT)y (F1)y + (F2)y + (F3)y + · · ·
The magnitude of the total force is FT (FT)2x + (FT)2y
(A.26)
The torque produced by a force acts to produce a rotation in either a clockwise or a counterclockwise direction. If we designate one direction of rotation as positive and the other as negative, the total torque acting on a body is obtained by the addition of the individual torques each with the appropriate sign.
A.21 Static Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium if both its linear and angular acceleration are zero. To satisfy this condition, the sum of the forces F acting on the body, as well as the sum of the torques L produced by these forces must be zero; that is,
P
P
F 0 and
L 0
(A.27)
A.22
Work
In our everyday language, the word work denotes any types of effort whether physical or mental. In physics, a more rigorous definition is required. Here work is defined as the product of force and the distance through which the force acts.
Only the force parallel to the direction of motion does work on the object. This is illustrated in Fig. A.4. A force F applied at an angle θ pulls the object along the surface through a distance D. The work done by the force is Work F cos θ × D (A.28)
A.23 Energy Energy is an important concept. We find reference to energy in connection with widely different phenomena. We speak of atomic energy, heat energy, potential energy, solar energy, chemical energy, kinetic energy; we even speak
Section A.24 Forms of Energy FIGURE A.4 Work done by a force.
of people as being full of energy. The common factor that ties together these manifestations is the possibility of obtaining work from these sources. The connection between energy and work is simple: Energy is required to do work. Energy is measured in the same units as work; in fact, there is a oneto-one correspondence between them. It takes 2 J of energy to do 2 J of work.
In all physical processes, energy is conserved. Through work, one form of energy can be converted into another, but the total amount of energy remains unchanged.
A.24 Forms of Energy A.24.1 Kinetic Energy
Objects in motion can do work by virtue of their motion. For example, when a moving object hits a stationary object, the stationary object is accelerated.
This implies that the moving object applied a force on the stationary object and performed work on it. The kinetic energy (KE) of a body with mass moving with a velocity v is KE 1 mv2
(A.29)
2
In rotational motion, the kinetic energy is KE 1 Iω2
(A.30)
2
A.24.2 Potential Energy
Potential energy of a body is the ability of the body to do work because of its position or configuration. A body of weight W raised to a height H with respect Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics to a surface has a potential energy (PE) PE WH
(A.31)
This is the amount of work that had to be performed to raise the body to height H. The same amount of energy can be retrieved by lowering the body back to the surface.
A stretched or compressed spring possesses potential energy. The force required to stretch or compress a spring is directly proportional to the length of the stretch or compression (s); that is, F ks
(A.32)
Here k is the spring constant. The potential energy stored in the stretched or compressed spring is PE 1 ks2
(A.33)
2
A.24.3 Heat
Heat is a form of energy, and as such it can be converted to work and other forms of energy. Heat, however, is not equal in rank with other forms of energy. While work and other forms of energy can be completely converted to heat, heat energy can only be converted partially to other forms of energy.
This property of heat has far-reaching consequences which are discussed in Chapter 10.
Heat is measured in calorie units. One calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C◦. The heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree is called the specific heat. One calorie is equal to 4.184 J.
A heat unit frequently used in chemistry and in food technology is the kilocalorie or Cal which is equal to 1000 cal.
A.25
Power
The amount of work done—or energy expended—per unit time is called power. The algebraic expression for power is P E (A.34) t
where E is the energy expended in a time interval t.
Section A.26 Units and Conversions A.26
Units and Conversions
In our calculations we will mostly use SI units in which the basic units for length, mass, and time are meter, kilogram, and second. However, other units are also encountered in the text. Units and conversion factors for the most commonly encountered quantities are listed here with their abbreviations.
A.26.1 Length SI unit: meter (m) Conversions: 1 m 100 cm (centimeter) 1000 mm (millimeter) 1000 m 1 km 1 m 3.28 feet 39.37 in 1 km 0.621 mile 1 in 2.54 cm
In addition, the micron and the angstrom are used frequently in physics and biology.
1 micron (μm) 10−6 m 10−4 cm 1 angstrom ( ˚ A)∗ 10−8 cm A.26.2 Mass SI unit: kilogram (kg) Conversions: 1 kg 1000 g
The weight of a 1-kg mass is 9.8 newton (N).
A.26.3 Force SI Unit: kg m s−2, name of unit: newton (N) Conversions: 1 N 105 dynes (dyn) 0.225 lbs A.26.4 Pressure SI unit: kg m−1 s−2, name of unit: pascal (Pa) Conversions: 1 Pa 10−1 dynes/cm2 9.87 × 10−6 atmosphere (atm) 1.45 × 10−4 lb/in2 1 atm 1.01 × 105 Pa 760 mmHg (torr) Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics A.26.5 Energy SI unit: kg m−2 s−2, name of unit: joule (J) Conversion: 1 J 1 N-m 107 ergs 0.239 cal 0.738 ft-lb A.26.6 Power SI unit: J s−1, name of unit: watt (W) Conversion: 1 W 107 ergs/sec 1.34 × 10−3 horsepower (hp)
Appendix B
Review of ElectricityB.1 Electric Charge
Matter is composed of atoms. An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus itself is composed of protons and neutrons. Electric charge is a property of protons and electrons. There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative. The proton is positively charged, and the electron is negatively charged. All electrical phenomena are due to these electric charges.
Charges exert forces on each other. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel each other. The electrons are held around the nucleus by the electrical attraction of the protons. Although the proton is about 2000 times heavier than the electron, the magnitude of the charge on the two is the same. There are as many positively charged protons in an atom as negatively charged electrons.
The atom as a whole is, therefore, electrically neutral. The identity of an atom is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. Thus, for example, hydrogen has 1 proton; nitrogen has 7 protons; and gold has 79 protons.
It is possible to remove electrons from an atom, making it positively charged.
Such an atom with missing electrons is called a positive ion. It is also possible to add an electron to an atom which makes it a negative ion.
Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C). The magnitude of the charge on the proton and the electron is 1.60 × 10−19 C. The force F between two charged bodies is proportional to the product of their charges Q1 and Q2 and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them; that is, F KQ1Q2 (B.1)
R2
287
Appendix B Review of Electricity
This equation is known as Coulomb’s law. If R is measured in meters, the constant K is 9 × 109, and F is obtained in newtons.
B.2 Electric Field
An electric charge exerts a force on another electric charge; a mass exerts a force on another mass; and a magnet exerts a force on another magnet. All these forces have an important common characteristic: Exertion of the force does not require physical contact between the interacting bodies. The forces act at a distance. The concept of lines of force or field lines is useful in visualizing these forces which act at a distance.
Any object that exerts a force on another object without contact can be thought of as having lines of force emanating from it. The complete line configuration is called a force field. The lines point in the direction of the force, and their density at any point in space is proportional to the magnitude of the force at that point.
The lines of force emanate from an electric charge uniformly in all direc tions. By convention, the lines point in the direction of the force that the source charge exerts on a positive charge. Thus, the lines of force point away from a positive source charge and into a negative source charge (see Fig. B.1). The number of lines emanating from the charge is proportional to the magnitude of the electric charge. If the size of the source charge is doubled, the number of force lines is also doubled.
Lines of force need not be straight lines; as we mentioned, they point in the direction in which the force is exerted. As an example, we can consider the FIGURE B.1 Two-dimensional representation of the electric field produced by a positive point charge (a) and a negative point charge (b).
Section B.4 Electric Current FIGURE B.2 Lines of force produced by a positive and a negative charge separated by a distance d.
net field due to two charges separated by a distance d. To determine this field we must compute the direction and size of the net force on a positive charge at all points in space. This is done by adding vectorially the force lines due to each charge. The force field due to a positive and negative charge of equal magnitude separated by a distance d from each other is shown in Fig. B.2.
Here the lines of force are curved. This is, of course, the direction of the net force on a positive charge in the region surrounding the two fixed charges.
The field shown in Fig. B.2 is called a dipole field, and it is similar to the field produced by a bar magnet.
B.3 Potential Difference or Voltage
The electric field is measured in units of volt per meter (or volt per centimeter).
The product of the electric field and the distance over which the field extends is an important parameter which is called potential difference or voltage. The voltage (V ) between two points is a measure of energy transfer as the charge moves between the two points. Potential difference is measured in volts. If there is a potential difference between two points, a force is exerted on a charge placed in the region between these points. If the charge is positive, the force tends to move it away from the positive point and toward the negative point.
B.4 Electric Current
An electric current is produced by a motion of charges. The magnitude of the current depends on the amount of charge flowing past a given point in a given period of time. Current is measured in amperes (A). One ampere is 1 coulomb (C) of charge flowing past a point in 1 second (sec).
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5 Electric Circuits
The amount of current flowing between two points in a material is proportional to the potential difference between the two points and to the electrical properties of the material. The electrical properties are usually represented by three parameters: resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Resistance measures the opposition to current flow. This parameter depends on the property of the material called resistivity, and it is analogous to friction in mechanical motion. Capacitance measures the ability of the material to store electric charges. Inductance measures the opposition in the material to changes in current flow. All materials exhibit to some extent all three of these properties; often, however, one of these properties is predominant. It is possible to manufacture components with specific values of resistance, capacitance, or inductance. These are called, respectively, resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The schematic symbols for these three electrical components are shown in Fig. B.3. Electrical components can be connected together to form an electric circuit. Currents can be controlled by the appropriate choice of components and interconnections in the circuit. An example of an electric circuit is shown in Fig. B.4. Various techniques have been developed to analyze such circuits and to calculate voltages and currents at all the points in the circuit.
B.5.1 Resistor
The resistor is a circuit component that opposes current flow. Resistance (R) is measured in units of ohm (). The relation between current (I ) and FIGURE B.3 Circuit components.
FIGURE B.4 Example of an electric circuit.
Section B.5 Electric Circuits voltage (V ) is given by Ohm’s law, which is
V IR
(B.2)
Materials that present a very small resistance to current flow are called conductors. Materials with a very large resistance are called insulators. A flow of current through a resistor is always accompanied by power dissipation as electrical energy is converted to heat. The power (P) dissipated in a resistor is given by P I2R
(B.3)
The inverse of resistance is called conductance, which is usually designated by the symbol G. Conductance is measured in units of mho, also called Siemens.
The relationship between conductance and resistance is
G 1
(B.4)
R B.5.2 Capacitor
The capacitor is a circuit element that stores electric charges. In its simplest form it consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (see Fig. B.5). Capacitance (C) is measured in farads. The relation between the stored charge (Q), and the voltage across the capacitor is given by Q CV
(B.5)
In a charged capacitor, positive charges are on one side of the plate, and negative charges are on the other. The amount of energy (E) stored in such a configuration is given by E 1 CV 2
(B.6)
2
FIGURE B.5 A simple capacitor.
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5.3 Inductor
The inductor is a device that opposes a change in the current flowing through it. Inductance is measured in units called henry.
B.6 Voltage and Current Sources
Voltages and currents can be produced by various batteries and generators.
Batteries are based on chemical reactions that result in a separation of positive and negative charges within a material. Generators produce a voltage by the motion of conductors in magnetic fields. The circuit symbols for these sources are shown in Fig. B.6.
B.7
Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity and magnetism are related phenomena. A changing electric field always produces a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field always produces an electric field. All electromagnetic phenomena can be traced to this basic interrelationship. A few of the consequences of this interaction follow:
1. An electric current always produces a magnetic field at a direction perpendicular to the current flow.
2. A current is induced in a conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field.
3. An oscillating electric charge emits electromagnetic waves at the frequency of oscillation. This radiation propagates away from the source at the speed of light. Radio waves, light, and X-rays are examples of electromagnetic radiation.
FIGURE B.6 Circuit symbols for a battery and a generator.
Appendix C
Review of Optics C.1 Geometric Optics
The characteristics of optical components, such as mirrors and lenses, can be completely derived from the wave properties of light. Such detailed calculations, however, are usually rather complex because one has to keep track of the wave front along every point on the optical component. It is possible to simplify the problem if the optical components are much larger than the wavelength of light. The simplification entails neglecting some of the wave properties of light and considering light as a ray traveling perpendicular to the wave front (Fig. C.1). In a homogeneous medium, the ray of light travels in a straight line; it alters direction only at the interface between two media. This simplified approach is called geometric optics.
The speed of light depends on the medium in which it propagates. In vacuum, light travels at a speed of 3 × 108 m/sec. In a material medium, the speed of light is always less. The speed of light in a material is characterized by the index of refraction (n) defined as n c
(C.1)
v where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed in the material.
When light enters from one medium into another, its direction of propagation is changed (see Fig. C.2). This phenomenon is called refraction. The relationship between the angle of incidence (θ1) and the angle of refraction (θ2)
293
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.1 Light rays perpendicular to the wave front.
is given by sin θ1 n2
(C.2)
sin θ2
n1
The relationship in Eq. C.2 is called Snell’s law. As shown in Fig. C.2, some of the light is also reflected. The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence.
In Fig. C.2a, the angle of incidence θ1 for the entering light is shown to be greater than the angle of refraction θ2. This implies that n2 is greater than n1 as would be the case for light entering from air into glass, for example (see Eq. C.2). If, on the other hand, the light originates in the medium of higher refractive index, as shown in Fig. C.2b, then the angle of incidence θ1 is smaller than the angle of refraction θ2. At a specific value of angle θ1 called the critical angle (designated by the symbol θc), the light emerges tangent to the surface, that is, θ2 90◦. At this point, sin θ2 1 and, therefore, sin θ1 sin θc n2/n1. Beyond this angle, that is for θ1 > θc, light originating in the medium of higher refractive index does not emerge from the medium. At the interface, all the light is reflected back into the medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. For glass, n2 is typically 1.5, and the critical angle at the glass-air interface is sin θc 1/1.5 or θc 42◦.
Transparent materials such as glass can be shaped into lenses to alter the direction of light in a specific way. Lenses fall into two general categories: converging lenses and diverging lenses. A converging lens alters the direction of light so that the rays are brought together. A diverging lens has the opposite effect; it spreads the light rays apart.
Using geometric optics, we can calculate the size and shape of images formed by optical components, but we cannot predict the inevitable blurring of images which occurs as a result of the wave nature of light.
Section C.2 Converging Lenses FIGURE C.2 (Top) Reflection and refraction of light. (Bottom) Total internal reflection.
C.2 Converging Lenses
A simple converging lens is shown in Fig. C.3. This type of a lens is called a convex lens.
Parallel rays of light passing through a convex lens converge at a point called the principal focus of the lens. The distance of this point from the lens is called the focal length f. Conversely, light from a point source at the focal point emerges from the lens as a parallel beam. The focal length of the lens is
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.3 The convex lens illuminated (a) by parallel light, (b) by point source at the focus.
determined by the index of refraction of the lens material and the curvature of the lens surfaces. We adopt the following convention in discussing lenses.
1. Light travels from left to right.
2. The radius of curvature is positive if the curved surface encountered by the light ray is convex; it is negative if the surface is concave.
It can be shown that for a thin lens the focal length is given by
1
1
(n − 1) − 1
(C.3)
f
R1 R2 where R1 and R2 are the curvatures of the first and second surfaces, respectively (Fig. C.4). In Fig. C.4, R2 is a negative number.
Focal length is a measure of the converging power of the lens. The shorter the focal length, the more powerful the lens. The focusing power of a lens is
Section C.2 Converging Lenses FIGURE C.4 Radius of curvature defined for a lens.
often expressed in diopters defined as
Focusing power
1
(diopters)
(C.4)
f (meters) If two thin lenses with focal lengths f1 and f2, respectively, are placed close together, the focal length fT of the combination is 1 1 + 1
(C.5)
fT
f1
f2
Light from a point source located beyond the focal length of the lens is converged to a point image on the other side of the lens (Fig. C.5a). This type of an image is called a real image because it can be seen on a screen placed at the point of convergence.
If the distance between the source of light and the lens is less than the focal length, the rays do not converge. They appear to emanate from a point on the source side of the lens. This apparent point of convergence is called a (Fig. C.5b).
For a thin lens, the relationship between the source and the image distances from the lens is given by 1 + 1 1
(C.6)
p
q
f
Here p and q, respectively, are the source and the image distances from the lens. By convention, q in this equation is taken as positive if the image is formed on the side of the lens opposite to the source and negative if the image is formed on the source side.
Light rays from a source very far from the lens are nearly parallel; there fore, by definition we would expect them to be focused at the principal focal point of the lens. This is confirmed by Eq. C.6, which shows that as p becomes very large (approaches infinity), q is equal to f.
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.5 Image formation by a convex lens: (a) real image, (b) virtual image.
If the source is displaced a distance x from the axis, the image is formed at a distance y from the axis such that y q
(C.7)
x
p
This is illustrated for a real image in Fig. C.6. The relationship between p and q is still given by Eq. C.6.
C.3 Images of Extended Objects
So far we have discussed only the formation of images from point sources.
The treatment, however, is easily applied to objects of finite size.
When an object is illuminated, light rays emanate from every point on the object (Fig. C.7a). Each point on the object plane a distance p from the lens
Section C.3 Images of Extended Objects FIGURE C.6 Image formation off axis.
FIGURE C.7 Image of an object: (a) real, (b) virtual.
is imaged at the corresponding point on the image plane a distance q from the lens. The relationship between the object and the image distances is given by Eq. C.6. As shown in Fig. C.7, real images are inverted and virtual images are upright. The ratio of image to object height is given by Image height −q
(C.8)
Object height p
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.8 A diverging lens.
C.4 Diverging Lenses
An example of a diverging lens is the concave lens shown in Fig. C.8. Parallel light diverges after passing through a concave lens. The apparent source of origin for the diverging rays is the focal point of the concave lens. All the equations we have presented for the converging lens apply in this case also, provided the sign conventions are obeyed. From Eq. C.3, it follows that the focal length for a diverging lens is always negative and the lens produces only virtual images (Fig. C.8).
C.5
Lens Immersed in a Material Medium
The lens equations that we have presented so far apply in the case when the lens is surrounded by air that has a refraction index of approximately 1. Let us now consider the more general situation shown in Fig. C.9, which we will need in our discussion of the eye. The lens here is embedded in a medium that has a different index of refraction (n1 and n2) on each side of the lens. It can be shown (see [15-3]) that under these conditions the relationship between the object and the image distances is n1 + n2 nL −n1 − nL − n2
(C.9)
p
q
R1
R2
Section C.5 Lens Immersed in a Material Medium FIGURE C.9 Lens immersed in a material medium.
Here nL is the refraction index of the lens material. The effective focal length in this case is 1 n2 −n1 − nL −n2
(C.10)
f
R1
R2
Note that in air n1 n2 1 and Eq. C.10 reduces to Eq. C.3.
The lens equations we have presented in this appendix assume that the lenses are thin. This is not a fully valid assumption for the lenses in the eye.
Nevertheless these equations are adequate for our purposes.
Bibliography
Chapters 1 to 6 6-1 Alexander, R. McNeill. Animal Mechanics. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968.
6-2 Baez, Albert V. The New College Physics: A Spiral Approach. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1967.
6-3 Blesser, William B. A Systems Approach to Biomedicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.
6-4 Bootzin, David, and Muffley, Harry C. Biomechanics. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1969.
6-5 Cameron, J. R., Skofronick, J. G., and Grant, R. M. Physics of the Body.
Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing, 1992.
6-6 Chapman, R. F. The Insects. New York, NY: American Elsevier Pub lishing Co., 1969.
6-7 Conaghan, P. G. “Update on Osteoarthritis Part 1: Current Concepts and the Relation to Exercise,” British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36 (2002), 330–333.
6-8 Cooper, John M., and Glassow, Ruth B. Kinesiology, 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: The C. V. Mosby Co., 1972.
6-9 Cromer, A. H. Physics for the Life Sciences. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1974.
302
Bibliography 6-10 Frankel, Victor H., and Burstein, Albert H. Orthopaedic Biomechanics.
Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1970.
6-11 French, A. P. Newtonian Mechanics. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1971.
6-12 Frost, H. M. An Introduction to Biomechanics. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1967.
6-13 Gray, James. How Animals Move. Cambridge, UK: University Press, 1953.
6-14 Heglund, N. C., Willems, P. A., Penta, M., and Cavagna, G. A. “Energy saving Gait Mechanics with Head-supported Loads,” Nature, 375 (1995), 52–54.
6-15 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
6-16 Ingber, D. E. “The Architecture of Life,” Scientific American (January 1998), 47.
6-17 Jensen, Clayne R., and Schultz, Gordon W. Applied Kinesiology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
6-18 Kenedi, R. M., ed. Symposium on Biomechanics and Related Bioengi- neering Topics. New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1965.
6-19 Lauk, M., Chow, C. C., Pavlik, A. E., and Collins, J. J. “Human Balance out of Equilibrium: Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics in Posture Control,” The American Physical Society, 80 (January 1998), 413.
6-20 Latchaw, Marjorie, and Egstrom, Glen. Human Movement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969.
6-21 McCormick, Ernest J. Human Factors Engineering. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
6-22 Mathews, Donald K., and Fox, Edward L. The Physiological Basis of Physical Education and Athletics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1971.
6-23 Morgan, Joseph. Introduction to University Physics, Vol. 1, 2nd ed.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
6-24 Novacheck, T. F. “The Biomechanics of Running,” Gait and Posture, 7 (1998), 77–95.
Bibliography 6-25 Offenbacher, Elmer L. “Physics and the Vertical Jump,” American Jour- nal of Physics, 38 (July 1970), 829–836.
6-26 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
6-27 Roddy, E. et al.
“Evidence-based Recommendations for the Role of Exercise in the Management of Osteoarthritis,” Rheumatology, 44 (2005), 67–73.
6-28 Rome, L. C. “Testing a Muscle’s Design,” American Scientist, 85 (July– August 1997), 356.
6-29 Strait, L. A., Inman, V. T., and Ralston, H. J. “Sample Illustrations of Physical Principles Selected from Physiology and Medicine,” , 15 (1947), 375.
6-30 Sutton, Richard M. “Two Notes on the Physics of Walking,” American Journal of Physics, 23 (1955), 490.
6-31 Wells, Katherine F. Kinesiology: The Scientific Basis of Human Motion.
Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1971.
6-32 Williams, M., and Lissner, H. R. Biomechanics of Human Motion. Phil adelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1962.
6-33 Winter, D. A. “Human Balance and Posture Control during Standing and Walking,” Gait & Posture, 3 (1995), 193–214.
6-34 Wolff, H. S. Biomedical Engineering. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
Chapter 7 7-1 Alexander, R. McNeill. Animal Mechanics. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968.
7-2 Bush, J. W. M., and Hu, D. L. “Walking on Water: Biolocomotion at the Interface,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 38 (2006), 339–369.
7-3 Chapman, R. F. The Insects. New York, NY: American Elsevier Pub lishing Co., 1969.
7-4 Foth, H. D., and Turk, L. M. Fundamentals of Soil Science. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
7-5 Gamow, G., and Ycas, M. Mr. Tomkins Inside Himself. New York, NY: The Viking Press, 1967.
Bibliography 7-6 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
7-7 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
7-8 Murray, J. M., and Weber, A. “The Cooperative Action of Muscle Pro teins,” Scientific American (February 1974), 59.
7-9 Rome, L. C. “Testing a Muscle’s Design,” American Scientist, 85 (July– August 1997), 356.
Chapter 8 8-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1962.
8-2 Hademenos, G. J. “The Biophysics of Stroke,” American Scientist, 85 (May–June 1997), 226.
8-3 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
8-4 Myers, G. H., and Parsonnet, V. Engineering in the Heart and Blood Vessels. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1969.
8-5 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
8-6 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D., eds. Physiology and Biophysics. Philadel phia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965.
8-7 Strait, L. A., Inman, V. T., and Ralston, H. J. “Sample Illustrations of Physical Principles Selected from Physiology and Medicine,” , 15 (1947), 375.
Chapters 9 to 11 11-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1962.
11-2 Angrist, S. W. “Perpetual Motion Machines,” Scientific American (January 1968), 114.
Bibliography 11-3 Atkins, P. W. The 2nd Law. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1994.
11-4 Brown, J. H. U., and Gann, D. S., eds. Engineering Principles in Physi- ology, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1973.
11-5 Casey, E. J. Biophysics, New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.
11-6 Loewenstein, W. R. The Touchstone of Life: Molecular Information, Cell Communication, and the Foundations of Life. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999.
11-7 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
11-8 Morowitz, H. J. Energy Flow in Biology. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1968.
11-9 Peters, R. H. The Ecological Implications of Body Size. Cambridge University Press, 1983.
11-10 Rose, A. H., ed. Thermobiology. London: Academic Press, 1967.
11-11 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D., eds. Physiology and Biophysics. Phila delphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965.
11-12 Schurch, S., Lee, M., and Gehr, P. “Pulmonary Surfactant: Surface Properties and Function of Alveolar and Airway Surfactant,” , 64(11) (1992), 1745–1750.
11-13 Stacy, R. W., Williams, D. T., Worden, R. E., and McMorris, R. W.
Biological and Medical Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955.
Chapter 12 12-1 Alexander, R. McNeil Animal Mechanics. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1968.
12-2 Brown, J. H. U., and Gann, D. S., eds. Engineering Principles in Phys- iology, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1973.
12-3 Burns, D. M., and MacDonald, S. G. G. Physics for Biology and Pre-Medical Students. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970.
Bibliography 12-4 Casey, E. J. Biophysics. New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.
12-5 Cromwell, L., Weibell, F.J., Pfeiffer, E. A., and Usselman, L. B. Bio- medical Instrumentation and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
12-6 Marshall, J. S., Pounder, E. R., and Stewart, R. W. Physics, 2nd ed.
New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1967.
12-7 Mizrach, A., Hetzroni, A., Mazor, M., Mankin, R. W., Ignat, T., Grinshpun, J., Epsky, N. D., Shuman, D., and Heath, R. R. “Acoustic Trap for Female Mediterranean Fruit Flies,” 48(2005), 2017–2022.
12-8 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2d ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
12-9 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
12-10 Stacy, R. W., Williams, D. T., Worden, R. E., and McMorris, R. W.
Biological and Medical Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955.
Chapter 13 13-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
13-2 Bassett, C. A. L. “Electrical Effects in Bone,” Scientific American (October 1965), 18.
13-3 Bullock, T. H. “Seeing the World through a New Sense: Electrorecep tion in Fish,” American Scientist 61 (May–June 1973), 316.
13-4 Delchar, T. A. Physics in Medical Diagnosis. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1997.
13-5 Hobbie, R. K. “Nerve Conduction in the Pre-Medical Physics Course,” American Journal of Physics, 41 (October 1973), 1176.
13-6 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
Bibliography 13-7 Katz, B. “How Cells Communicate,” Scientific American (September 1961), 208.
13-8 Katz, B. Nerve Muscle and Synapse. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966.
13-9 Miller, W. H., Ratcliff, F., and Hartline, H. K. “How Cells Receive Stimuli,” Scientific American (September 1961), 223.
13-10 Scott, B. I. H. “Electricity in Plants,” Scientific American (October 1962), 107.
Chapter 14 14-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
14-2 Blesser, W. B. A Systems Approach to Biomedicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.
14-3 Cromwell, L., Weibell, F. J., Pfeiffer, E. A., and Usselman, L. B. Bio- medical Instrumentation and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973.
14-4 Davidovits, P. Communication. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
14-5 Loizou, P. C. “Mimicking the Human Ear,” IEEE Signal Processing Magazine (September 1998), 101–130.
14-6 Scher, A. M. “The Electrocardiogram,” Scientific American (November 1961), 132.
Chapter 15 15-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962.
15-2 Davidovits, P., and Egger, M. D. “Microscopic Observation of Endothe lial Cells in the Cornea of an Intact Eye,” Nature 244 (1973), 366.
15-3 Katzir, A. “Optical Fibers in Medicine,” Scientific American (May 1989) 260, 120.
Bibliography 15-4 Marshall, J. S., Pounder, E. R., and Stewart, R. W. Physics, 2nd ed. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1967.
15-5 Muntz, W. R. A. “Vision in Frogs,” Scientific American (March 1964), 110.
15-6 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D. Physiology and Biophysics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1965.
15-7 Wald, George. “Eye and the Camera,” Scientific American (August 1950), 32.
Chapters 16 and 17 16-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962.
16-2 Burns, D. M., and MacDonald, S. G. G. Physics for Biology and Pre- Medical Students. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970.
16-3 Delchar, T. A. Physics in Medical Diagnosis. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1997.
16-4 Dowsett, D. J., Kenny, P. A., and Johnston, R. E. The Physics of Diagnostic Imaging. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall Medical, 1998.
16-5 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
16-6 Pizer, V. “Preserving Food with Atomic Energy,” United States Atomic Energy Commission Division of Technical Information, 1970.
16-7 Pykett, I. L. “NMR Imaging in Medicine,” Scientific American (May 1982), 78.
16-8 Schr¨odinger, E. “What Is Life?” and Other Scientific Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Co., 1956.
Answers to Numerical
Exercises Chapter 1 1-1(b). F 254 N (57.8 lb) 1-3. θ 72.6◦ 1-4. Maximum weight 335 N (75 lb) 1-5(a). Fm 2253 N (508 lb), Fr 2386 N (536 lb) 1-6. Fm 720 N, Fr 590 N 1-7(a). Fm 2160 N, Fr 1900 N 1-8. Fm 103 N, Fr 84 N 1-10. x 19.6 cm, v of tendon 4 cm/sec, v of weight 38 cm/sec 1-11. Fm 0.47 W, Fr 1.28 W 1-12(a). Fm 2000 N, Fr 2200 N; (b). Fm 3220 N, Fr 3490 N 1-13. FA 2.5 W, FT 3.5 W Chapter 2 2-1(a). Distance 354 m; (b). Independ of mass 2-2(a). μ 0.067 2-3(a). μ 1.95; (b). with μ 1.0, θ 39.4◦, with μ 0.01, θ 0.6◦ Chapter 3 3-1. P 4120 watt 3-2. H 126 cm 311 3-3. Fr 1.16 W, θ 65.8◦ 3-4. T 0.534 sec 3-5(a). R 13.5 m; (b). H 3.39 m; (c). 4.08 sec 3-6. v 8.6 m/sec 3-7. r 1.13 m 3-8(a). v 8.3 m/sec; (b) 16.6 cm/sec 3-9. Energy expended/sec 1350 J/sec 3-10. P 371 watt Chapter 4 4-2. F 10.1 N 4-3. ω 1.25 rad/sec; linear velocity 6.25 m/sec 4-4. ω 1.25 rad/sec 33.9 rpm 4-5. v 62.8 m/sec 4-6. Speed 1.13 m/sec 4.07 km/h 2.53 mph 4-7. T 1.6 sec 4-8. E 1.64 mv2 4-9. Fall time 1 sec
Chapter 5 5-1. v 2.39 m/sec (5.3 mph) 5-2. v 8 m/sec; with 1 cm2area v 2 m/sec 5-3. h 5.1 m 5-4. t 3 × 10−2 sec 5-5. v 17 m/sec (37 mph) 5-6. Force/cm2 4.6 × 106 dyn/cm2, yes 5-7. v 0.7 m/sec, no Chapter 6 6-1. F 2 W 6-2. 0.052 mm 6-3. h 18.4 cm 6-4. 10.3 cm
Answers to Numerical Exercises Chapter 7 7-2. P 7.8 W 7-3. v [gV(ρw − ρ)/Aρw]1/2; P 1/2[W{(ρw/ρ) −1}3/2]/(Aρw)1/2 7-5. P 1.51 × 107dyn/cm2 15 atm 7-6. Volume of swim bladder 3.8% 7-7. ρ2 ρ1(W1/W1 − W2) 7-8. p 1.46 × 105 dyn/cm2 7-11. Perimeter 9.42 km 7-12. Speed 29 cm/sec Chapter 8 8-1. P 3.19 × 10−2 torr 8-2. P 4.8 torr 8-3. h 129 cm 8-4(a). p 61 torr; (b). p 200 torr 8-5(b). R1/R2 0.56 8-6. v 26.5 cm/sec 8-7. N 7.5 × 104 8-8. p 79 torr 8-9. P 10.1 W 8-10(a). P 0.25 W; (b). P 4.5 W
Chapter 9
9-2. V 29.3 9-3(a). t 10−2 sec; (b). t 10−5 sec 9-5. N 1.08 × 1020 molecules/sec 9-6. No. breaths/min . 10.4
9-7(a). Rate 1.71 liter/hr-cm2; (b). diameter 0.5 cm 9-8. P 2.87 atm
Chapter 11 11-2. t 373 hours 11-3. v 4.05 m3 11-4. t 105 days 11-5. Weight loss 0.892 kg 11-6. H 18.7 Cal/h 11-8(b). Change 22%; (c). Kr 6.0 Cal/m2-h-C◦ 11-9. Heat removed 8.07 Cal/h 11-10. Heat loss 660 Cal/m2-h 11-11. H 14.4 Cal/h Chapter 12 12-1. R 31.6 km 12-2. 1.75 times 12-3. p 2.9 × 10−4 dyn/cm2 12-6. D 11.5 m 12-8. Min. size 1.7 × 10−2 cm Chapter 13 13-1(a). No. of ions 1.88 × 1011; (b). no. of Na+ ions 7.09 × 1014/m; No. of K+ ions 7.09 × 1015/m 13-8(a). no of cells in series 5000; (b). no of cells in parallel 2.7 × 109
Chapter 14 14-1. i 13.3 amp Chapter 15 15-1. Change in position 0.004 cm 15-3. For cornea 41.9 diopters; for lens, min power 18.7 diopters, max power 24.4 diopters 15-4. 1/f −0.39 diopters 15-5. Focusing power ±70 diopters 15-6. p 1.5 cm 15-7(a). Resolution 2.67 × 10−4 rad; (b). Resolution 6.67 × 10−4 rad 15-8. D 20 m 15-9. H 3 × 10−4 cm
Index
Absorption velocity and K c, 151–152 electromagnetic radiation, 123, 242
viscosity, 104
spectroscopy, 245
Airbag, 68–69
spectrum, 243
Alcohol, caloric value, 147
Acceleration
Aluminum angular, 277
specific heat, 119
centripetal, 278–279
thermal conductivity, 122
defined, 273
Alveoli, 129 equations of translational motion for, size, 132
30–32
Amino acid, 271
gravitational, 5, 33
Amplification, in human ear, 175
of jumper, 31–34
Amplifier, 201
Accommodation of eye, 216–217, 230
transistor, 211
Angstrom, 285
Achilles tendon, 19
Angular acceleration, 277
Actin, 95, 96
Angular momentum
Action potential, 184–186 defined, 280
in muscles, 194
equations of, 277–278
in plants, 196
Angular motion measurement, 195 forces on a curved path, 45–48 propagation, 188–190
Newton’s laws, 280
Adhesion, 90–91 pendulum strength of, 93
physical, 51–52
Adrenaline, 155
simple, 48–50
Aging, and vision, 216–217 running, 53–56
Air vs. linear motion, 277 inspired vs. expired, 130–131 walking, 50–53 motion through, 40–42
Angular velocity, 276
pressure in ear, 170
maximum, 54, 78–79
314
Index
Animal propagation vs. speed of light, 186
energetics, 136
resistance of, 186
motion, 1
sodium pump, 184
sounds produced by, 176
voltage, 184
Anvil (middle ear), 169 vs. electric cable, 186–188
Aorta, 106
blood pressure drop, 107–108
Back turbulent flow, 110–111 backaches, 18
Aperture of eye, 218–219 lever representation, 17–19
Apocrine sweat gland, 155
Bacteria, thermophilic, 145
Aqueous humor, 215–216
Ballistocardiograph, 115
Archimedes’ principle Barth´elemy, Toussaint, 249
defined, 87
Basal metabolic rate, 147 fish buoyancy and, power required to stay afloat and, Basilar membrane, 170
87–88 Bats Arteriole, 106–107, 109
chirping, 175–176
Arterisclerosis, and blood flow, 111–112 echo location, 175
Artery, 105
Battery, 292
elasticity, 112
Bernoulli’s equation, 101–102, 103
narrowing, 111, 112
stenosis and, 111
natural frequency, 112
Biceps, 7
plaque deposit, 111–112
movement of, 11–15
pressure drop, 107–108
Biological control system, 208
pulmonary, 105
features, 206–207
Astigmatism, 227
feedback, 208–210
lens for, 228, 229
in iris, 210
Atom
Biomechanics, 2
absorption spectrum, 243
Blood energy state, 241–242
adrenaline in, 155
excitation of, 242–243
cells, radioactive, 269
interactions between, 270
circulation, 105–107
nucleus, 240, 256–257
flow
structure, 239–240
arterisclerosis, 111–112
Atomic physics, 239
control, 109
Axon, 181
energetics, 110
action potential, 184–186 laminar, 103, 104, 110, 111
action potential propagation, rate, 112–113 188–190 to brain, 109 capacitance and resistance of, 186 turbulence, 110–111 circuit, analysis of, diameter of, 183
velocity, 110, 178
electrical potentials, 183–184, 185
kinetic energy, 110
electrical properties, 186–187
pressure length of, 181
arterial, 107–109
membrane at capillaries, 107
as leaky insulator, 186
measurement, 113–114
permeability, 184
systolic and diastolic, 107
myelin, 181
venal, 109
myelinated, 192–193
sugar level, 245
myelinated vs. nonmyelinated, 187
venal, 136
nodes of Ranvier, 181
viscosity, 104
Index
Bohr model of atom, 240–241, 247
Center of mass motion formation of chemical bonds, in running, 57–58
243–244
in walking, 56–57
hydrogen, 241
Centrifugal force, 45–46, 47
Bohr, Niels, 240
defined, 278
Boltzmann constant, 117–118
Centripetal acceleration, 277–278
Bone
Centripetal force, 46, 47, 277–278
density defined, 277 cuttlefish, 88–89 137Cesium, 268
electricity and, 196–197
Chatecholamine, 109
fracture
Chemical bond, formation of, 243–244 energy involved, 64–66
Chemical energy, 139 force needed to cause, 67–68
Chemical fumigation, 267
neck, 69–70
Chlorine ion, and membrane potential, 184
NMR signal, 261
Chromium isotope, in medicine, 269
osteoblasts and osteoclasts, 197
Circulatory system, 105–107
Boyle’s law, 119 body heat transfer and, 151
Brain mechanism of energy losses, 107 activity identification, 265–266 turbulent flow, 111–112
60
arteries, 109
Cobalt, 268
blood flow to, 109
Cochlea, 170–171 diagnosing disorders, 204 implants, 211–213
ischemic stroke, 112
Coefficient
nerve centers in, 150
convection, 122, 152
nerve impulses, 162
diffusion, friction, 24, 25, 46, 71
role in hearing, 175
kinetic, 25, 71
signal processing, 226
static, 25
Breathing thermal conductivity, 121
cold-blooded animals, 132
Collision heat loss by, 155–156, 157
automobile, 69–70
surfactants and, 132
duration of, 66–67
Broad jump force of, 67–68 running position, 39–40 protective device, 68–69 standing position, 37–39 Compression, 61–62 Broca, Paul Pierre, 265
Computerized tomography, 250–251, 257
Broken heart syndrome, 109
Conductance (G), 291
Bruit, 111
Conduction, thermal, 120–121
Buoyancy, of fish, 88–89 in human body, 150, 151
Conductor, 291
Calorie, 119
Cones and rods, 222, 223, 224, 225–226
intake, 148
Confocal microscopy, 232–235
Capacitor, 291
Conservation
Capillary action, 91, 92, 93
energy, 135–136
Cardiomyopathy, stress, 109
Bernoulli’s equation and, 101–102
Cardiovascular disease human physiology and, 136
arterisclerosis, 111–112
linear momentum, 275
stress cardiomyopathy, 109
Constructive interference, 166
Catfish spine fin, 27–29
Control system, 206–208
Cell, 270–271 feedback, 208–210
Center of gravity, 2
Convection, 121–122 human body, 3–4 in human body, 151–153
Index
Converging lens, 294, 295–298
molecular transport through,
Cooling mechanism, 136, 141, 150, 126–127 155–156, 158 random walk, 124–125
Cork, thermal conductivity of, 122
through biological membrane,
Cornea, 215
128–129
receive oxygen by diffusion, 133
Diopter, 219
refractive power, 220
Dipole field, 289
Coulomb, 287
Diverging lens, 294, 300
Coulomb’s law, 287–288 DNA, 143–144, 248, 250, 269, 270, 271
Critical angle, 294
Doppler effect, 178
Critical flow velocity, 104
Doughnut, energy content, 43
Cromer, A. H., 43
Dyne, 285
Crystallography, CT scan, 250–251, Cut-off blood pressure measurement,
Ear, 168
113–114
amplification in, 175
Cuttlefish, bone density, 88–89 canal, horns, 211
Davidovits, Paul, 232, 233
inner, 170–171 da Vinci, Leonardo, 1, 7–8
balance maintenance, 21
De Broglie, Louis, 246, 247
middle, 169–170
Defibrillator, 206
outer, 168–169
Dehydration, 155
performance, 171–172
Density
sound detection capability, 172–173
constant, 83
sound intensity, 173–175 of water, and floating, 87–88 threshold of hearing and pain, 173, 174 porous bones and swim bladders, Eardrum, 162, 168, 169–170, 175
88–89
Earth, forces on, 33
Depth of field, 219
Eccrine sweat gland, 155
Destructive interference, 166
ECG, See Electrocardiography
Diabetic retinopathy, laser treatment, 254
Echoes, bats and, 175
Diagnostic equipment EEG, See Electroencephalography computerized tomography, 250–251, Eel, electric, 198
257
Egger, M. David, 232, 233
electrocardiograph, 195, 202–203
Einstein, Albert, 252
electroencephalograph, 195,
Elasticity, 61
203–204
artery, 112 electromyograph (EMG), 195 insect wings, 79–80 magnetic resonance imaging, spring, 62–64
257–258
Elbow, movement of, 11–15
stethoscope, 111, 113, 177, X-rays, 249–250
Electrical technology, in biological research, 200–202
Diastolic pressure, Diathermy, 178
Electric charge, 287–288
Diffraction, 168
Electric circuit, 290–292
in eye, 224
Electric current, 289
studies with molecules, 250
effect on brain, 205
Diffusion, 123–125 sources, 292
coefficient, 127
Electric eel, 198
contact lens and, 133
Electric field, 288–289, 292
in respiratory system, 129–132
in water, 198
mean free path, 124
Electric fish, 197–198
Index
Electricity consumption in physical activity, as a natural phenomena, 180
42–43
in bone, 196–197 load carrying, 58–59 fish and, 197–198 running, 54–56
in plants, 196
electromagnetic, 122–123
magnetism and, 292
forms, 283
nervous system and, 180–196
from food, 147–149
physiological effects, 204–206
internal, 117, 139 piezoelectricity, 196–197 involved in bone fracture, 64–66
Electric shock, 204–205 kinetic, 283
Electrocardiography (ECG), 195, 202–203
insect wing in flight, 78–79
Electrode, 202 of particles in gas, 117
Electroencephalography (EEG), 195, level, 241–242
203–204
mechanical, in ultrasonic wave, 178
Electromagnetic radiation, 214 requirements, 146–149 energy and, 122–123 during pregnancy, 149 excitation of atom and, 242–243 unit and conversion, 286
Electromyography (EMG), 195
Entropy, 142
Electron, 239, 240–241
Epilepsy, 205
binding energy, 243
Equilibrium diffraction patterns, 247
human body considerations, 3–4
electric charge of, 287
stability and, 2–3 energy level, 241–242 static, 2–3, 282
excitation, methods of, 242
Eustachian tube, 170
excited state, 242
Evaporation, skin temperature control by, ground state, 241–242
155–156
high-speed (Beta particles), 256
Excited state, 242
and food preservation, 268
Exercise, osteoarthritis and, 71
impact, 242
Eye inner, 243
aging and, 216–217 in oscilloscope, 201 aperture and depth of field, 218–219 orbital restrictions, 240–241 eyeglasses, 211
orbit around nucleus, 240
focusing, 216–217, 230
outer, 243
laser treatment, 253–255 radiation and, 122–123 lens system, 219–220 shared, 244 light intensity reaching retina, wavelength, 247
207–208, 209
wavelike properties, 246
near point, 216–217
Electron microscope, 247–248 parameters, 220 EMG, See Electromyography reduced, 220–222
Emission resolution of, 223–225
spectroscopy, 245
structure, 215–216
spontaneous, 252
vs. camera, 217–218 stimulated, 252
Eyepiece, 230, 231
Emissivity, 123
of skin, 153
Falling Endoscope, 236–237 fracture due to, 67–68
Energy, 282–283 from great height, 70
chemical, 139
on snow, 70
in food, 141
Farads, 291
conservation, 135–136
Fasting, world record, 149 Index
Feedback system, 208–209 fluid, 82–86
negative feedback, 209
impulsive, 66–67
positive feedback, 209
bone fracture and, 67–68
Fetus
lines of, 288–289 energy required, 149 on a curved path, 45–48 heart, examination, 178
on the foot, 47
Fiber optics, 235 pressure in a fluid and, 82–83 fiberscopes, 236–237 static, 1–2
Fibrillation, 205–206
stopping, 69
Field line, 288
unit and conversion, 285
Fish Fourier, J. B. J., 171
buoyancy, 88–89
Fovea, 222
catfish spine fin, 27–29
Fracture electric, 197–198 due to a fall, 67–68 electronic lures, 176 energy involved, 64–66 eye, lens focusing power, 219–220 neck bone, 69–70
Flight
Frequency insect, 73–80 larmor, 259–261 hovering, 73–75 natural, of healthy artery, 112
Fluid pendulum swings, 48–49
Archimedes’ principle, 87–89
resonant, 167
blood, See Blood sound, 163, 164
body, 183
Friction, 23–24 defined, 82
at hip joint, 26–27 force and pressure, 82–86 catfish spine fin and, 27–29 friction and, 103–104 coefficient, 24, 25, 46, 71
motion of, 101
fluid, in air, 40
Bernoulli’s equation, 101–102 standing at an incline, 25–26 laminar, 103, 104
viscous, 24, 103, 107
Poiseuille’s law, 103–104, 107–108
Frog turbulent flow, 104–105
alveolal radii, 132
viscous friction, 24, 103, 107
diffusion transfer of oxygen, surface tension, 89–96
131–132
Flux, 126–127, 128
neurons in retina, 226–227
solar, 154
Fulcrum, 9–10
Focal length of lens, 295–297
Fumigation, chemical, 267
Focus, principal, of the lens, 295
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Food (fMRI), 265–266 composition and energy content, 148
Fur, 157
energy from, 141, oxidation, 147
Galvani, Luigi, 194
preservation by fumigation, 267
Gamma ray, use in food preservation, preservation by radiation, 267–268
267–268
requirements for humans, 147–148
Gas
Force behavior, 139 addition of torques and, 281–282 behavior of matter as a function of adhesive vs. cohesive, 90
temperature in, 117–119
centrifugal, 45–46, 47, 278
diffusion, 125
centripetal, 46, 47, 277–278
greenhouse, 159
contraction of muscle, 96
noble, 244
defined, 274
pressure, 118
field, 288
Generator, 292
Index
Geometric optics, 293–295
unit of, 119, 284
Gland vs. other energy forms, 138–140
apocrine, 155
Helicotrema, 170
eccrine, 155
Henry, 292
Glass
Hertz, 163
lens, 294
Hertz, Heinrich, 163
radiation and, 123, 249
High jump, 36–37
silica, 235
Hip joint
Glycerine, viscosity of, 104
friction at, 26–27
Gravitational force, 274
movement of, walking on injured, 17
Greenhouse effect, 159
Hooke, Robert, 62, 63
Greenhouse gas, 159
Hooke’s law, 62, 79
Ground state, 241–242
Hormone, 109, 207
Gyromagnetic ratio, 258, 259
Hovering flight, 73–75 power required, 76–79 Hales, Stephen, 113
Human body, See also Specific parts, Hammer (middle ear), 169 organs and systems Hearing, 168 adaptation for heat vs. cold, 156
aids, 211
critical temperature, 156
ear horns, 211
energy requirements, 146–148 brain’s role in, 175
food requirements, 147–148 cochlear implants, 211–213
metabolic rate, 146
in bats, 175–176 motion, 1–2 sound frequency and pitch, 172–173 oxygen requirements, 130–131
threshold of, 173, 174
posture, 19–21
transistorized aids for, 211
radiative heating, 154
Heart
resistance to cold, 156–157
aorta, 106
senses, limitations of, 200
atrium and ventricle, 105–106
sound production, 176 capillaries, 107 specific heat, stability of, 3–4 desynchronization of heart action, under action of external force, 4–7
205–206
sweat production, 155–156, 209
fetus, examination, 178
temperature
power produced by, 112–113
regulation, 149–151
stress, 109
regulation by convection, 151–153
Heat, 284, See also Thermodynamics regulation by evaporation, 155–156 cold and, 156–157
regulation by radiation, 153
defined, 116
Hydrogen latent, 120
Bohr model for atom of, 241
life and, 145–146 formation of molecule of, 244
loss by breathing, 155–156, 157
nuclear magnetic properties of, 258
radiative by sun, 153–154
Hydrostatic skeleton, 84–86
specific, 119, 284
Hyperopia, 227
therapeutic effects, 161
lens for, 228, 229 transfer of conduction, 120–121, 150, 151
Ice, specific heat of, 119
convection, 121–122, 151–153
Image diffusion, 123–133 of extended objects, 298–300 in human body, 149–157
on retina, 217–218
radiation, 122–123, 139, 153–154
size, 221–222, 223, 229–230
Index real, 297
Irradiation, food, 267–268 size of aperture and, 218–219
Ischemic stroke, 112
virtual, 297
Isotope, 256
Imaging oxygen, 256
computerized tomography, 250–251, 257 radioactive, 257 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), tracers, 268–269
257–258
ultrasound, 177–178
Joint with NMR, 262–265
hip
X-ray, 243, 249–250
friction at, 26–27
Impulsive force, 66–67 movement, 15–17 fracture and, 67–68 walking on injured, 17
Inductor, 292
knee problems, 71
Inertia, moment of, 279
osteoarthritis, 70–71
Infant respiratory distress syndrome, 132
Jump
Inner ear, 170–171 broad balance maintenance, 21
from running position, 39–40
basilar membrane, 170
from standing position, 37–39 cochlea, 170–171 high, 36–37 implants, 211–213 vertical helicotrema, 170 effect of gravity on, 35
Insect height of, 32–35
flight, 73
hovering, 73–75, 76–79
Kilocalorie, 284
locomotion on water, 93–95, 99
Kinesiology, 2
Microvelia, 99
Kinetic energy wing defined, 283 elasticity, 79–80 insect wing in flight, 78–79 kinetic energy when in flight, of particles in gas, 117
78–79 Kinetic friction, 23–24 muscles, 75–76 coefficient, 25, 71
Insulation, fur and feather, 122, 157
Kinetic theory of matter, 116–119
Insulator, 291
Knee joint, problems, 71
Intensity Kuhne, W., 217, 218 of light control, in reaching retina, Laminar flow, 103, 104, 110, 111
207–208, 209
Larmor frequency, 259–261
of sound, 163
Laser, 252–253 and loudness, 173–175
surgery, 253
Interference, 166–167 ophthalmological applications, Internal energy, 117, 139 253–255
Internal reflection, total, 294, 295
LASIK (Laser-assisted in Situ Ker Interneuron, 181 atomileusis), 254–255 131Iodine, 267
Latent heat, 120
Ion Lauterbur, P. C., 263 membrane potential and, 183–184 Lavoisier, Laurent, 135, 136
negative, 287
Lens, 215
positive, 287
astigmatism, 228, 229
Iris, 215 contact lens and diffusion, 133
control system, 210
converging, 294, 295–298
defined, 207
diverging, 294, 300
optical aperture, 218–219
eyepiece, 230, 231
Index Lens (cont.)
Mayer, Robert, 135–136 immersed in a material medium, Mean free path, 124
300–301
Medfly (Mediterranean fly), control of, myopia, 228, 229
177
objective, 230, 231
Membrane of eye, 219–220 axon focusing power, 216–217
as leaky insulator, 186
presbyopia and hyperopia, 228, 229
capacitance and resistance, 186
Lever, 9–11
permeability, 184
arm, 279
basilar, 170
elbow movement, 11–15 biological, diffusion through, hip movement, 15–17
128–129
spine movement, 17–19 oval window in ear, 169 standing on tip-toe on one foot, tympanic, 162, 168, 169–170, 175 19, 20
Membrane protein, solubility, 98
Light, 162, 214
Mercury, viscosity of, 104
emitted by laser, 252
Metabolic rate, 145–146 fiber-optic devices and, 237
defined, 146
intensity at retina, 207–208, 209
for selected activities, 146
penetration through tissue, 232
Metabolism, 157
properties, 215
Mho, 291
speed, 293
Micron, 285
vision and, 214–215
Microscope, 231
Limping, 17, 18
compound, 231
Linear momentum, 274
confocal, 232–235
conservation, 275
electron, 247–248
Linear motion, 277
resolution, 231–232
Lines of force, 288
Microvelia, 99
Lipoprotein, solubility, 98
Middle ear, 169–170
Lithium, 241
Eustachian tube, 170
Load carrying, energy consumption, 58–59 hammer, anvil, stirrup, 169
Logarithmic sound intensity, 174
ossicles, 169, 170, 175
Long jump, See Broad jump Miller, S. L., 271
Loudness, 173–175
Minsky, Marvin, 233
Lubrication, 25
Moisture tension in soil, 92–93 effect on human hip joint, 27
Molecule
Lumbar vertebra, fifth, 17–19
characteristic spectra, 244
Lung
diffraction studies with, 250
gas exchange in, 129–130
formation of hydrogen, 244
water vapor and, 155
organic, 270–271
X-ray, 250
transport through diffusion, 126–127
Moment arm, 279
Magnetic moment, 258, 259
Moment of inertia, 279
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 257–
Momentum
258, 262–265
angular, 280
functional, 265–266 equations of, 277–278
Magnetism, electricity and, 292
linear, 274
Marangoni propulsion, 99
conservation, 275
Mass, 274
Motion, 1–2
unit and conversion, 285
angular
Matter, kinetic theory of, 116–119
Newton’s laws, 280
Maximum angular velocity, 54, 78–79
vs. linear, 277
Index Newton’s laws, 274–275
Newton’s rotational, 30, 31
laws of angular motion, 280
equations for, 278 laws of motion thermal, 117, 124, 140
first, 274
through air, 40–42 second, 275
translational, 30–32
third, 275
Motor neuron, 181
14Nitrogen, 269
MRI, See Magnetic resonance imaging NMR, See Nuclear magnetic resonance
Muscle
Noble gas, 244
action potentials in, 194
Nodes of Ranvier, 181
biceps, 7, 11–15
Noise contraction, 8, 95–96
bruit, 111
efficiency, 42–43
laminar flow, 113
fibers, 194
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 257– insect wings, 75–76
262
myofibrils, 95
imaging with, 262–265
skeletal, 7–9, 95–96
Nuclear spin, Nucleus, 240, 256–257
spindle, 194
transmutation, 257
stimulation by electric current, triceps, 7, 11, 12
Musculoskeletal system,
Objective lens, 230, 231
interconnectedness, 21
Ohm, 290
Myelin, 181
Ohm’s law, 205, 291
Myelinated axon, 192–193
Optical spectra, 243
vs. nonmyelinated, 187
Optics, 214
fiber, 235–237
Myofibrils, 95
geometric, 293–295
Myopia, 227
vision and, 214–215
lens for, 228, 229
Oscilloscope, 201–202
Myosin, 95, 96
Osmosis, Ossicles, 169, 170, 175
Near point of the eye, 216–217
Osteoarthritis, 70–71
Neck bone, fracture, 69–70
exercise and, 71
Negative feedback, 209–210
Osteoblast, 197
Negative ion, 287
Osteoclast, 197
Nervous system Oudin, Paul, 249
action potential, 184–186
Outer ear, 168–169 action potential, propagation, 188–190
ear canal, 169
electrical phenomena and, 180–181
pinna, 168
electrical potentials in axon, 183–184, tympanic membrane, 162, 168, 169–
185
170, 175
signal propagation, 181
Oxidation of food, 147
surface potentials, 194–196
Oxygen synaptic transmission, 193–194 consumption, calories produced by, 147
vision and, 226–227
diffusion through skin, 129
Neuron, 180, 181–183
small animals, 131–132 axons and dendrites, 181, 183, See also isotopes of, 256
Axon oxidation of food, 147
classes, 181
requirement for humans, 130–131 Neutron, Newton, 5
Pacemaker, 202
Newton, Isaac, 1
electronic, 206
Index
Particle, wavelike properties, 246–247 measurement, 113–114 Pascal (Pa), 83 systolic and diastolic, 107
Pascal’s principle, 83–84 venal, 109
Pastuerization, 267
defined, 274
Pendulum fluid, 82–84 physical, 51–52, 54–56
gas, 118
simple, 48–50
in porous bones, 89
Period, of pendulum motion, 48–49
inside worm, 85
Phosphorus, radioactive, 257, 267, 269
on eardrum, 170
Photodetector, 245
Poiseuille’s equation and, 103–104
Photon, 215
sound, 164–165, 175
Photoreceptor, 222, 225–226
unit and conversion, 285
Photosynthesis, 214
Principia Mathematica, 1
Physics and life, 269–271
Projectile, range of, 37
Piezoelectric effect, 196–197
Protein
Pinna, 168
caloric value, 147
Pitch of sound, 172–173
consumption during fasting, 149
Planck’s constant, 215, 246–247, 258
resilin, 79–80
Plant solubility of membrane protein and action potential in, 196
lipoprotein, 98
electricity in, 196
specific heat, 119
soil water and, 92–93
Proton, 239–240, 287
Plaque, arterial, 111–112
Pulmonary artery, 105
Poise, 103, 104
Pupil, 215
Poiseuille, L. M., 101
defined, 207
Poiseuille’s law, 103–104
Pure tone, 163–164 estimation of blood pressure drop and, P wave, 203
107–108
Positive feedback, 209–210
Quality
Positive ion, 287
image, 218
Posture, 19–21
sound, 171
Potassium ion, axon potential and, 184
Quantum mechanics, 246–247, 270
Potential axon, 184
Radian, 276
difference, 289
Radiation, 139
energy, 283–284 electromagnetic, 122–123, 214
Power, 284
food preservation by, 267–268 defined, 78
human body, 153
generated by limbs, 88 solar, 153–154 produced by, 112–113
and soil, 159 required to hover, 76–79 therapy, 266–267 required to stay afloat, 87–88 thermal, 122
unit and conversion, 286
Radioactive Precession, 260
isotopes, 257
Pregnancy, energy requirements, 149
tracers, 269
Presbyopia, 217
Radioactivity, 256–257 lens for, 229
Random thermal motion, 124, 140
Pressure
Random walk, 124–125
Bernoulli’s equation and, 101
Real image, 297
blood
Reduced eye, 220–222 arterial, 107–109
Reflection, 165–166
at capillaries, 107
total internal, 294, 295
Index
Refraction, 165–166
Siemen, 291
defined, 293
Silver, thermal conductivity of, 122
index of, 220
Simple harmonic motion, 48 refractive power of cornea, 219–220 walking in terms of, 50–51
Resilin, 79–80
Sinusoidal sound wave, 163–164, 171, 172
Resistance of air, 40–42
Skeletal muscle, 7–9
Resistivity, 290
contraction, 95–96
Resistor, 290–291
Skin
Resolution convection and, 151–153 eye, 223–225
emissivity of, 153 microscope, 231–232 evaporative cooling, 156–157
Resonant frequency, 167
frostbite, 157
Respiratory system oxygen diffusion through, 129
diffusion process, 129–132
radiative heating of, 153–154
surfactants and breathing, 132
temperature, 150–151
Retina, 215, 222–223
control, 151
cones and rods, 222, 223, 224, Snell’s law, 235
225–226
defined, 293–294 degeneration arrest, 253–254
Sodium image size on, 221–222, 223, ions, 184, 189 229–230 pump, 184
light intensity, control of, 207–208, 209
Soil
photographic film and, 217–218
loam vs. clay, 93
Reynold’s number, 104
moisture tension, 92–93
Righting reflex, 21
specific heat, 119
Rods and cones, 222, 223, 224, 225–226 temperature, 158–159 Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 249 water, 92–93
Rolling friction, 24
Solar radiation, 153–154
Root (plant), and pressure, 92
soil and, 159
Rotational motion, 30, 31
Somatosensory system, balance equations for, 278
maintenance, 21
Running
Sound, 162
broad jump, 39–40 acoustic traps, 176–177 center of mass motion in, 57–58 bell in a jar, 163 energy expended in, 54–56
clinical uses, 177
metabolic rate, 43
frequency, 163, 164, 172–173
on a curved track, 47–48 intensity, 163 speed, 53–54 and loudness, 173–175
Rupture strength, 63
logarithmic, 174
Rutherford, E., 239, 240
perception of, pitch, 172–173
Sensitivity produced by animals, 176
of ear, 169, 172, 174–175 properties, 162–165 logarithmic, 174
pure tone, 163–164
mechanical reasons for, 175
speed, 164
of eye, 226
wave, 162
Sensory aid, 211 wavelength (λ), 164
Sensory neuron, 181
Specific heat, 119, 284
Shannon, Claude, 143
Spectral line, 240
Shark, and electric field, 198
Spectrometer, 245
Shock, electric, 204–205
Spectroscopy, 244–245 stimulation of muscle with, 206
absorption, 245
Index Spectroscopy (cont.)
Sweating emission, 245
as negative feedback, 209
Spectrum, absorption, 243
cooling mechanisms, 155–156
Speed dehydration, 155
defined, 272
rate, 155
light, 293
Synapse, 193 running, 53–54 synaptic transmission, 193–194
sound, 164
Synovial fluid, 25, 27
walking, 52–53
Systems approach, 209–210
Spindle, 194
Systolic pressure, 107
Spontaneous emission, Spring, Squid, axon of, 183
Telescope, 230–231
Stability
Temperature, 117–118 equilibrium and, 2–3 body, regulation of, 149–151 human body, 4–7 critical, 156
Standing defined, 117 at an incline, 25–26 skin, 150–151 broad jump, 37–39
Terminal velocity, 41–42 tip-toe on one foot, 19, 20
Thermal conductivity, 120–121
Standing wave, 166–167
in human body, 150, 151
Static equilibrium, 2–3
Thermal motion, 117
defined, 282
random, 124, 140
Static force, 1–2
Thermal radiation, 122
Static friction, 23–24 emitted by soil, 158–159 coefficient, 25
Thermal velocity, 118
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 123
Thermodynamics, See also Heat Stenosis, 111, 112
defined, 135
Stethoscope, 111, 113, 177
first law, 135–136
electronic, 202
of living systems, 140–142
Stimulated emission, 252
second law, 137–138
Stirrup (middle ear), 169 information and, 143–144
Strength of material, 61
Thermophilic bacteria, 145 bone, 64–68 Thompson, J. J., 239
Stress
Threshold defined, 62
of hearing, 173, 174
stress cardiomyopathy, 109
of pain, 173, 174
Stretching of vision, 225–226 longitudinal, 61–62
Tissue spring, 62–64
light penetration, 232
Stroke, ischemic, 112
thermal conductivity, 122, 150
32Sulphur, 269
Tomography, computerized, 250–251, 257
Surface potential, 194–196
Torque, 279–280 recording of, 202–203 addition of force and, 281–282
Surface tension, 89–91
Torr, 83 insect locomotion on water and, Torricelli, Evangelista, 83 93–95, 99
Total internal reflection, 294, 295
muscle contraction and, 95–96
Tracer, isotopic, 268–269 soil water, 92–93
Transistor amplifier, 211
spherical liquid drops, 91–92
Translational motion, 30
Surfactants, 97–98 energy consumption, 42–43 breathing and, 132
for constant acceleration, 30–32
secreted by insects, 99
high jump, 36–37
Index long jump critical flow, 104
standing, 37–39
defined, 272
running, 39–40
terminal, 41–42
projectile range, 37
thermal, 118
through air, 40–42
Venule, 107
vertical jump, 32–35
Vertical jump
Transmutation of nucleus, 257 effect of gravity on, 35
Transport, of molecules, 126–127 height of, 32–35
Triceps, 7
Vespertilionidae bat, echo location, movement of, 11, 12
175–176
Turbulent fluid flow, 104–105
Vestibular system, balance maintenance, blood, 110–111
21
T wave, 203
Virtual image, 297
Tympanic membrane, 162, 168, 169–170, Viscosity, and Poiseuille’s law, 103–104
175
Viscous friction, 24, 103, Vision, 214–215 astigmatic, 227, 228, 229
Ultrasonic hyperopic, 227, 228, 229
diathermy, 178
image quality, 218–219
flow meter, 178
myopic, 227, 228, 229 waves, 177–178 nervous system and, 226–227
Ultrasound imaging, 177–178
presbyopic, 217, 229
Unit range, 229–230
calorie, 119
threshold of, 225–226
coulomb, 287
Vitreous humor, 216
diopter, 219
Vocal cord, 176
dyne, 285
Voltage, 289
farads, 291
and current sources, 292
henry, hertz, 163
Walking, 50 kilocalorie, 284 center of mass motion in, 56–57
mho, 291
on injured hip, 17
newton, 5
simple harmonic motion, 50–51
of energy, 286
speed, 52–53
of force, 285
Water of length, 285
content of food, 148
of mass, 285
density of, and floating, 87–88
of power, 286
elimination from body, 148
of pressure, 285
index of refraction, 220 pascal (Pa), 83 insect locomotion on, 93–95
poise, 103, 104
latent heat of vaporization, 155 radian, 276 mean free path of molecules in, 124
siemen, 291
osmosis, 129
torr, 83
sea, 89
Uranium, isotopes of, 257
soil, sound and, 166
Vein, 105
specific heat, 119
blood pressure in, 109 speed of sound in, 164
pulmonary, 105
surface tension, 89
Velocity viscosity, 104
angular, 276
Wave, See also Sound maximum, 54, 78–79
defined, 162
Index Wave (cont.)
heat converted into, 139–140 diffraction, 168 implication of second law of thermody fundamental and harmonic, 171, 172
namics, 138
interference, 166–167
muscular movement, 42
P, 203
Worm
reflection and refraction, 165–166 hydrostatic forces in moving, 84–86 standing, 166–167
movement of, 84
T, ultrasonic, 177–178
X-ray, 243, 249–250
wavelength, 164
computerized tomography, 250–251,
Weight, 274
257
loss, 155
of lungs, 250
Whiplash injury, Work Young’s modulus, 62
chemical energy and, 42
of resilin, 79–80 defined, 43, 282
rupture strength for materials and, 65 This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank
Document Outline
- 1 Static Forces
- 2 Friction
- 3 Translational Motion
- 4 Angular Motion
- 5 Elasticity and Strength of Materials
- 6 Insect Flight
- 7 Fluids
- 8 The Motion of Fluids
- 9 Heat and Kinetic Theory
- 10 Thermodynamics
- 11 Heat and Life
- 12 Waves and Sound
- 13 Electricity
- 14 Electrical Technology
- 15 Optics
- 16 Atomic Physics
- 17 Nuclear Physics
- Appendices, Bibliography, Answers to Exercises, Index
- 1.1 Equilibrium and Stability
- 1.2 Equilibrium Considerations for the Human Body
- 1.3 Stability of the Human Body under the Action of an External Force
- 1.4 Skeletal Muscles
- 1.5 Levers
- 1.6 The Elbow
- 1.7 The Hip
- 1.8 The Back
- 1.9 Standing Tip-Toe on One Foot
- 1.10 Dynamic Aspects of Posture
- Exercises
- 2.1 Standing at an Incline
- 2.2 Friction at the Hip Joint
- 2.3 Spine Fin of a Catfish
- Exercises
- 3.1 Vertical Jump
- 3.2 Effect of Gravity on the Vertical Jump
- 3.3 Running High Jump
- 3.4 Range of a Projectile
- 3.5 Standing Broad Jump
- 3.6 Running Broad Jump (Long Jump)
- 3.7 Motion through Air
- 3.8 Energy Consumed in Physical Activity
- Exercises
- 4.1 Forces on a Curved Path
- 4.2 A Runner on a Curved Track
- 4.3 Pendulum
- 4.4 Walking
- 4.5 Physical Pendulum
- 4.6 Speed of Walking and Running
- 4.7 Energy Expended in Running
- 4.8 Alternate Perspectives on Walking and Running
- 4.9 Carrying Loads
- Exercises
- 5.1 Longitudinal Stretch and Compression
- 5.2 A Spring
- 5.3 Bone Fracture: Energy Considerations
- 5.4 Impulsive Forces
- 5.5 Fracture Due to a Fall: Impulsive Force Considerations
- 5.6 Airbags: Inflating Collision Protection Devices
- 5.7 Whiplash Injury
- 5.8 Falling from Great Height
- 5.9 Osteoarthritis and Exercise
- Exercises
- 6.1 Hovering Flight
- 6.2 Insect Wing Muscles
- 6.3 Power Required for Hovering
- 6.4 Kinetic Energy of Wings in Flight
- 6.5 Elasticity of Wings
- Exercises
- 7.1 Force and Pressure in a Fluid
- 7.2 Pascal’s Principle
- 7.3 Hydrostatic Skeleton
- 7.4 Archimedes’ Principle
- 7.5 Power Required to Remain Afloat
- 7.6 Buoyancy of Fish
- 7.7 Surface Tension
- 7.8 Soil Water
- 7.9 Insect Locomotion on Water
- 7.10 Contraction of Muscles
- 7.11 Surfactants
- Exercises
- 8.1 Bernoulli’s Equation
- 8.2 Viscosity and Poiseuille’s Law
- 8.3 Turbulent Flow
- 8.4 Circulation of the Blood
- 8.5 Blood Pressure
- 8.6 Control of Blood Flow
- 8.7 Energetics of Blood Flow
- 8.8 Turbulence in the Blood
- 8.9 Arteriosclerosis and Blood Flow
- 8.10 Power Produced by the Heart
- 8.11 Measurement of Blood Pressure
- Exercises
- 9.1 Heat and Hotness
- 9.2 Kinetic Theory of Matter
- 9.3 Definitions
- 9.4 Transfer of Heat
- 9.5 Transport of Molecules by Diffusion
- 9.6 Diffusion through Membranes
- 9.7 The Respiratory System
- 9.8 Surfactants and Breathing
- 9.9 Diffusion and Contact Lenses
- Exercises
- 10.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
- 10.2 Second Law of Thermodynamics
- 10.3 Difference between Heat and Other Forms of Energy
- 10.4 Thermodynamics of Living Systems
- 10.5 Information and the Second Law
- Exercises
- 11.1 Energy Requirements of People
- 11.2 Energy from Food
- 11.3 Regulation of Body Temperature
- 11.4 Control of Skin Temperature
- 11.5 Convection
- 11.6 Radiation
- 11.7 Radiative Heating by the Sun
- 11.8 Evaporation
- 11.9 Resistance to Cold
- 11.10 Heat and Soil
- Exercises
- 12.1 Properties of Sound
- 12.2 Some Properties of Waves
- 12.3 Hearing and the Ear
- 12.4 Bats and Echoes
- 12.5 Sounds Produced by Animals
- 12.6 Acoustic Traps
- 12.7 Clinical Uses of Sound
- 12.8 Ultrasonic Waves
- Exercises
- 13.1 The Nervous System
- 13.2 Electricity in Plants
- 13.3 Electricity in the Bone
- 13.4 Electric Fish
- Exercises
- 14.1 Electrical Technology in Biological Research
- 14.2 Diagnostic Equipment
- 14.3 Physiological Effects of Electricity
- 14.4 Control Systems
- 14.5 Feedback
- 14.6 Sensory Aids
- Exercises
- 15.1 Vision
- 15.2 Nature of Light
- 15.3 Structure of the Eye
- 15.4 Accommodation
- 15.5 Eye and the Camera
- 15.6 Lens System of the Eye
- 15.7 Reduced Eye
- 15.8 Retina
- 15.9 Resolving Power of the Eye
- 15.10 Threshold of Vision
- 15.11 Vision and the Nervous System
- 15.12 Defects in Vision
- 15.13 Lens for Myopia
- 15.14 Lens for Presbyopia and Hyperopia
- 15.15 Extension of Vision
- Exercises
- 16.1 The Atom
- 16.2 Spectroscopy
- 16.3 Quantum Mechanics
- 16.4 Electron Microscope
- 16.5 X-rays
- 16.6 X-ray Computerized Tomography
- 16.7 Lasers
- Exercises
- 17.1 The Nucleus
- 17.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- 17.3 Radiation Therapy
- 17.4 Food Preservation by Radiation
- 17.5 Isotopic Tracers
- 17.6 Laws of Physics and Life
- Exercises
- A.1 Speed and Velocity
- A.2 Acceleration
- A.3 Force
- A.4 Pressure
- A.5 Mass
- A.6 Weight
- A.7 Linear Momentum
- A.8 Newton’s Laws of Motion
- A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum
- A.10 Radian
- A.11 Angular Velocity
- A.12 Angular Acceleration
- A.13 Relations between Angular and Linear Motion
- A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum
- A.15 Centripetal Acceleration
- A.16 Moment of Inertia
- A.17 Torque
- A.18 Newton’s Laws of Angular Motion
- A.19 Angular Momentum
- A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques
- A.21 Static Equilibrium
- A.22 Work
- A.23 Energy
- A.24 Forms of Energy
- A.25 Power
- A.26 Units and Conversions
- B.1 Electric Charge
- B.2 Electric Field
- B.3 Potential Difference or Voltage
- B.4 Electric Current
- B.5 Electric Circuits
- B.6 Voltage and Current Sources
- B.7 Electricity and Magnetism
- C.1 Geometric Optics
- C.2 Converging Lenses
- C.3 Images of Extended Objects
- C.4 Diverging Lenses
- C.5 Lens Immersed in a Material Medium
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E
- F
- G
- H
- I
- J
- K
- L
- M
- N
- O
- P
- Q
- R
- S
- T
- U
- V
- W
- X,Y
Food Preservation by Radiation 267
Unfortunately some damage to healthy tissue is unavoidable. As a result, this treatment is often accompanied by the symptoms of radiation sickness (diarrhea, nausea, loss of hair, loss of appetite, and so on). If long-lived isotopes are used in the therapy, the material must be removed after a prescribed period.
Short-lived isotopes, such as gold 198 with a half-life of about 3 days, decay quickly enough so that they do not need to be removed after treatment.
Certain elements introduced into the body by injection or by mouth tend to concentrate in specific organs. This phenomenon is used to advantage in radiation therapy. The radioactive isotope phosphorus 32 (half-life, 14.3 days) mentioned earlier accumulates in the bone marrow. Iodine 131 (half-life, 8 days) accumulates in the thyroid and is given for the treatment of hyperthyroidism.
An externally applied beam of gamma rays or X-rays can also be used to destroy cancerous tumors. The advantage here is that the treatment is administered without surgery. The effect of radiation on the healthy tissue can be reduced by frequently altering the direction of the beam passing through the body. The tumor is always in the path of the beam, but the dosage received by a given section of healthy tissue is reduced.
17.4
Food Preservation by Radiation
Without some attempt at preservation, all foods decay rather quickly. Within days and often within hours, many foods spoil to a point where they become inedible. The decay is usually caused by microorganisms and enzymes that decompose the organic molecules of the food.
Over the years, a number of techniques have been developed to retard spoilage. Keeping the food in a cold environment reduces the rate of activity for both the enzymes and the microorganisms. Dehydration of food achieves the same goal. Heating the food for a certain period of time destroys many microorganisms and again retards decay. This is the principle of pasteurization. These methods of retarding spoilage are all at least 100 years old. There is now a new technique of preserving food by irradiation.
High-energy radiation passing through the food destroys microorganisms that cause decay. Radiation is also effective in destroying small insects that attack stored foods. This is especially important for wheat and other grains which at present are often fumigated before shipping or storage. Chemical fumigation kills the insects but not their eggs. When the eggs hatch, the new insects may destroy a considerable fraction of the grain. Radiation kills both the insects and the eggs.
Gamma rays are used most frequently in food preservation. They have a great penetrating power and are produced by relatively inexpensive isotopes Chapter 17 Nuclear Physics such as cobalt 60 and cesium 137.
High-speed electrons produced by accelerators have also been used to sterilize food. Electrons do not have the penetrating power of gamma rays, but they can be aimed better and can be turned off when not in use.
In the United States and in many other countries, there are now a num ber of facilities for irradiating food. In the usual arrangement, the food on a conveyor passes by the radioactive source, where it receives a controlled dose of radiation. The source must be carefully shielded to protect the operator.
This problem is relatively simple to solve, and at present the technical problems seem to be well in hand. One plant for irradiating food, in Gloucester, Massachusetts, initially built by the Atomic Energy Commission, has been operating successfully since 1964. It can process 1000 lb of fish per hour.
There is no doubt that irradiation retards spoilage of food. Irradiated straw berries, for example, remain fresh for about 15 days after they have been picked whereas strawberries that have not been treated begin to decay after about 10 days. Irradiated unfrozen fish also lasts a week or two longer. Tests have shown that the taste, nutritional value, and appearance of the food remain acceptable. The important question is the safety of the procedure. Irradiation at the levels used in the treatment does not make the food radioactive. There is, however, the possibility that the changes induced by radiation may make the food harmful. Over the past three decades, there have been many test programs both with animals and with human volunteers to ascertain the safety of food irradiation. At this point, the technique has been judged safe and is in commercial use (see Exercise 10-3).
17.5
Isotopic Tracers
Most elements have isotopes differing from each other by the number of neutrons in their nuclei. The isotopes of a given element are chemically identical—that is, they participate in the same chemical reactions—but they can be distinguished from each other because their nuclei are different. One difference is, of course, in their mass. This property alone can be used to separate one isotope from another. A mass spectrometer is one of the devices that can perform this task. Another way to distinguish isotopes is by their radioactivity. Many elements have isotopes that are radioactive. These isotopes are easily identified by their activity. In either case, isotopes can be used to trace the various steps in chemical reactions and in metabolic processes. Tracer techniques have been useful also in the clinical diagnoses of certain disorders.
Basically the technique consists of introducing a rare isotope into the pro cess and then following the course of the isotope with appropriate detection techniques. We will illustrate this technique with a few examples. Nitrogen is one of the atoms in the amino acids that compose the protein molecules.
In nature, nitrogen is composed primarily of the isotope 14N. Only 0.36% of natural nitrogen is in the form of the nonradioactive isotope 15N. Ordinarily the amino acids reflect the natural composition of nitrogen.
It is possible to synthesize amino acids in a laboratory. If the synthesis is done with pure 15N, the amino acids are distinctly marked. The amino acid glycine produced in this way is introduced into the body of a subject where it is incorporated into the hemoglobin of the blood. Periodic sampling of the blood measures the number of blood cells containing the originally introduced glycine. Such experiments have shown that the average lifetime of a red blood cell is about four months.
Radioactive isotopes can be traced more easily and in smaller quanti ties than the isotopes that are not radioactive. Therefore, in reactions with elements that have radioactive isotopes, radioactive tracer techniques are preferred. Since the 1950s, when radioactive isotopes first became widely available, hundreds of important experiments have been conducted in this field.
An example of this technique is the use of radioactive phosphorus in the study of nucleic acids. The element phosphorus is an important component of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. Naturally occurring phosphorus is all in the form 31P, and, of course, this is the isotope normally found in the nucleic acids. However, as discussed earlier, by bombarding sulphur 32 with neutrons, it is possible to produce the radioactive phosphorus 32P which has a half-life of 14.3 days. If the 32P isotope is introduced into the cell, the nucleic acids synthesized in the cell incorporate this isotope into their structure. The nucleic acids are then removed from the cell and their radioactivity is measured. From these measurements it is possible to calculate the rate at which nucleic acids are manufactured by the cell. These measurements, among others, provided evidence for the roles of DNA and RNA in cell functions.
Radioactive tracers have been useful also in clinical measurements. In one technique, the radioactive isotope of chromium is used to detect internal hemorrhage. This isotope is taken up by the blood cells, which then become radioactive. The radioactivity is, of course, kept well below the danger level.
If the circulation is normal, the radioactivity is distributed uniformly throughout the body. A pronounced increase in radioactivity in some region indicates a hemorrhage at that point.
17.6
Laws of Physics and Life
We have discussed in this book many phenomena in the life sciences that are clearly explained by the theories of physics. Now we come to the most fundamental question: Can physics explain life itself? In other words, if we Chapter 17 Nuclear Physics put together the necessary combination of atoms, at each step following the known laws of physics, do we inevitably end up with a living organism, or must we invoke some new principles outside the realm of current physics in order to explain the occurrence of life? This is a very old question which still cannot be answered with certainty. But it can be clarified.
Quantum mechanics, which is the fundamental theory of modern atomic physics, has been very successful in describing the properties of atoms and the interaction of atoms with each other. Starting with a single proton and one electron, the theory shows that their interaction leads to the hydrogen atom with its unique configuration and properties. The quantum mechanical calculations for larger atoms are more complicated. In fact, so far a complete calculation has been performed only for the hydrogen atom. The properties of heavier atoms must be computed using various approximation techniques.
Yet there is little doubt that quantum mechanics describes all the properties of atoms from the lightest to the heaviest. The experimental evidence gathered over the past 100 years fully confirms this view.
The interactions between atoms, which result in the formation of molecules, are likewise in the domain of quantum mechanics. Here again exact solutions of the quantum mechanical equations have been obtained only for the simplest molecule, H2. Still it is evident that all the rules for both organic and inorganic chemistry follow from the principles of quantum mechanics. Even though our present numerical techniques cannot cope with the enormous calculations required to predict the exact configuration of a complex molecule, the concepts developed in physics and chemistry are applicable. The strengths of the interatomic bonds and the orientations of the atoms within the molecules are all in accord with the theory. This is true even for the largest organic molecules such as the proteins and DNA.
Past this point, however, we encounter a new level of organization: the cell.
The organic molecules, which are in themselves highly complex, combine to form cells, which in turn are combined to form larger living organisms, which possess all the amazing properties of life. These organisms take nourishment from the environment, grow, reproduce, and at some level begin to govern their own actions. Here it is no longer obvious that the theories governing the interaction of atoms lead directly to these functions that characterize life. We are now in the realm of speculations.
The phenomena associated with life show such remarkable organization and planning that we may be tempted to suggest that perhaps some new undiscovered law governs the behavior of organic molecules that come together to form life. Yet there is no evidence for any special laws operating within living systems. So far, on all levels of examination, the observed phenomena associated with life obey the well-known laws of physics. This does not mean that the existence of life follows from the basic principles of physics, but it may. In fact the large organic molecules inside cells are sufficiently complex to contain within their structures the information necessary to guide in a predetermined way the activities associated with life. Some of these codes contained in the specific groupings of atoms within the molecules have now been unraveled.
Because of these specific structures, a given molecule always participates in a well-defined activity within the cell. It is very likely that all the complex functions of cells and of cell aggregates are simply the collective result of the enormously large number of predetermined but basically well-understood chemical reactions.
This still leaves the most important question unanswered: What are the forces and the principles that initially cause the atoms to assemble into coded molecules which then ultimately lead to life. The answer here is probably again within the scope of our existing theories of matter.
In 1951, S. L. Miller simulated in his laboratory the type of conditions that may have existed perhaps 3.5 billion years ago in the atmosphere of the primordial Earth. He circulated a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen through an electric discharge. The discharge simulated the energy sources that were then available from the sun, lightning, and radioactivity. After about one week Miller found that the chemical activities in the mixture produced organic molecules including some of the simple amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Since then, hundreds of other organic molecules have been synthesized under similar conditions. Many of them resemble the components of the important large molecules found in cells. It is thus plausible that in the primordial oceans, rich in organic molecules produced by the prevailing chemical reactions, life began. A number of smaller organic molecules combined accidentally to form a large self-replicating molecule such as DNA. These, in turn, combined into organized aggregates and finally into living cells.
Although the probability for the spontaneous occurrence of such events is small, the time span of evolution is probably long enough to make this scenario plausible. If that is indeed the case, the current laws of physics can explain all of life. At the present state of knowledge about life processes, the completeness of the descriptions provided by physics cannot be proved. The principles of physics have certainly explained many phenomena, but mysteries remain. At present, however, there seems to be no need to invoke any new laws.
EXERCISES
17-1. Describe the basic principles of magnetic resonance imaging.
17-2. What is your (considered) opinion of food preservation by radiation?
17-3. Through a literature search describe the most recent use of fMRI.
17-4. Discuss some of the most notable attributes of living systems that dis tinguish them from inanimate ones.
In this section, we will define some of the fundamental concepts in mechanics.
We assume that the reader is familiar with these concepts and that here a simple summary will be sufficient. A detailed discussion can be found in basic physics texts, some of which are listed in the Bibliography.
A.1
Speed and Velocity
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position with respect to time. Both magnitude and direction are necessary to specify velocity. Velocity is, therefore, a vector quantity. The magnitude of the velocity is called speed. In the special case when the velocity of an object is constant, the distance s traversed in time t is given by s vt
(A.1)
In this case, velocity can be expressed as v s
(A.2)
t
If the velocity changes along the path, the expression s/t yields the average velocity.
272
Section A.2 Acceleration A.2
Acceleration
If the velocity of an object along its path changes from point to point, its motion is said to be accelerated (or decelerated). Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity with respect to time. In the special case of uniform acceleration, the final velocity v of an object that has been accelerated for a time t is v v0 + at
(A.3)
Here v0 is the initial velocity of the object, and a is the acceleration.1 Acceleration can, therefore, be expressed as a v − v0
(A.4)
t
In the case of uniform acceleration, a number of useful relations can be simply derived. The average velocity during the interval t is vav v + v0
(A.5)
2
The distance traversed during this time is s vavt
(A.6)
Using Eqs. A.4 and A.5, we obtain s v0t + at 2
(A.7)
2
By substituting t (v − v0)/a (from Eq. A.4) into Eq. A.7, we obtain v2 v2 + 2as
(A.8)
0
1Both velocity and acceleration may vary along the path. In general, velocity is defined as the time derivative of the distance along the path of the object; that is,
s
v lim
ds
dt
t → 0
t
Acceleration is defined as the time derivative of the velocity along the path; that is, ds a dv d
d2s
dt
dt
dt dt 2 Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics
A.3
Force
Force is a push or a pull exerted on a body which tends to change the state of motion of the body.
A.4
Pressure
Pressure is the force applied to a unit area.
A.5
Mass
We have stated that a force applied to a body tends to change its state of motion. All bodies have the property of resisting change in their motion. Mass
is a quantitative measure of inertia or the resistance to a change in motion.
A.6
Weight
Every mass exerts an attractive force on every other mass; this attraction is called the gravitational force. The weight of a body is the force exerted on the body by the mass of the Earth. The weight of a body is directly proportional to its mass. Weight being a force is a vector, and it points vertically down in the direction of a suspended plumb line.
Mass and weight are related but distinct properties of an object. If a body were isolated from all other bodies, it would have no weight, but it would still have mass.
A.7 Linear Momentum
Linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity; that is,
Linear momentum mv
(A.9)
A.8 Newton’s Laws of Motion The foundations of mechanics are Newton’s three laws of motion. The laws are based on observation, and they cannot be derived from more basic principles. These laws can be stated as follows:
First Law: A body remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted on by an applied force.
Section A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum Second Law: The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a body is equal to the force F applied to it.
Except at very high velocities, where relativistic effects must be considered, the second law can be expressed mathematically in terms of the mass m and acceleration a of the object as2
F ma
(A.10)
This is one of the most commonly used equations in mechanics. It shows that if the applied force and the mass of the object are known, the acceleration can be calculated. When the acceleration is known, the velocity of the object and the distance traveled can be computed from the previously given equations.
The Earth’s gravitational force, like all other forces, causes an acceleration. By observing the motion of freely falling bodies, this acceleration has been measured. Near the surface of the Earth, it is approximately 9.8 m/sec2. Because gravitational acceleration is frequently used in computations, it has been given a special symbol g. Therefore, the gravitational force on an object with mass m is
Fgravity mg
(A.11)
This is, of course, also the weight of the object.
Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This law implies that when two bodies A and B interact so that A exerts a force on B, a force of the same magnitude but opposite in direction is exerted by B on A. A number of illustrations of the third law are given in the text.
A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum It follows from Newton’s laws that the total linear momentum of a system of objects remains unchanged unless acted on by an outside force.
2The second law can be expressed mathematically in terms of the time derivative of momentum: that is, mv(t + t) − mv(t) dv
Force
d (mv) m ma t → 0 t
dt
dt
Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics FIGURE A.1 The radian.
A.10
Radian
In the analysis of rotational motion, it is convenient to measure angles in a unit called a radian. With reference to Fig. A.1, the angle in radian units is defined as θ s
(A.12)
r where s is the length of the circular arc and r is the radius of rotation. In a full circle, the arc length is the circumference 2πr. Therefore in radian units the angle in a full circle is θ 2πr 2π rad
r
Hence, 1 rad 360◦ 57.3◦
2π A.11 Angular Velocity
The angular velocity ω is the angular displacement per unit time; that is, if a body rotates through an angle θ (in radians) in a time t, the angular velocity is ω θ (rad/sec)
(A.13)
t
Section A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum A.12 Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration α is the time rate of change of angular velocity. If the initial angular velocity is ω0 and the final angular velocity after a time t is ωf, the angular acceleration is3
ωf − ω0
α
(A.14)
t
A.13 Relations between Angular and Linear Motion
As an object rotates about an axis, each point in the object travels along the circumference of a circle; therefore, each point is also in linear motion. The linear distance s traversed in angular motion is s rθ
The linear velocity v of a point that is rotating at an angular velocity ω a distance r from the center of rotation is v rω
(A.15)
The direction of the vector v is at all points tangential to the path s. The linear acceleration along the path s is a rα
(A.16)
A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum
The equations for angular motion are analogous to the equations for translational motion. For a body moving with a constant angular acceleration α and initial angular velocity ω0, the relationships are shown in Table A.1.
3Both angular velocity and angular acceleration may vary along the path. In general, the instantaneous angular velocity and acceleration are defined as ω dθ ; α dω d 2θ dt
dt dt 2 Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics TABLE A.1 Equations for α constant) ω ω +
0
αt
θ
ω0t + 1αt2
2
ω2 ω2 + 2αθ
0
+ ω)
ω
(ω0
av
2
A.15 Centripetal Acceleration
As an object rotates uniformly around an axis, the magnitude of the linear velocity remains constant, but the direction of the linear velocity is continuously changing. The change in velocity always points toward the center of rotation. Therefore, a rotating body is accelerated toward the center of rotation. This acceleration is called centripetal (center-seeking) acceleration.
The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is given by ac v2 ω2r
(A.17)
r where r is the radius of rotation and v is the speed tangential to the path of rotation. Because the body is accelerated toward its center of rotation, we conclude from Newton’s second law that a force pointing toward the center of rotation must act on the body. This force, called the centripetal force Fc, is given by Fc mac mv2 mω2r
(A.18)
r where m is the mass of the rotating body.
For a body to move along a curved path, a centripetal force must be applied to it. In the absence of such a force, the body moves in a straight line, as required by Newton’s first law. Consider, for example, an object twirled at the end of a rope. The centripetal force is applied by the rope on the object.
From Newton’s third law, an equal but opposite reaction force is applied on the rope by the object. The reaction to the centripetal force is called the centrifugal force. This force is in the direction away from the center of rotation.
The centripetal force, which is required to keep the body in rotation, always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion and, therefore, does no work Section A.17 Torque TABLE A.2 Moments of Inertia of Some Simple Bodies
Body
Location of axis
Moment of inertia
A thin rod of length l Through the center
ml2/12
A thin rod of length l Through one end
ml2/3
Sphere of radius r
Along a diameter
2mr2/5
Cylinder of radius r
Along axis of symmetry mr2/2 (see Eq. A.28). In the absence of friction, energy is not required to keep a body rotating at a constant angular velocity.
A.16
Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia in angular motion is analogous to mass in translational motion. The moment of inertia I of an element of mass m located a distance from the center of rotation is
I mr 2
(A.19)
In general, when an object is in angular motion, the mass elements in the body are located at different distances from the center of rotation. The total moment of inertia is the sum of the moments of inertia of the mass elements in the body.
Unlike mass, which is a constant for a given body, the moment of inertia depends on the location of the center of rotation. In general, the moment of inertia is calculated by using integral calculus. The moments of inertia for a few objects useful for our calculations are shown in Table A.2.
A.17
Torque
Torque is defined as the tendency of a force to produce rotation about an axis.
Torque, which is usually designated by the letter L, is given by the product of the perpendicular force and the distance d from the point of application to the axis of rotation; that is (see Fig. A.2), L F cos θ × d
(A.20)
The distance d is called the lever arm or moment arm.
Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics FIGURE A.2 Torque produced by a force.
A.18 Newton’s Laws of Angular Motion
The laws governing angular motion are analogous to the laws of translational motion. Torque is analogous to force, and the moment of inertia is analogous to mass.
First Law: A body in rotation will continue its rotation with a constant angu lar velocity unless acted upon by an external torque.
Second Law: The mathematical expression of the second law in angular motion is analogous to Eq. A.10. It states that the torque is equal to the product of the moment of inertia and the angular acceleration; that is, L Iα (A.21) Third Law: For every torque, there is an equal and opposite reaction torque.
A.19 Angular Momentum
Angular momentum is defined as Angular momentum Iω
(A.22)
From Newton’s laws, it can be shown that angular momentum of a body is conserved if there is no unbalanced external torque acting on the body.
Section A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques FIGURE A.3 The resolution of a force into its vertical and horizontal components.
A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques
Any number of forces and torques can be applied simultaneously to a given object. Because forces and torques are vectors, characterized by both a magnitude and a direction, their net effect on a body is obtained by vectorial addition.
When it is required to obtain the total force acting on a body, it is often convenient to break up each force into mutually perpendicular components. This is illustrated for the two-dimensional case in Fig. A.3. Here we have chosen the horizontal x- and the vertical y-directions as the mutually perpendicular axes. In a more general three-dimensional case, a third axis is required for the analysis.
The two perpendicular components of the force F are Fx F cos θ
(A.23)
Fy F sin θ
The magnitude of the force F is given by
F F 2 x + F 2
y
(A.24)
When adding a number of forces (F1, F2, F3, . . .) the mutually perpendic ular components of the total force FT are obtained by adding the corresponding Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics components of each force; that is, (FT)x (F1)x + (F2)x + (F3)x + · · ·
(A.25)
(FT)y (F1)y + (F2)y + (F3)y + · · ·
The magnitude of the total force is FT (FT)2x + (FT)2y
(A.26)
The torque produced by a force acts to produce a rotation in either a clockwise or a counterclockwise direction. If we designate one direction of rotation as positive and the other as negative, the total torque acting on a body is obtained by the addition of the individual torques each with the appropriate sign.
A.21 Static Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium if both its linear and angular acceleration are zero. To satisfy this condition, the sum of the forces F acting on the body, as well as the sum of the torques L produced by these forces must be zero; that is,
P
P
F 0 and
L 0
(A.27)
A.22
Work
In our everyday language, the word work denotes any types of effort whether physical or mental. In physics, a more rigorous definition is required. Here work is defined as the product of force and the distance through which the force acts.
Only the force parallel to the direction of motion does work on the object. This is illustrated in Fig. A.4. A force F applied at an angle θ pulls the object along the surface through a distance D. The work done by the force is Work F cos θ × D (A.28)
A.23 Energy Energy is an important concept. We find reference to energy in connection with widely different phenomena. We speak of atomic energy, heat energy, potential energy, solar energy, chemical energy, kinetic energy; we even speak
Section A.24 Forms of Energy FIGURE A.4 Work done by a force.
of people as being full of energy. The common factor that ties together these manifestations is the possibility of obtaining work from these sources. The connection between energy and work is simple: Energy is required to do work. Energy is measured in the same units as work; in fact, there is a oneto-one correspondence between them. It takes 2 J of energy to do 2 J of work.
In all physical processes, energy is conserved. Through work, one form of energy can be converted into another, but the total amount of energy remains unchanged.
A.24 Forms of Energy A.24.1 Kinetic Energy
Objects in motion can do work by virtue of their motion. For example, when a moving object hits a stationary object, the stationary object is accelerated.
This implies that the moving object applied a force on the stationary object and performed work on it. The kinetic energy (KE) of a body with mass moving with a velocity v is KE 1 mv2
(A.29)
2
In rotational motion, the kinetic energy is KE 1 Iω2
(A.30)
2
A.24.2 Potential Energy
Potential energy of a body is the ability of the body to do work because of its position or configuration. A body of weight W raised to a height H with respect Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics to a surface has a potential energy (PE) PE WH
(A.31)
This is the amount of work that had to be performed to raise the body to height H. The same amount of energy can be retrieved by lowering the body back to the surface.
A stretched or compressed spring possesses potential energy. The force required to stretch or compress a spring is directly proportional to the length of the stretch or compression (s); that is, F ks
(A.32)
Here k is the spring constant. The potential energy stored in the stretched or compressed spring is PE 1 ks2
(A.33)
2
A.24.3 Heat
Heat is a form of energy, and as such it can be converted to work and other forms of energy. Heat, however, is not equal in rank with other forms of energy. While work and other forms of energy can be completely converted to heat, heat energy can only be converted partially to other forms of energy.
This property of heat has far-reaching consequences which are discussed in Chapter 10.
Heat is measured in calorie units. One calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C◦. The heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree is called the specific heat. One calorie is equal to 4.184 J.
A heat unit frequently used in chemistry and in food technology is the kilocalorie or Cal which is equal to 1000 cal.
A.25
Power
The amount of work done—or energy expended—per unit time is called power. The algebraic expression for power is P E (A.34) t
where E is the energy expended in a time interval t.
Section A.26 Units and Conversions A.26
Units and Conversions
In our calculations we will mostly use SI units in which the basic units for length, mass, and time are meter, kilogram, and second. However, other units are also encountered in the text. Units and conversion factors for the most commonly encountered quantities are listed here with their abbreviations.
A.26.1 Length SI unit: meter (m) Conversions: 1 m 100 cm (centimeter) 1000 mm (millimeter) 1000 m 1 km 1 m 3.28 feet 39.37 in 1 km 0.621 mile 1 in 2.54 cm
In addition, the micron and the angstrom are used frequently in physics and biology.
1 micron (μm) 10−6 m 10−4 cm 1 angstrom ( ˚ A)∗ 10−8 cm A.26.2 Mass SI unit: kilogram (kg) Conversions: 1 kg 1000 g
The weight of a 1-kg mass is 9.8 newton (N).
A.26.3 Force SI Unit: kg m s−2, name of unit: newton (N) Conversions: 1 N 105 dynes (dyn) 0.225 lbs A.26.4 Pressure SI unit: kg m−1 s−2, name of unit: pascal (Pa) Conversions: 1 Pa 10−1 dynes/cm2 9.87 × 10−6 atmosphere (atm) 1.45 × 10−4 lb/in2 1 atm 1.01 × 105 Pa 760 mmHg (torr) Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics A.26.5 Energy SI unit: kg m−2 s−2, name of unit: joule (J) Conversion: 1 J 1 N-m 107 ergs 0.239 cal 0.738 ft-lb A.26.6 Power SI unit: J s−1, name of unit: watt (W) Conversion: 1 W 107 ergs/sec 1.34 × 10−3 horsepower (hp)
B.1 Electric Charge
Matter is composed of atoms. An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus itself is composed of protons and neutrons. Electric charge is a property of protons and electrons. There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative. The proton is positively charged, and the electron is negatively charged. All electrical phenomena are due to these electric charges.
Charges exert forces on each other. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel each other. The electrons are held around the nucleus by the electrical attraction of the protons. Although the proton is about 2000 times heavier than the electron, the magnitude of the charge on the two is the same. There are as many positively charged protons in an atom as negatively charged electrons.
The atom as a whole is, therefore, electrically neutral. The identity of an atom is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. Thus, for example, hydrogen has 1 proton; nitrogen has 7 protons; and gold has 79 protons.
It is possible to remove electrons from an atom, making it positively charged.
Such an atom with missing electrons is called a positive ion. It is also possible to add an electron to an atom which makes it a negative ion.
Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C). The magnitude of the charge on the proton and the electron is 1.60 × 10−19 C. The force F between two charged bodies is proportional to the product of their charges Q1 and Q2 and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them; that is, F KQ1Q2 (B.1)
R2
287
Appendix B Review of Electricity
This equation is known as Coulomb’s law. If R is measured in meters, the constant K is 9 × 109, and F is obtained in newtons.
B.2 Electric Field
An electric charge exerts a force on another electric charge; a mass exerts a force on another mass; and a magnet exerts a force on another magnet. All these forces have an important common characteristic: Exertion of the force does not require physical contact between the interacting bodies. The forces act at a distance. The concept of lines of force or field lines is useful in visualizing these forces which act at a distance.
Any object that exerts a force on another object without contact can be thought of as having lines of force emanating from it. The complete line configuration is called a force field. The lines point in the direction of the force, and their density at any point in space is proportional to the magnitude of the force at that point.
The lines of force emanate from an electric charge uniformly in all direc tions. By convention, the lines point in the direction of the force that the source charge exerts on a positive charge. Thus, the lines of force point away from a positive source charge and into a negative source charge (see Fig. B.1). The number of lines emanating from the charge is proportional to the magnitude of the electric charge. If the size of the source charge is doubled, the number of force lines is also doubled.
Lines of force need not be straight lines; as we mentioned, they point in the direction in which the force is exerted. As an example, we can consider the FIGURE B.1 Two-dimensional representation of the electric field produced by a positive point charge (a) and a negative point charge (b).
Section B.4 Electric Current FIGURE B.2 Lines of force produced by a positive and a negative charge separated by a distance d.
net field due to two charges separated by a distance d. To determine this field we must compute the direction and size of the net force on a positive charge at all points in space. This is done by adding vectorially the force lines due to each charge. The force field due to a positive and negative charge of equal magnitude separated by a distance d from each other is shown in Fig. B.2.
Here the lines of force are curved. This is, of course, the direction of the net force on a positive charge in the region surrounding the two fixed charges.
The field shown in Fig. B.2 is called a dipole field, and it is similar to the field produced by a bar magnet.
B.3 Potential Difference or Voltage
The electric field is measured in units of volt per meter (or volt per centimeter).
The product of the electric field and the distance over which the field extends is an important parameter which is called potential difference or voltage. The voltage (V ) between two points is a measure of energy transfer as the charge moves between the two points. Potential difference is measured in volts. If there is a potential difference between two points, a force is exerted on a charge placed in the region between these points. If the charge is positive, the force tends to move it away from the positive point and toward the negative point.
B.4 Electric Current
An electric current is produced by a motion of charges. The magnitude of the current depends on the amount of charge flowing past a given point in a given period of time. Current is measured in amperes (A). One ampere is 1 coulomb (C) of charge flowing past a point in 1 second (sec).
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5 Electric Circuits
The amount of current flowing between two points in a material is proportional to the potential difference between the two points and to the electrical properties of the material. The electrical properties are usually represented by three parameters: resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Resistance measures the opposition to current flow. This parameter depends on the property of the material called resistivity, and it is analogous to friction in mechanical motion. Capacitance measures the ability of the material to store electric charges. Inductance measures the opposition in the material to changes in current flow. All materials exhibit to some extent all three of these properties; often, however, one of these properties is predominant. It is possible to manufacture components with specific values of resistance, capacitance, or inductance. These are called, respectively, resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The schematic symbols for these three electrical components are shown in Fig. B.3. Electrical components can be connected together to form an electric circuit. Currents can be controlled by the appropriate choice of components and interconnections in the circuit. An example of an electric circuit is shown in Fig. B.4. Various techniques have been developed to analyze such circuits and to calculate voltages and currents at all the points in the circuit.
B.5.1 Resistor
The resistor is a circuit component that opposes current flow. Resistance (R) is measured in units of ohm (). The relation between current (I ) and FIGURE B.3 Circuit components.
FIGURE B.4 Example of an electric circuit.
Section B.5 Electric Circuits voltage (V ) is given by Ohm’s law, which is
V IR
(B.2)
Materials that present a very small resistance to current flow are called conductors. Materials with a very large resistance are called insulators. A flow of current through a resistor is always accompanied by power dissipation as electrical energy is converted to heat. The power (P) dissipated in a resistor is given by P I2R
(B.3)
The inverse of resistance is called conductance, which is usually designated by the symbol G. Conductance is measured in units of mho, also called Siemens.
The relationship between conductance and resistance is
G 1
(B.4)
R B.5.2 Capacitor
The capacitor is a circuit element that stores electric charges. In its simplest form it consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (see Fig. B.5). Capacitance (C) is measured in farads. The relation between the stored charge (Q), and the voltage across the capacitor is given by Q CV
(B.5)
In a charged capacitor, positive charges are on one side of the plate, and negative charges are on the other. The amount of energy (E) stored in such a configuration is given by E 1 CV 2
(B.6)
2
FIGURE B.5 A simple capacitor.
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5.3 Inductor
The inductor is a device that opposes a change in the current flowing through it. Inductance is measured in units called henry.
B.6 Voltage and Current Sources
Voltages and currents can be produced by various batteries and generators.
Batteries are based on chemical reactions that result in a separation of positive and negative charges within a material. Generators produce a voltage by the motion of conductors in magnetic fields. The circuit symbols for these sources are shown in Fig. B.6.
B.7
Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity and magnetism are related phenomena. A changing electric field always produces a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field always produces an electric field. All electromagnetic phenomena can be traced to this basic interrelationship. A few of the consequences of this interaction follow:
1. An electric current always produces a magnetic field at a direction perpendicular to the current flow.
2. A current is induced in a conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field.
3. An oscillating electric charge emits electromagnetic waves at the frequency of oscillation. This radiation propagates away from the source at the speed of light. Radio waves, light, and X-rays are examples of electromagnetic radiation.
FIGURE B.6 Circuit symbols for a battery and a generator.
Review of Optics C.1 Geometric Optics
The characteristics of optical components, such as mirrors and lenses, can be completely derived from the wave properties of light. Such detailed calculations, however, are usually rather complex because one has to keep track of the wave front along every point on the optical component. It is possible to simplify the problem if the optical components are much larger than the wavelength of light. The simplification entails neglecting some of the wave properties of light and considering light as a ray traveling perpendicular to the wave front (Fig. C.1). In a homogeneous medium, the ray of light travels in a straight line; it alters direction only at the interface between two media. This simplified approach is called geometric optics.
The speed of light depends on the medium in which it propagates. In vacuum, light travels at a speed of 3 × 108 m/sec. In a material medium, the speed of light is always less. The speed of light in a material is characterized by the index of refraction (n) defined as n c
(C.1)
v where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed in the material.
When light enters from one medium into another, its direction of propagation is changed (see Fig. C.2). This phenomenon is called refraction. The relationship between the angle of incidence (θ1) and the angle of refraction (θ2)
293
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.1 Light rays perpendicular to the wave front.
is given by sin θ1 n2
(C.2)
sin θ2
n1
The relationship in Eq. C.2 is called Snell’s law. As shown in Fig. C.2, some of the light is also reflected. The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence.
In Fig. C.2a, the angle of incidence θ1 for the entering light is shown to be greater than the angle of refraction θ2. This implies that n2 is greater than n1 as would be the case for light entering from air into glass, for example (see Eq. C.2). If, on the other hand, the light originates in the medium of higher refractive index, as shown in Fig. C.2b, then the angle of incidence θ1 is smaller than the angle of refraction θ2. At a specific value of angle θ1 called the critical angle (designated by the symbol θc), the light emerges tangent to the surface, that is, θ2 90◦. At this point, sin θ2 1 and, therefore, sin θ1 sin θc n2/n1. Beyond this angle, that is for θ1 > θc, light originating in the medium of higher refractive index does not emerge from the medium. At the interface, all the light is reflected back into the medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. For glass, n2 is typically 1.5, and the critical angle at the glass-air interface is sin θc 1/1.5 or θc 42◦.
Transparent materials such as glass can be shaped into lenses to alter the direction of light in a specific way. Lenses fall into two general categories: converging lenses and diverging lenses. A converging lens alters the direction of light so that the rays are brought together. A diverging lens has the opposite effect; it spreads the light rays apart.
Using geometric optics, we can calculate the size and shape of images formed by optical components, but we cannot predict the inevitable blurring of images which occurs as a result of the wave nature of light.
Section C.2 Converging Lenses FIGURE C.2 (Top) Reflection and refraction of light. (Bottom) Total internal reflection.
C.2 Converging Lenses
A simple converging lens is shown in Fig. C.3. This type of a lens is called a convex lens.
Parallel rays of light passing through a convex lens converge at a point called the principal focus of the lens. The distance of this point from the lens is called the focal length f. Conversely, light from a point source at the focal point emerges from the lens as a parallel beam. The focal length of the lens is
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.3 The convex lens illuminated (a) by parallel light, (b) by point source at the focus.
determined by the index of refraction of the lens material and the curvature of the lens surfaces. We adopt the following convention in discussing lenses.
1. Light travels from left to right.
2. The radius of curvature is positive if the curved surface encountered by the light ray is convex; it is negative if the surface is concave.
It can be shown that for a thin lens the focal length is given by
1
1
(n − 1) − 1
(C.3)
f
R1 R2 where R1 and R2 are the curvatures of the first and second surfaces, respectively (Fig. C.4). In Fig. C.4, R2 is a negative number.
Focal length is a measure of the converging power of the lens. The shorter the focal length, the more powerful the lens. The focusing power of a lens is
Section C.2 Converging Lenses FIGURE C.4 Radius of curvature defined for a lens.
often expressed in diopters defined as
Focusing power
1
(diopters)
(C.4)
f (meters) If two thin lenses with focal lengths f1 and f2, respectively, are placed close together, the focal length fT of the combination is 1 1 + 1
(C.5)
fT
f1
f2
Light from a point source located beyond the focal length of the lens is converged to a point image on the other side of the lens (Fig. C.5a). This type of an image is called a real image because it can be seen on a screen placed at the point of convergence.
If the distance between the source of light and the lens is less than the focal length, the rays do not converge. They appear to emanate from a point on the source side of the lens. This apparent point of convergence is called a (Fig. C.5b).
For a thin lens, the relationship between the source and the image distances from the lens is given by 1 + 1 1
(C.6)
p
q
f
Here p and q, respectively, are the source and the image distances from the lens. By convention, q in this equation is taken as positive if the image is formed on the side of the lens opposite to the source and negative if the image is formed on the source side.
Light rays from a source very far from the lens are nearly parallel; there fore, by definition we would expect them to be focused at the principal focal point of the lens. This is confirmed by Eq. C.6, which shows that as p becomes very large (approaches infinity), q is equal to f.
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.5 Image formation by a convex lens: (a) real image, (b) virtual image.
If the source is displaced a distance x from the axis, the image is formed at a distance y from the axis such that y q
(C.7)
x
p
This is illustrated for a real image in Fig. C.6. The relationship between p and q is still given by Eq. C.6.
C.3 Images of Extended Objects
So far we have discussed only the formation of images from point sources.
The treatment, however, is easily applied to objects of finite size.
When an object is illuminated, light rays emanate from every point on the object (Fig. C.7a). Each point on the object plane a distance p from the lens
Section C.3 Images of Extended Objects FIGURE C.6 Image formation off axis.
FIGURE C.7 Image of an object: (a) real, (b) virtual.
is imaged at the corresponding point on the image plane a distance q from the lens. The relationship between the object and the image distances is given by Eq. C.6. As shown in Fig. C.7, real images are inverted and virtual images are upright. The ratio of image to object height is given by Image height −q
(C.8)
Object height p
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.8 A diverging lens.
C.4 Diverging Lenses
An example of a diverging lens is the concave lens shown in Fig. C.8. Parallel light diverges after passing through a concave lens. The apparent source of origin for the diverging rays is the focal point of the concave lens. All the equations we have presented for the converging lens apply in this case also, provided the sign conventions are obeyed. From Eq. C.3, it follows that the focal length for a diverging lens is always negative and the lens produces only virtual images (Fig. C.8).
C.5
Lens Immersed in a Material Medium
The lens equations that we have presented so far apply in the case when the lens is surrounded by air that has a refraction index of approximately 1. Let us now consider the more general situation shown in Fig. C.9, which we will need in our discussion of the eye. The lens here is embedded in a medium that has a different index of refraction (n1 and n2) on each side of the lens. It can be shown (see [15-3]) that under these conditions the relationship between the object and the image distances is n1 + n2 nL −n1 − nL − n2
(C.9)
p
q
R1
R2
Section C.5 Lens Immersed in a Material Medium FIGURE C.9 Lens immersed in a material medium.
Here nL is the refraction index of the lens material. The effective focal length in this case is 1 n2 −n1 − nL −n2
(C.10)
f
R1
R2
Note that in air n1 n2 1 and Eq. C.10 reduces to Eq. C.3.
The lens equations we have presented in this appendix assume that the lenses are thin. This is not a fully valid assumption for the lenses in the eye.
Nevertheless these equations are adequate for our purposes.
Chapters 1 to 6 6-1 Alexander, R. McNeill. Animal Mechanics. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968.
6-2 Baez, Albert V. The New College Physics: A Spiral Approach. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1967.
6-3 Blesser, William B. A Systems Approach to Biomedicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.
6-4 Bootzin, David, and Muffley, Harry C. Biomechanics. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1969.
6-5 Cameron, J. R., Skofronick, J. G., and Grant, R. M. Physics of the Body.
Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing, 1992.
6-6 Chapman, R. F. The Insects. New York, NY: American Elsevier Pub lishing Co., 1969.
6-7 Conaghan, P. G. “Update on Osteoarthritis Part 1: Current Concepts and the Relation to Exercise,” British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36 (2002), 330–333.
6-8 Cooper, John M., and Glassow, Ruth B. Kinesiology, 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: The C. V. Mosby Co., 1972.
6-9 Cromer, A. H. Physics for the Life Sciences. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1974.
302
Bibliography 6-10 Frankel, Victor H., and Burstein, Albert H. Orthopaedic Biomechanics.
Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1970.
6-11 French, A. P. Newtonian Mechanics. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1971.
6-12 Frost, H. M. An Introduction to Biomechanics. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1967.
6-13 Gray, James. How Animals Move. Cambridge, UK: University Press, 1953.
6-14 Heglund, N. C., Willems, P. A., Penta, M., and Cavagna, G. A. “Energy saving Gait Mechanics with Head-supported Loads,” Nature, 375 (1995), 52–54.
6-15 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
6-16 Ingber, D. E. “The Architecture of Life,” Scientific American (January 1998), 47.
6-17 Jensen, Clayne R., and Schultz, Gordon W. Applied Kinesiology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
6-18 Kenedi, R. M., ed. Symposium on Biomechanics and Related Bioengi- neering Topics. New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1965.
6-19 Lauk, M., Chow, C. C., Pavlik, A. E., and Collins, J. J. “Human Balance out of Equilibrium: Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics in Posture Control,” The American Physical Society, 80 (January 1998), 413.
6-20 Latchaw, Marjorie, and Egstrom, Glen. Human Movement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969.
6-21 McCormick, Ernest J. Human Factors Engineering. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
6-22 Mathews, Donald K., and Fox, Edward L. The Physiological Basis of Physical Education and Athletics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1971.
6-23 Morgan, Joseph. Introduction to University Physics, Vol. 1, 2nd ed.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
6-24 Novacheck, T. F. “The Biomechanics of Running,” Gait and Posture, 7 (1998), 77–95.
Bibliography 6-25 Offenbacher, Elmer L. “Physics and the Vertical Jump,” American Jour- nal of Physics, 38 (July 1970), 829–836.
6-26 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
6-27 Roddy, E. et al.
“Evidence-based Recommendations for the Role of Exercise in the Management of Osteoarthritis,” Rheumatology, 44 (2005), 67–73.
6-28 Rome, L. C. “Testing a Muscle’s Design,” American Scientist, 85 (July– August 1997), 356.
6-29 Strait, L. A., Inman, V. T., and Ralston, H. J. “Sample Illustrations of Physical Principles Selected from Physiology and Medicine,” , 15 (1947), 375.
6-30 Sutton, Richard M. “Two Notes on the Physics of Walking,” American Journal of Physics, 23 (1955), 490.
6-31 Wells, Katherine F. Kinesiology: The Scientific Basis of Human Motion.
Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1971.
6-32 Williams, M., and Lissner, H. R. Biomechanics of Human Motion. Phil adelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1962.
6-33 Winter, D. A. “Human Balance and Posture Control during Standing and Walking,” Gait & Posture, 3 (1995), 193–214.
6-34 Wolff, H. S. Biomedical Engineering. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
Chapter 7 7-1 Alexander, R. McNeill. Animal Mechanics. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968.
7-2 Bush, J. W. M., and Hu, D. L. “Walking on Water: Biolocomotion at the Interface,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 38 (2006), 339–369.
7-3 Chapman, R. F. The Insects. New York, NY: American Elsevier Pub lishing Co., 1969.
7-4 Foth, H. D., and Turk, L. M. Fundamentals of Soil Science. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
7-5 Gamow, G., and Ycas, M. Mr. Tomkins Inside Himself. New York, NY: The Viking Press, 1967.
Bibliography 7-6 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
7-7 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
7-8 Murray, J. M., and Weber, A. “The Cooperative Action of Muscle Pro teins,” Scientific American (February 1974), 59.
7-9 Rome, L. C. “Testing a Muscle’s Design,” American Scientist, 85 (July– August 1997), 356.
Chapter 8 8-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1962.
8-2 Hademenos, G. J. “The Biophysics of Stroke,” American Scientist, 85 (May–June 1997), 226.
8-3 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
8-4 Myers, G. H., and Parsonnet, V. Engineering in the Heart and Blood Vessels. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1969.
8-5 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
8-6 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D., eds. Physiology and Biophysics. Philadel phia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965.
8-7 Strait, L. A., Inman, V. T., and Ralston, H. J. “Sample Illustrations of Physical Principles Selected from Physiology and Medicine,” , 15 (1947), 375.
Chapters 9 to 11 11-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1962.
11-2 Angrist, S. W. “Perpetual Motion Machines,” Scientific American (January 1968), 114.
Bibliography 11-3 Atkins, P. W. The 2nd Law. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1994.
11-4 Brown, J. H. U., and Gann, D. S., eds. Engineering Principles in Physi- ology, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1973.
11-5 Casey, E. J. Biophysics, New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.
11-6 Loewenstein, W. R. The Touchstone of Life: Molecular Information, Cell Communication, and the Foundations of Life. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999.
11-7 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
11-8 Morowitz, H. J. Energy Flow in Biology. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1968.
11-9 Peters, R. H. The Ecological Implications of Body Size. Cambridge University Press, 1983.
11-10 Rose, A. H., ed. Thermobiology. London: Academic Press, 1967.
11-11 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D., eds. Physiology and Biophysics. Phila delphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965.
11-12 Schurch, S., Lee, M., and Gehr, P. “Pulmonary Surfactant: Surface Properties and Function of Alveolar and Airway Surfactant,” , 64(11) (1992), 1745–1750.
11-13 Stacy, R. W., Williams, D. T., Worden, R. E., and McMorris, R. W.
Biological and Medical Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955.
Chapter 12 12-1 Alexander, R. McNeil Animal Mechanics. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1968.
12-2 Brown, J. H. U., and Gann, D. S., eds. Engineering Principles in Phys- iology, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1973.
12-3 Burns, D. M., and MacDonald, S. G. G. Physics for Biology and Pre-Medical Students. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970.
Bibliography 12-4 Casey, E. J. Biophysics. New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.
12-5 Cromwell, L., Weibell, F.J., Pfeiffer, E. A., and Usselman, L. B. Bio- medical Instrumentation and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
12-6 Marshall, J. S., Pounder, E. R., and Stewart, R. W. Physics, 2nd ed.
New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1967.
12-7 Mizrach, A., Hetzroni, A., Mazor, M., Mankin, R. W., Ignat, T., Grinshpun, J., Epsky, N. D., Shuman, D., and Heath, R. R. “Acoustic Trap for Female Mediterranean Fruit Flies,” 48(2005), 2017–2022.
12-8 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2d ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
12-9 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
12-10 Stacy, R. W., Williams, D. T., Worden, R. E., and McMorris, R. W.
Biological and Medical Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955.
Chapter 13 13-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
13-2 Bassett, C. A. L. “Electrical Effects in Bone,” Scientific American (October 1965), 18.
13-3 Bullock, T. H. “Seeing the World through a New Sense: Electrorecep tion in Fish,” American Scientist 61 (May–June 1973), 316.
13-4 Delchar, T. A. Physics in Medical Diagnosis. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1997.
13-5 Hobbie, R. K. “Nerve Conduction in the Pre-Medical Physics Course,” American Journal of Physics, 41 (October 1973), 1176.
13-6 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
Bibliography 13-7 Katz, B. “How Cells Communicate,” Scientific American (September 1961), 208.
13-8 Katz, B. Nerve Muscle and Synapse. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966.
13-9 Miller, W. H., Ratcliff, F., and Hartline, H. K. “How Cells Receive Stimuli,” Scientific American (September 1961), 223.
13-10 Scott, B. I. H. “Electricity in Plants,” Scientific American (October 1962), 107.
Chapter 14 14-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
14-2 Blesser, W. B. A Systems Approach to Biomedicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.
14-3 Cromwell, L., Weibell, F. J., Pfeiffer, E. A., and Usselman, L. B. Bio- medical Instrumentation and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973.
14-4 Davidovits, P. Communication. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
14-5 Loizou, P. C. “Mimicking the Human Ear,” IEEE Signal Processing Magazine (September 1998), 101–130.
14-6 Scher, A. M. “The Electrocardiogram,” Scientific American (November 1961), 132.
Chapter 15 15-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962.
15-2 Davidovits, P., and Egger, M. D. “Microscopic Observation of Endothe lial Cells in the Cornea of an Intact Eye,” Nature 244 (1973), 366.
15-3 Katzir, A. “Optical Fibers in Medicine,” Scientific American (May 1989) 260, 120.
Bibliography 15-4 Marshall, J. S., Pounder, E. R., and Stewart, R. W. Physics, 2nd ed. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1967.
15-5 Muntz, W. R. A. “Vision in Frogs,” Scientific American (March 1964), 110.
15-6 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D. Physiology and Biophysics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1965.
15-7 Wald, George. “Eye and the Camera,” Scientific American (August 1950), 32.
Chapters 16 and 17 16-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962.
16-2 Burns, D. M., and MacDonald, S. G. G. Physics for Biology and Pre- Medical Students. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970.
16-3 Delchar, T. A. Physics in Medical Diagnosis. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1997.
16-4 Dowsett, D. J., Kenny, P. A., and Johnston, R. E. The Physics of Diagnostic Imaging. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall Medical, 1998.
16-5 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
16-6 Pizer, V. “Preserving Food with Atomic Energy,” United States Atomic Energy Commission Division of Technical Information, 1970.
16-7 Pykett, I. L. “NMR Imaging in Medicine,” Scientific American (May 1982), 78.
16-8 Schr¨odinger, E. “What Is Life?” and Other Scientific Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Co., 1956.
Exercises Chapter 1 1-1(b). F 254 N (57.8 lb) 1-3. θ 72.6◦ 1-4. Maximum weight 335 N (75 lb) 1-5(a). Fm 2253 N (508 lb), Fr 2386 N (536 lb) 1-6. Fm 720 N, Fr 590 N 1-7(a). Fm 2160 N, Fr 1900 N 1-8. Fm 103 N, Fr 84 N 1-10. x 19.6 cm, v of tendon 4 cm/sec, v of weight 38 cm/sec 1-11. Fm 0.47 W, Fr 1.28 W 1-12(a). Fm 2000 N, Fr 2200 N; (b). Fm 3220 N, Fr 3490 N 1-13. FA 2.5 W, FT 3.5 W Chapter 2 2-1(a). Distance 354 m; (b). Independ of mass 2-2(a). μ 0.067 2-3(a). μ 1.95; (b). with μ 1.0, θ 39.4◦, with μ 0.01, θ 0.6◦ Chapter 3 3-1. P 4120 watt 3-2. H 126 cm 311 3-3. Fr 1.16 W, θ 65.8◦ 3-4. T 0.534 sec 3-5(a). R 13.5 m; (b). H 3.39 m; (c). 4.08 sec 3-6. v 8.6 m/sec 3-7. r 1.13 m 3-8(a). v 8.3 m/sec; (b) 16.6 cm/sec 3-9. Energy expended/sec 1350 J/sec 3-10. P 371 watt Chapter 4 4-2. F 10.1 N 4-3. ω 1.25 rad/sec; linear velocity 6.25 m/sec 4-4. ω 1.25 rad/sec 33.9 rpm 4-5. v 62.8 m/sec 4-6. Speed 1.13 m/sec 4.07 km/h 2.53 mph 4-7. T 1.6 sec 4-8. E 1.64 mv2 4-9. Fall time 1 sec
Chapter 5 5-1. v 2.39 m/sec (5.3 mph) 5-2. v 8 m/sec; with 1 cm2area v 2 m/sec 5-3. h 5.1 m 5-4. t 3 × 10−2 sec 5-5. v 17 m/sec (37 mph) 5-6. Force/cm2 4.6 × 106 dyn/cm2, yes 5-7. v 0.7 m/sec, no Chapter 6 6-1. F 2 W 6-2. 0.052 mm 6-3. h 18.4 cm 6-4. 10.3 cm
Answers to Numerical Exercises Chapter 7 7-2. P 7.8 W 7-3. v [gV(ρw − ρ)/Aρw]1/2; P 1/2[W{(ρw/ρ) −1}3/2]/(Aρw)1/2 7-5. P 1.51 × 107dyn/cm2 15 atm 7-6. Volume of swim bladder 3.8% 7-7. ρ2 ρ1(W1/W1 − W2) 7-8. p 1.46 × 105 dyn/cm2 7-11. Perimeter 9.42 km 7-12. Speed 29 cm/sec Chapter 8 8-1. P 3.19 × 10−2 torr 8-2. P 4.8 torr 8-3. h 129 cm 8-4(a). p 61 torr; (b). p 200 torr 8-5(b). R1/R2 0.56 8-6. v 26.5 cm/sec 8-7. N 7.5 × 104 8-8. p 79 torr 8-9. P 10.1 W 8-10(a). P 0.25 W; (b). P 4.5 W
Chapter 9
9-2. V 29.3 9-3(a). t 10−2 sec; (b). t 10−5 sec 9-5. N 1.08 × 1020 molecules/sec 9-6. No. breaths/min . 10.4
9-7(a). Rate 1.71 liter/hr-cm2; (b). diameter 0.5 cm 9-8. P 2.87 atm
Chapter 11 11-2. t 373 hours 11-3. v 4.05 m3 11-4. t 105 days 11-5. Weight loss 0.892 kg 11-6. H 18.7 Cal/h 11-8(b). Change 22%; (c). Kr 6.0 Cal/m2-h-C◦ 11-9. Heat removed 8.07 Cal/h 11-10. Heat loss 660 Cal/m2-h 11-11. H 14.4 Cal/h Chapter 12 12-1. R 31.6 km 12-2. 1.75 times 12-3. p 2.9 × 10−4 dyn/cm2 12-6. D 11.5 m 12-8. Min. size 1.7 × 10−2 cm Chapter 13 13-1(a). No. of ions 1.88 × 1011; (b). no. of Na+ ions 7.09 × 1014/m; No. of K+ ions 7.09 × 1015/m 13-8(a). no of cells in series 5000; (b). no of cells in parallel 2.7 × 109
Chapter 14 14-1. i 13.3 amp Chapter 15 15-1. Change in position 0.004 cm 15-3. For cornea 41.9 diopters; for lens, min power 18.7 diopters, max power 24.4 diopters 15-4. 1/f −0.39 diopters 15-5. Focusing power ±70 diopters 15-6. p 1.5 cm 15-7(a). Resolution 2.67 × 10−4 rad; (b). Resolution 6.67 × 10−4 rad 15-8. D 20 m 15-9. H 3 × 10−4 cm
Absorption velocity and K c, 151–152 electromagnetic radiation, 123, 242
viscosity, 104
spectroscopy, 245
Airbag, 68–69
spectrum, 243
Alcohol, caloric value, 147
Acceleration
Aluminum angular, 277
specific heat, 119
centripetal, 278–279
thermal conductivity, 122
defined, 273
Alveoli, 129 equations of translational motion for, size, 132
30–32
Amino acid, 271
gravitational, 5, 33
Amplification, in human ear, 175
of jumper, 31–34
Amplifier, 201
Accommodation of eye, 216–217, 230
transistor, 211
Angstrom, 285
Achilles tendon, 19
Angular acceleration, 277
Actin, 95, 96
Angular momentum
Action potential, 184–186 defined, 280
in muscles, 194
equations of, 277–278
in plants, 196
Angular motion measurement, 195 forces on a curved path, 45–48 propagation, 188–190
Newton’s laws, 280
Adhesion, 90–91 pendulum strength of, 93
physical, 51–52
Adrenaline, 155
simple, 48–50
Aging, and vision, 216–217 running, 53–56
Air vs. linear motion, 277 inspired vs. expired, 130–131 walking, 50–53 motion through, 40–42
Angular velocity, 276
pressure in ear, 170
maximum, 54, 78–79
314
Index
Animal propagation vs. speed of light, 186
energetics, 136
resistance of, 186
motion, 1
sodium pump, 184
sounds produced by, 176
voltage, 184
Anvil (middle ear), 169 vs. electric cable, 186–188
Aorta, 106
blood pressure drop, 107–108
Back turbulent flow, 110–111 backaches, 18
Aperture of eye, 218–219 lever representation, 17–19
Apocrine sweat gland, 155
Bacteria, thermophilic, 145
Aqueous humor, 215–216
Ballistocardiograph, 115
Archimedes’ principle Barth´elemy, Toussaint, 249
defined, 87
Basal metabolic rate, 147 fish buoyancy and, power required to stay afloat and, Basilar membrane, 170
87–88 Bats Arteriole, 106–107, 109
chirping, 175–176
Arterisclerosis, and blood flow, 111–112 echo location, 175
Artery, 105
Battery, 292
elasticity, 112
Bernoulli’s equation, 101–102, 103
narrowing, 111, 112
stenosis and, 111
natural frequency, 112
Biceps, 7
plaque deposit, 111–112
movement of, 11–15
pressure drop, 107–108
Biological control system, 208
pulmonary, 105
features, 206–207
Astigmatism, 227
feedback, 208–210
lens for, 228, 229
in iris, 210
Atom
Biomechanics, 2
absorption spectrum, 243
Blood energy state, 241–242
adrenaline in, 155
excitation of, 242–243
cells, radioactive, 269
interactions between, 270
circulation, 105–107
nucleus, 240, 256–257
flow
structure, 239–240
arterisclerosis, 111–112
Atomic physics, 239
control, 109
Axon, 181
energetics, 110
action potential, 184–186 laminar, 103, 104, 110, 111
action potential propagation, rate, 112–113 188–190 to brain, 109 capacitance and resistance of, 186 turbulence, 110–111 circuit, analysis of, diameter of, 183
velocity, 110, 178
electrical potentials, 183–184, 185
kinetic energy, 110
electrical properties, 186–187
pressure length of, 181
arterial, 107–109
membrane at capillaries, 107
as leaky insulator, 186
measurement, 113–114
permeability, 184
systolic and diastolic, 107
myelin, 181
venal, 109
myelinated, 192–193
sugar level, 245
myelinated vs. nonmyelinated, 187
venal, 136
nodes of Ranvier, 181
viscosity, 104
Index
Bohr model of atom, 240–241, 247
Center of mass motion formation of chemical bonds, in running, 57–58
243–244
in walking, 56–57
hydrogen, 241
Centrifugal force, 45–46, 47
Bohr, Niels, 240
defined, 278
Boltzmann constant, 117–118
Centripetal acceleration, 277–278
Bone
Centripetal force, 46, 47, 277–278
density defined, 277 cuttlefish, 88–89 137Cesium, 268
electricity and, 196–197
Chatecholamine, 109
fracture
Chemical bond, formation of, 243–244 energy involved, 64–66
Chemical energy, 139 force needed to cause, 67–68
Chemical fumigation, 267
neck, 69–70
Chlorine ion, and membrane potential, 184
NMR signal, 261
Chromium isotope, in medicine, 269
osteoblasts and osteoclasts, 197
Circulatory system, 105–107
Boyle’s law, 119 body heat transfer and, 151
Brain mechanism of energy losses, 107 activity identification, 265–266 turbulent flow, 111–112
60
arteries, 109
Cobalt, 268
blood flow to, 109
Cochlea, 170–171 diagnosing disorders, 204 implants, 211–213
ischemic stroke, 112
Coefficient
nerve centers in, 150
convection, 122, 152
nerve impulses, 162
diffusion, friction, 24, 25, 46, 71
role in hearing, 175
kinetic, 25, 71
signal processing, 226
static, 25
Breathing thermal conductivity, 121
cold-blooded animals, 132
Collision heat loss by, 155–156, 157
automobile, 69–70
surfactants and, 132
duration of, 66–67
Broad jump force of, 67–68 running position, 39–40 protective device, 68–69 standing position, 37–39 Compression, 61–62 Broca, Paul Pierre, 265
Computerized tomography, 250–251, 257
Broken heart syndrome, 109
Conductance (G), 291
Bruit, 111
Conduction, thermal, 120–121
Buoyancy, of fish, 88–89 in human body, 150, 151
Conductor, 291
Calorie, 119
Cones and rods, 222, 223, 224, 225–226
intake, 148
Confocal microscopy, 232–235
Capacitor, 291
Conservation
Capillary action, 91, 92, 93
energy, 135–136
Cardiomyopathy, stress, 109
Bernoulli’s equation and, 101–102
Cardiovascular disease human physiology and, 136
arterisclerosis, 111–112
linear momentum, 275
stress cardiomyopathy, 109
Constructive interference, 166
Catfish spine fin, 27–29
Control system, 206–208
Cell, 270–271 feedback, 208–210
Center of gravity, 2
Convection, 121–122 human body, 3–4 in human body, 151–153
Index
Converging lens, 294, 295–298
molecular transport through,
Cooling mechanism, 136, 141, 150, 126–127 155–156, 158 random walk, 124–125
Cork, thermal conductivity of, 122
through biological membrane,
Cornea, 215
128–129
receive oxygen by diffusion, 133
Diopter, 219
refractive power, 220
Dipole field, 289
Coulomb, 287
Diverging lens, 294, 300
Coulomb’s law, 287–288 DNA, 143–144, 248, 250, 269, 270, 271
Critical angle, 294
Doppler effect, 178
Critical flow velocity, 104
Doughnut, energy content, 43
Cromer, A. H., 43
Dyne, 285
Crystallography, CT scan, 250–251, Cut-off blood pressure measurement,
Ear, 168
113–114
amplification in, 175
Cuttlefish, bone density, 88–89 canal, horns, 211
Davidovits, Paul, 232, 233
inner, 170–171 da Vinci, Leonardo, 1, 7–8
balance maintenance, 21
De Broglie, Louis, 246, 247
middle, 169–170
Defibrillator, 206
outer, 168–169
Dehydration, 155
performance, 171–172
Density
sound detection capability, 172–173
constant, 83
sound intensity, 173–175 of water, and floating, 87–88 threshold of hearing and pain, 173, 174 porous bones and swim bladders, Eardrum, 162, 168, 169–170, 175
88–89
Earth, forces on, 33
Depth of field, 219
Eccrine sweat gland, 155
Destructive interference, 166
ECG, See Electrocardiography
Diabetic retinopathy, laser treatment, 254
Echoes, bats and, 175
Diagnostic equipment EEG, See Electroencephalography computerized tomography, 250–251, Eel, electric, 198
257
Egger, M. David, 232, 233
electrocardiograph, 195, 202–203
Einstein, Albert, 252
electroencephalograph, 195,
Elasticity, 61
203–204
artery, 112 electromyograph (EMG), 195 insect wings, 79–80 magnetic resonance imaging, spring, 62–64
257–258
Elbow, movement of, 11–15
stethoscope, 111, 113, 177, X-rays, 249–250
Electrical technology, in biological research, 200–202
Diastolic pressure, Diathermy, 178
Electric charge, 287–288
Diffraction, 168
Electric circuit, 290–292
in eye, 224
Electric current, 289
studies with molecules, 250
effect on brain, 205
Diffusion, 123–125 sources, 292
coefficient, 127
Electric eel, 198
contact lens and, 133
Electric field, 288–289, 292
in respiratory system, 129–132
in water, 198
mean free path, 124
Electric fish, 197–198
Index
Electricity consumption in physical activity, as a natural phenomena, 180
42–43
in bone, 196–197 load carrying, 58–59 fish and, 197–198 running, 54–56
in plants, 196
electromagnetic, 122–123
magnetism and, 292
forms, 283
nervous system and, 180–196
from food, 147–149
physiological effects, 204–206
internal, 117, 139 piezoelectricity, 196–197 involved in bone fracture, 64–66
Electric shock, 204–205 kinetic, 283
Electrocardiography (ECG), 195, 202–203
insect wing in flight, 78–79
Electrode, 202 of particles in gas, 117
Electroencephalography (EEG), 195, level, 241–242
203–204
mechanical, in ultrasonic wave, 178
Electromagnetic radiation, 214 requirements, 146–149 energy and, 122–123 during pregnancy, 149 excitation of atom and, 242–243 unit and conversion, 286
Electromyography (EMG), 195
Entropy, 142
Electron, 239, 240–241
Epilepsy, 205
binding energy, 243
Equilibrium diffraction patterns, 247
human body considerations, 3–4
electric charge of, 287
stability and, 2–3 energy level, 241–242 static, 2–3, 282
excitation, methods of, 242
Eustachian tube, 170
excited state, 242
Evaporation, skin temperature control by, ground state, 241–242
155–156
high-speed (Beta particles), 256
Excited state, 242
and food preservation, 268
Exercise, osteoarthritis and, 71
impact, 242
Eye inner, 243
aging and, 216–217 in oscilloscope, 201 aperture and depth of field, 218–219 orbital restrictions, 240–241 eyeglasses, 211
orbit around nucleus, 240
focusing, 216–217, 230
outer, 243
laser treatment, 253–255 radiation and, 122–123 lens system, 219–220 shared, 244 light intensity reaching retina, wavelength, 247
207–208, 209
wavelike properties, 246
near point, 216–217
Electron microscope, 247–248 parameters, 220 EMG, See Electromyography reduced, 220–222
Emission resolution of, 223–225
spectroscopy, 245
structure, 215–216
spontaneous, 252
vs. camera, 217–218 stimulated, 252
Eyepiece, 230, 231
Emissivity, 123
of skin, 153
Falling Endoscope, 236–237 fracture due to, 67–68
Energy, 282–283 from great height, 70
chemical, 139
on snow, 70
in food, 141
Farads, 291
conservation, 135–136
Fasting, world record, 149 Index
Feedback system, 208–209 fluid, 82–86
negative feedback, 209
impulsive, 66–67
positive feedback, 209
bone fracture and, 67–68
Fetus
lines of, 288–289 energy required, 149 on a curved path, 45–48 heart, examination, 178
on the foot, 47
Fiber optics, 235 pressure in a fluid and, 82–83 fiberscopes, 236–237 static, 1–2
Fibrillation, 205–206
stopping, 69
Field line, 288
unit and conversion, 285
Fish Fourier, J. B. J., 171
buoyancy, 88–89
Fovea, 222
catfish spine fin, 27–29
Fracture electric, 197–198 due to a fall, 67–68 electronic lures, 176 energy involved, 64–66 eye, lens focusing power, 219–220 neck bone, 69–70
Flight
Frequency insect, 73–80 larmor, 259–261 hovering, 73–75 natural, of healthy artery, 112
Fluid pendulum swings, 48–49
Archimedes’ principle, 87–89
resonant, 167
blood, See Blood sound, 163, 164
body, 183
Friction, 23–24 defined, 82
at hip joint, 26–27 force and pressure, 82–86 catfish spine fin and, 27–29 friction and, 103–104 coefficient, 24, 25, 46, 71
motion of, 101
fluid, in air, 40
Bernoulli’s equation, 101–102 standing at an incline, 25–26 laminar, 103, 104
viscous, 24, 103, 107
Poiseuille’s law, 103–104, 107–108
Frog turbulent flow, 104–105
alveolal radii, 132
viscous friction, 24, 103, 107
diffusion transfer of oxygen, surface tension, 89–96
131–132
Flux, 126–127, 128
neurons in retina, 226–227
solar, 154
Fulcrum, 9–10
Focal length of lens, 295–297
Fumigation, chemical, 267
Focus, principal, of the lens, 295
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Food (fMRI), 265–266 composition and energy content, 148
Fur, 157
energy from, 141, oxidation, 147
Galvani, Luigi, 194
preservation by fumigation, 267
Gamma ray, use in food preservation, preservation by radiation, 267–268
267–268
requirements for humans, 147–148
Gas
Force behavior, 139 addition of torques and, 281–282 behavior of matter as a function of adhesive vs. cohesive, 90
temperature in, 117–119
centrifugal, 45–46, 47, 278
diffusion, 125
centripetal, 46, 47, 277–278
greenhouse, 159
contraction of muscle, 96
noble, 244
defined, 274
pressure, 118
field, 288
Generator, 292
Index
Geometric optics, 293–295
unit of, 119, 284
Gland vs. other energy forms, 138–140
apocrine, 155
Helicotrema, 170
eccrine, 155
Henry, 292
Glass
Hertz, 163
lens, 294
Hertz, Heinrich, 163
radiation and, 123, 249
High jump, 36–37
silica, 235
Hip joint
Glycerine, viscosity of, 104
friction at, 26–27
Gravitational force, 274
movement of, walking on injured, 17
Greenhouse effect, 159
Hooke, Robert, 62, 63
Greenhouse gas, 159
Hooke’s law, 62, 79
Ground state, 241–242
Hormone, 109, 207
Gyromagnetic ratio, 258, 259
Hovering flight, 73–75 power required, 76–79 Hales, Stephen, 113
Human body, See also Specific parts, Hammer (middle ear), 169 organs and systems Hearing, 168 adaptation for heat vs. cold, 156
aids, 211
critical temperature, 156
ear horns, 211
energy requirements, 146–148 brain’s role in, 175
food requirements, 147–148 cochlear implants, 211–213
metabolic rate, 146
in bats, 175–176 motion, 1–2 sound frequency and pitch, 172–173 oxygen requirements, 130–131
threshold of, 173, 174
posture, 19–21
transistorized aids for, 211
radiative heating, 154
Heart
resistance to cold, 156–157
aorta, 106
senses, limitations of, 200
atrium and ventricle, 105–106
sound production, 176 capillaries, 107 specific heat, stability of, 3–4 desynchronization of heart action, under action of external force, 4–7
205–206
sweat production, 155–156, 209
fetus, examination, 178
temperature
power produced by, 112–113
regulation, 149–151
stress, 109
regulation by convection, 151–153
Heat, 284, See also Thermodynamics regulation by evaporation, 155–156 cold and, 156–157
regulation by radiation, 153
defined, 116
Hydrogen latent, 120
Bohr model for atom of, 241
life and, 145–146 formation of molecule of, 244
loss by breathing, 155–156, 157
nuclear magnetic properties of, 258
radiative by sun, 153–154
Hydrostatic skeleton, 84–86
specific, 119, 284
Hyperopia, 227
therapeutic effects, 161
lens for, 228, 229 transfer of conduction, 120–121, 150, 151
Ice, specific heat of, 119
convection, 121–122, 151–153
Image diffusion, 123–133 of extended objects, 298–300 in human body, 149–157
on retina, 217–218
radiation, 122–123, 139, 153–154
size, 221–222, 223, 229–230
Index real, 297
Irradiation, food, 267–268 size of aperture and, 218–219
Ischemic stroke, 112
virtual, 297
Isotope, 256
Imaging oxygen, 256
computerized tomography, 250–251, 257 radioactive, 257 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), tracers, 268–269
257–258
ultrasound, 177–178
Joint with NMR, 262–265
hip
X-ray, 243, 249–250
friction at, 26–27
Impulsive force, 66–67 movement, 15–17 fracture and, 67–68 walking on injured, 17
Inductor, 292
knee problems, 71
Inertia, moment of, 279
osteoarthritis, 70–71
Infant respiratory distress syndrome, 132
Jump
Inner ear, 170–171 broad balance maintenance, 21
from running position, 39–40
basilar membrane, 170
from standing position, 37–39 cochlea, 170–171 high, 36–37 implants, 211–213 vertical helicotrema, 170 effect of gravity on, 35
Insect height of, 32–35
flight, 73
hovering, 73–75, 76–79
Kilocalorie, 284
locomotion on water, 93–95, 99
Kinesiology, 2
Microvelia, 99
Kinetic energy wing defined, 283 elasticity, 79–80 insect wing in flight, 78–79 kinetic energy when in flight, of particles in gas, 117
78–79 Kinetic friction, 23–24 muscles, 75–76 coefficient, 25, 71
Insulation, fur and feather, 122, 157
Kinetic theory of matter, 116–119
Insulator, 291
Knee joint, problems, 71
Intensity Kuhne, W., 217, 218 of light control, in reaching retina, Laminar flow, 103, 104, 110, 111
207–208, 209
Larmor frequency, 259–261
of sound, 163
Laser, 252–253 and loudness, 173–175
surgery, 253
Interference, 166–167 ophthalmological applications, Internal energy, 117, 139 253–255
Internal reflection, total, 294, 295
LASIK (Laser-assisted in Situ Ker Interneuron, 181 atomileusis), 254–255 131Iodine, 267
Latent heat, 120
Ion Lauterbur, P. C., 263 membrane potential and, 183–184 Lavoisier, Laurent, 135, 136
negative, 287
Lens, 215
positive, 287
astigmatism, 228, 229
Iris, 215 contact lens and diffusion, 133
control system, 210
converging, 294, 295–298
defined, 207
diverging, 294, 300
optical aperture, 218–219
eyepiece, 230, 231
Index Lens (cont.)
Mayer, Robert, 135–136 immersed in a material medium, Mean free path, 124
300–301
Medfly (Mediterranean fly), control of, myopia, 228, 229
177
objective, 230, 231
Membrane of eye, 219–220 axon focusing power, 216–217
as leaky insulator, 186
presbyopia and hyperopia, 228, 229
capacitance and resistance, 186
Lever, 9–11
permeability, 184
arm, 279
basilar, 170
elbow movement, 11–15 biological, diffusion through, hip movement, 15–17
128–129
spine movement, 17–19 oval window in ear, 169 standing on tip-toe on one foot, tympanic, 162, 168, 169–170, 175 19, 20
Membrane protein, solubility, 98
Light, 162, 214
Mercury, viscosity of, 104
emitted by laser, 252
Metabolic rate, 145–146 fiber-optic devices and, 237
defined, 146
intensity at retina, 207–208, 209
for selected activities, 146
penetration through tissue, 232
Metabolism, 157
properties, 215
Mho, 291
speed, 293
Micron, 285
vision and, 214–215
Microscope, 231
Limping, 17, 18
compound, 231
Linear momentum, 274
confocal, 232–235
conservation, 275
electron, 247–248
Linear motion, 277
resolution, 231–232
Lines of force, 288
Microvelia, 99
Lipoprotein, solubility, 98
Middle ear, 169–170
Lithium, 241
Eustachian tube, 170
Load carrying, energy consumption, 58–59 hammer, anvil, stirrup, 169
Logarithmic sound intensity, 174
ossicles, 169, 170, 175
Long jump, See Broad jump Miller, S. L., 271
Loudness, 173–175
Minsky, Marvin, 233
Lubrication, 25
Moisture tension in soil, 92–93 effect on human hip joint, 27
Molecule
Lumbar vertebra, fifth, 17–19
characteristic spectra, 244
Lung
diffraction studies with, 250
gas exchange in, 129–130
formation of hydrogen, 244
water vapor and, 155
organic, 270–271
X-ray, 250
transport through diffusion, 126–127
Moment arm, 279
Magnetic moment, 258, 259
Moment of inertia, 279
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 257–
Momentum
258, 262–265
angular, 280
functional, 265–266 equations of, 277–278
Magnetism, electricity and, 292
linear, 274
Marangoni propulsion, 99
conservation, 275
Mass, 274
Motion, 1–2
unit and conversion, 285
angular
Matter, kinetic theory of, 116–119
Newton’s laws, 280
Maximum angular velocity, 54, 78–79
vs. linear, 277
Index Newton’s laws, 274–275
Newton’s rotational, 30, 31
laws of angular motion, 280
equations for, 278 laws of motion thermal, 117, 124, 140
first, 274
through air, 40–42 second, 275
translational, 30–32
third, 275
Motor neuron, 181
14Nitrogen, 269
MRI, See Magnetic resonance imaging NMR, See Nuclear magnetic resonance
Muscle
Noble gas, 244
action potentials in, 194
Nodes of Ranvier, 181
biceps, 7, 11–15
Noise contraction, 8, 95–96
bruit, 111
efficiency, 42–43
laminar flow, 113
fibers, 194
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 257– insect wings, 75–76
262
myofibrils, 95
imaging with, 262–265
skeletal, 7–9, 95–96
Nuclear spin, Nucleus, 240, 256–257
spindle, 194
transmutation, 257
stimulation by electric current, triceps, 7, 11, 12
Musculoskeletal system,
Objective lens, 230, 231
interconnectedness, 21
Ohm, 290
Myelin, 181
Ohm’s law, 205, 291
Myelinated axon, 192–193
Optical spectra, 243
vs. nonmyelinated, 187
Optics, 214
fiber, 235–237
Myofibrils, 95
geometric, 293–295
Myopia, 227
vision and, 214–215
lens for, 228, 229
Oscilloscope, 201–202
Myosin, 95, 96
Osmosis, Ossicles, 169, 170, 175
Near point of the eye, 216–217
Osteoarthritis, 70–71
Neck bone, fracture, 69–70
exercise and, 71
Negative feedback, 209–210
Osteoblast, 197
Negative ion, 287
Osteoclast, 197
Nervous system Oudin, Paul, 249
action potential, 184–186
Outer ear, 168–169 action potential, propagation, 188–190
ear canal, 169
electrical phenomena and, 180–181
pinna, 168
electrical potentials in axon, 183–184, tympanic membrane, 162, 168, 169–
185
170, 175
signal propagation, 181
Oxidation of food, 147
surface potentials, 194–196
Oxygen synaptic transmission, 193–194 consumption, calories produced by, 147
vision and, 226–227
diffusion through skin, 129
Neuron, 180, 181–183
small animals, 131–132 axons and dendrites, 181, 183, See also isotopes of, 256
Axon oxidation of food, 147
classes, 181
requirement for humans, 130–131 Neutron, Newton, 5
Pacemaker, 202
Newton, Isaac, 1
electronic, 206
Index
Particle, wavelike properties, 246–247 measurement, 113–114 Pascal (Pa), 83 systolic and diastolic, 107
Pascal’s principle, 83–84 venal, 109
Pastuerization, 267
defined, 274
Pendulum fluid, 82–84 physical, 51–52, 54–56
gas, 118
simple, 48–50
in porous bones, 89
Period, of pendulum motion, 48–49
inside worm, 85
Phosphorus, radioactive, 257, 267, 269
on eardrum, 170
Photodetector, 245
Poiseuille’s equation and, 103–104
Photon, 215
sound, 164–165, 175
Photoreceptor, 222, 225–226
unit and conversion, 285
Photosynthesis, 214
Principia Mathematica, 1
Physics and life, 269–271
Projectile, range of, 37
Piezoelectric effect, 196–197
Protein
Pinna, 168
caloric value, 147
Pitch of sound, 172–173
consumption during fasting, 149
Planck’s constant, 215, 246–247, 258
resilin, 79–80
Plant solubility of membrane protein and action potential in, 196
lipoprotein, 98
electricity in, 196
specific heat, 119
soil water and, 92–93
Proton, 239–240, 287
Plaque, arterial, 111–112
Pulmonary artery, 105
Poise, 103, 104
Pupil, 215
Poiseuille, L. M., 101
defined, 207
Poiseuille’s law, 103–104
Pure tone, 163–164 estimation of blood pressure drop and, P wave, 203
107–108
Positive feedback, 209–210
Quality
Positive ion, 287
image, 218
Posture, 19–21
sound, 171
Potassium ion, axon potential and, 184
Quantum mechanics, 246–247, 270
Potential axon, 184
Radian, 276
difference, 289
Radiation, 139
energy, 283–284 electromagnetic, 122–123, 214
Power, 284
food preservation by, 267–268 defined, 78
human body, 153
generated by limbs, 88 solar, 153–154 produced by, 112–113
and soil, 159 required to hover, 76–79 therapy, 266–267 required to stay afloat, 87–88 thermal, 122
unit and conversion, 286
Radioactive Precession, 260
isotopes, 257
Pregnancy, energy requirements, 149
tracers, 269
Presbyopia, 217
Radioactivity, 256–257 lens for, 229
Random thermal motion, 124, 140
Pressure
Random walk, 124–125
Bernoulli’s equation and, 101
Real image, 297
blood
Reduced eye, 220–222 arterial, 107–109
Reflection, 165–166
at capillaries, 107
total internal, 294, 295
Index
Refraction, 165–166
Siemen, 291
defined, 293
Silver, thermal conductivity of, 122
index of, 220
Simple harmonic motion, 48 refractive power of cornea, 219–220 walking in terms of, 50–51
Resilin, 79–80
Sinusoidal sound wave, 163–164, 171, 172
Resistance of air, 40–42
Skeletal muscle, 7–9
Resistivity, 290
contraction, 95–96
Resistor, 290–291
Skin
Resolution convection and, 151–153 eye, 223–225
emissivity of, 153 microscope, 231–232 evaporative cooling, 156–157
Resonant frequency, 167
frostbite, 157
Respiratory system oxygen diffusion through, 129
diffusion process, 129–132
radiative heating of, 153–154
surfactants and breathing, 132
temperature, 150–151
Retina, 215, 222–223
control, 151
cones and rods, 222, 223, 224, Snell’s law, 235
225–226
defined, 293–294 degeneration arrest, 253–254
Sodium image size on, 221–222, 223, ions, 184, 189 229–230 pump, 184
light intensity, control of, 207–208, 209
Soil
photographic film and, 217–218
loam vs. clay, 93
Reynold’s number, 104
moisture tension, 92–93
Righting reflex, 21
specific heat, 119
Rods and cones, 222, 223, 224, 225–226 temperature, 158–159 Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 249 water, 92–93
Rolling friction, 24
Solar radiation, 153–154
Root (plant), and pressure, 92
soil and, 159
Rotational motion, 30, 31
Somatosensory system, balance equations for, 278
maintenance, 21
Running
Sound, 162
broad jump, 39–40 acoustic traps, 176–177 center of mass motion in, 57–58 bell in a jar, 163 energy expended in, 54–56
clinical uses, 177
metabolic rate, 43
frequency, 163, 164, 172–173
on a curved track, 47–48 intensity, 163 speed, 53–54 and loudness, 173–175
Rupture strength, 63
logarithmic, 174
Rutherford, E., 239, 240
perception of, pitch, 172–173
Sensitivity produced by animals, 176
of ear, 169, 172, 174–175 properties, 162–165 logarithmic, 174
pure tone, 163–164
mechanical reasons for, 175
speed, 164
of eye, 226
wave, 162
Sensory aid, 211 wavelength (λ), 164
Sensory neuron, 181
Specific heat, 119, 284
Shannon, Claude, 143
Spectral line, 240
Shark, and electric field, 198
Spectrometer, 245
Shock, electric, 204–205
Spectroscopy, 244–245 stimulation of muscle with, 206
absorption, 245
Index Spectroscopy (cont.)
Sweating emission, 245
as negative feedback, 209
Spectrum, absorption, 243
cooling mechanisms, 155–156
Speed dehydration, 155
defined, 272
rate, 155
light, 293
Synapse, 193 running, 53–54 synaptic transmission, 193–194
sound, 164
Synovial fluid, 25, 27
walking, 52–53
Systems approach, 209–210
Spindle, 194
Systolic pressure, 107
Spontaneous emission, Spring, Squid, axon of, 183
Telescope, 230–231
Stability
Temperature, 117–118 equilibrium and, 2–3 body, regulation of, 149–151 human body, 4–7 critical, 156
Standing defined, 117 at an incline, 25–26 skin, 150–151 broad jump, 37–39
Terminal velocity, 41–42 tip-toe on one foot, 19, 20
Thermal conductivity, 120–121
Standing wave, 166–167
in human body, 150, 151
Static equilibrium, 2–3
Thermal motion, 117
defined, 282
random, 124, 140
Static force, 1–2
Thermal radiation, 122
Static friction, 23–24 emitted by soil, 158–159 coefficient, 25
Thermal velocity, 118
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 123
Thermodynamics, See also Heat Stenosis, 111, 112
defined, 135
Stethoscope, 111, 113, 177
first law, 135–136
electronic, 202
of living systems, 140–142
Stimulated emission, 252
second law, 137–138
Stirrup (middle ear), 169 information and, 143–144
Strength of material, 61
Thermophilic bacteria, 145 bone, 64–68 Thompson, J. J., 239
Stress
Threshold defined, 62
of hearing, 173, 174
stress cardiomyopathy, 109
of pain, 173, 174
Stretching of vision, 225–226 longitudinal, 61–62
Tissue spring, 62–64
light penetration, 232
Stroke, ischemic, 112
thermal conductivity, 122, 150
32Sulphur, 269
Tomography, computerized, 250–251, 257
Surface potential, 194–196
Torque, 279–280 recording of, 202–203 addition of force and, 281–282
Surface tension, 89–91
Torr, 83 insect locomotion on water and, Torricelli, Evangelista, 83 93–95, 99
Total internal reflection, 294, 295
muscle contraction and, 95–96
Tracer, isotopic, 268–269 soil water, 92–93
Transistor amplifier, 211
spherical liquid drops, 91–92
Translational motion, 30
Surfactants, 97–98 energy consumption, 42–43 breathing and, 132
for constant acceleration, 30–32
secreted by insects, 99
high jump, 36–37
Index long jump critical flow, 104
standing, 37–39
defined, 272
running, 39–40
terminal, 41–42
projectile range, 37
thermal, 118
through air, 40–42
Venule, 107
vertical jump, 32–35
Vertical jump
Transmutation of nucleus, 257 effect of gravity on, 35
Transport, of molecules, 126–127 height of, 32–35
Triceps, 7
Vespertilionidae bat, echo location, movement of, 11, 12
175–176
Turbulent fluid flow, 104–105
Vestibular system, balance maintenance, blood, 110–111
21
T wave, 203
Virtual image, 297
Tympanic membrane, 162, 168, 169–170, Viscosity, and Poiseuille’s law, 103–104
175
Viscous friction, 24, 103, Vision, 214–215 astigmatic, 227, 228, 229
Ultrasonic hyperopic, 227, 228, 229
diathermy, 178
image quality, 218–219
flow meter, 178
myopic, 227, 228, 229 waves, 177–178 nervous system and, 226–227
Ultrasound imaging, 177–178
presbyopic, 217, 229
Unit range, 229–230
calorie, 119
threshold of, 225–226
coulomb, 287
Vitreous humor, 216
diopter, 219
Vocal cord, 176
dyne, 285
Voltage, 289
farads, 291
and current sources, 292
henry, hertz, 163
Walking, 50 kilocalorie, 284 center of mass motion in, 56–57
mho, 291
on injured hip, 17
newton, 5
simple harmonic motion, 50–51
of energy, 286
speed, 52–53
of force, 285
Water of length, 285
content of food, 148
of mass, 285
density of, and floating, 87–88
of power, 286
elimination from body, 148
of pressure, 285
index of refraction, 220 pascal (Pa), 83 insect locomotion on, 93–95
poise, 103, 104
latent heat of vaporization, 155 radian, 276 mean free path of molecules in, 124
siemen, 291
osmosis, 129
torr, 83
sea, 89
Uranium, isotopes of, 257
soil, sound and, 166
Vein, 105
specific heat, 119
blood pressure in, 109 speed of sound in, 164
pulmonary, 105
surface tension, 89
Velocity viscosity, 104
angular, 276
Wave, See also Sound maximum, 54, 78–79
defined, 162
Index Wave (cont.)
heat converted into, 139–140 diffraction, 168 implication of second law of thermody fundamental and harmonic, 171, 172
namics, 138
interference, 166–167
muscular movement, 42
P, 203
Worm
reflection and refraction, 165–166 hydrostatic forces in moving, 84–86 standing, 166–167
movement of, 84
T, ultrasonic, 177–178
X-ray, 243, 249–250
wavelength, 164
computerized tomography, 250–251,
Weight, 274
257
loss, 155
of lungs, 250
Whiplash injury, Work Young’s modulus, 62
chemical energy and, 42
of resilin, 79–80 defined, 43, 282
rupture strength for materials and, 65 This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank
Front Cover
Title: Physics in Biology and Medicine
ISBN 0123694116
Table of Contents (with page links)
Preface
Abbreviations
Chapter 1. Static Forces
Chapter 2. Friction
Chapter 3. Translational Motion
Chapter 4. Angular Motion
Chapter 5. Elasticity and Strength of Materials
Chapter 6. Insect Flight
Chapter 7. Fluids
Chapter 8. The Motion of Fluids
Chapter 9. Heat and Kinetic Theory
Chapter 10. Thermodynamics
Chapter 11. Heat and Life
Chapter 12. Waves and Sound
Chapter 13. Electricity
Chapter 14. Electrical Technology
Chapter 15. Optics
Chapter 16. Atomic Physics
Chapter 17. Nuclear Physics
Appendix A. Basic Concepts in Mechanics
Appendix B. Review of Electricity
Appendix C. Review of Optics
Bibliography
Answers to Numerical Exercises
Index (with page links)
Unfortunately some damage to healthy tissue is unavoidable. As a result, this treatment is often accompanied by the symptoms of radiation sickness (diarrhea, nausea, loss of hair, loss of appetite, and so on). If long-lived isotopes are used in the therapy, the material must be removed after a prescribed period.
Short-lived isotopes, such as gold 198 with a half-life of about 3 days, decay quickly enough so that they do not need to be removed after treatment.
Certain elements introduced into the body by injection or by mouth tend to concentrate in specific organs. This phenomenon is used to advantage in radiation therapy. The radioactive isotope phosphorus 32 (half-life, 14.3 days) mentioned earlier accumulates in the bone marrow. Iodine 131 (half-life, 8 days) accumulates in the thyroid and is given for the treatment of hyperthyroidism.
An externally applied beam of gamma rays or X-rays can also be used to destroy cancerous tumors. The advantage here is that the treatment is administered without surgery. The effect of radiation on the healthy tissue can be reduced by frequently altering the direction of the beam passing through the body. The tumor is always in the path of the beam, but the dosage received by a given section of healthy tissue is reduced.
17.4
Food Preservation by Radiation
Without some attempt at preservation, all foods decay rather quickly. Within days and often within hours, many foods spoil to a point where they become inedible. The decay is usually caused by microorganisms and enzymes that decompose the organic molecules of the food.
Over the years, a number of techniques have been developed to retard spoilage. Keeping the food in a cold environment reduces the rate of activity for both the enzymes and the microorganisms. Dehydration of food achieves the same goal. Heating the food for a certain period of time destroys many microorganisms and again retards decay. This is the principle of pasteurization. These methods of retarding spoilage are all at least 100 years old. There is now a new technique of preserving food by irradiation.
High-energy radiation passing through the food destroys microorganisms that cause decay. Radiation is also effective in destroying small insects that attack stored foods. This is especially important for wheat and other grains which at present are often fumigated before shipping or storage. Chemical fumigation kills the insects but not their eggs. When the eggs hatch, the new insects may destroy a considerable fraction of the grain. Radiation kills both the insects and the eggs.
Gamma rays are used most frequently in food preservation. They have a great penetrating power and are produced by relatively inexpensive isotopes Chapter 17 Nuclear Physics such as cobalt 60 and cesium 137.
High-speed electrons produced by accelerators have also been used to sterilize food. Electrons do not have the penetrating power of gamma rays, but they can be aimed better and can be turned off when not in use.
In the United States and in many other countries, there are now a num ber of facilities for irradiating food. In the usual arrangement, the food on a conveyor passes by the radioactive source, where it receives a controlled dose of radiation. The source must be carefully shielded to protect the operator.
This problem is relatively simple to solve, and at present the technical problems seem to be well in hand. One plant for irradiating food, in Gloucester, Massachusetts, initially built by the Atomic Energy Commission, has been operating successfully since 1964. It can process 1000 lb of fish per hour.
There is no doubt that irradiation retards spoilage of food. Irradiated straw berries, for example, remain fresh for about 15 days after they have been picked whereas strawberries that have not been treated begin to decay after about 10 days. Irradiated unfrozen fish also lasts a week or two longer. Tests have shown that the taste, nutritional value, and appearance of the food remain acceptable. The important question is the safety of the procedure. Irradiation at the levels used in the treatment does not make the food radioactive. There is, however, the possibility that the changes induced by radiation may make the food harmful. Over the past three decades, there have been many test programs both with animals and with human volunteers to ascertain the safety of food irradiation. At this point, the technique has been judged safe and is in commercial use (see Exercise 10-3).
17.5
Isotopic Tracers
Most elements have isotopes differing from each other by the number of neutrons in their nuclei. The isotopes of a given element are chemically identical—that is, they participate in the same chemical reactions—but they can be distinguished from each other because their nuclei are different. One difference is, of course, in their mass. This property alone can be used to separate one isotope from another. A mass spectrometer is one of the devices that can perform this task. Another way to distinguish isotopes is by their radioactivity. Many elements have isotopes that are radioactive. These isotopes are easily identified by their activity. In either case, isotopes can be used to trace the various steps in chemical reactions and in metabolic processes. Tracer techniques have been useful also in the clinical diagnoses of certain disorders.
Basically the technique consists of introducing a rare isotope into the pro cess and then following the course of the isotope with appropriate detection techniques. We will illustrate this technique with a few examples. Nitrogen is one of the atoms in the amino acids that compose the protein molecules.
In nature, nitrogen is composed primarily of the isotope 14N. Only 0.36% of natural nitrogen is in the form of the nonradioactive isotope 15N. Ordinarily the amino acids reflect the natural composition of nitrogen.
It is possible to synthesize amino acids in a laboratory. If the synthesis is done with pure 15N, the amino acids are distinctly marked. The amino acid glycine produced in this way is introduced into the body of a subject where it is incorporated into the hemoglobin of the blood. Periodic sampling of the blood measures the number of blood cells containing the originally introduced glycine. Such experiments have shown that the average lifetime of a red blood cell is about four months.
Radioactive isotopes can be traced more easily and in smaller quanti ties than the isotopes that are not radioactive. Therefore, in reactions with elements that have radioactive isotopes, radioactive tracer techniques are preferred. Since the 1950s, when radioactive isotopes first became widely available, hundreds of important experiments have been conducted in this field.
An example of this technique is the use of radioactive phosphorus in the study of nucleic acids. The element phosphorus is an important component of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. Naturally occurring phosphorus is all in the form 31P, and, of course, this is the isotope normally found in the nucleic acids. However, as discussed earlier, by bombarding sulphur 32 with neutrons, it is possible to produce the radioactive phosphorus 32P which has a half-life of 14.3 days. If the 32P isotope is introduced into the cell, the nucleic acids synthesized in the cell incorporate this isotope into their structure. The nucleic acids are then removed from the cell and their radioactivity is measured. From these measurements it is possible to calculate the rate at which nucleic acids are manufactured by the cell. These measurements, among others, provided evidence for the roles of DNA and RNA in cell functions.
Radioactive tracers have been useful also in clinical measurements. In one technique, the radioactive isotope of chromium is used to detect internal hemorrhage. This isotope is taken up by the blood cells, which then become radioactive. The radioactivity is, of course, kept well below the danger level.
If the circulation is normal, the radioactivity is distributed uniformly throughout the body. A pronounced increase in radioactivity in some region indicates a hemorrhage at that point.
17.6
Laws of Physics and Life
We have discussed in this book many phenomena in the life sciences that are clearly explained by the theories of physics. Now we come to the most fundamental question: Can physics explain life itself? In other words, if we Chapter 17 Nuclear Physics put together the necessary combination of atoms, at each step following the known laws of physics, do we inevitably end up with a living organism, or must we invoke some new principles outside the realm of current physics in order to explain the occurrence of life? This is a very old question which still cannot be answered with certainty. But it can be clarified.
Quantum mechanics, which is the fundamental theory of modern atomic physics, has been very successful in describing the properties of atoms and the interaction of atoms with each other. Starting with a single proton and one electron, the theory shows that their interaction leads to the hydrogen atom with its unique configuration and properties. The quantum mechanical calculations for larger atoms are more complicated. In fact, so far a complete calculation has been performed only for the hydrogen atom. The properties of heavier atoms must be computed using various approximation techniques.
Yet there is little doubt that quantum mechanics describes all the properties of atoms from the lightest to the heaviest. The experimental evidence gathered over the past 100 years fully confirms this view.
The interactions between atoms, which result in the formation of molecules, are likewise in the domain of quantum mechanics. Here again exact solutions of the quantum mechanical equations have been obtained only for the simplest molecule, H2. Still it is evident that all the rules for both organic and inorganic chemistry follow from the principles of quantum mechanics. Even though our present numerical techniques cannot cope with the enormous calculations required to predict the exact configuration of a complex molecule, the concepts developed in physics and chemistry are applicable. The strengths of the interatomic bonds and the orientations of the atoms within the molecules are all in accord with the theory. This is true even for the largest organic molecules such as the proteins and DNA.
Past this point, however, we encounter a new level of organization: the cell.
The organic molecules, which are in themselves highly complex, combine to form cells, which in turn are combined to form larger living organisms, which possess all the amazing properties of life. These organisms take nourishment from the environment, grow, reproduce, and at some level begin to govern their own actions. Here it is no longer obvious that the theories governing the interaction of atoms lead directly to these functions that characterize life. We are now in the realm of speculations.
The phenomena associated with life show such remarkable organization and planning that we may be tempted to suggest that perhaps some new undiscovered law governs the behavior of organic molecules that come together to form life. Yet there is no evidence for any special laws operating within living systems. So far, on all levels of examination, the observed phenomena associated with life obey the well-known laws of physics. This does not mean that the existence of life follows from the basic principles of physics, but it may. In fact the large organic molecules inside cells are sufficiently complex to contain within their structures the information necessary to guide in a predetermined way the activities associated with life. Some of these codes contained in the specific groupings of atoms within the molecules have now been unraveled.
Because of these specific structures, a given molecule always participates in a well-defined activity within the cell. It is very likely that all the complex functions of cells and of cell aggregates are simply the collective result of the enormously large number of predetermined but basically well-understood chemical reactions.
This still leaves the most important question unanswered: What are the forces and the principles that initially cause the atoms to assemble into coded molecules which then ultimately lead to life. The answer here is probably again within the scope of our existing theories of matter.
In 1951, S. L. Miller simulated in his laboratory the type of conditions that may have existed perhaps 3.5 billion years ago in the atmosphere of the primordial Earth. He circulated a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen through an electric discharge. The discharge simulated the energy sources that were then available from the sun, lightning, and radioactivity. After about one week Miller found that the chemical activities in the mixture produced organic molecules including some of the simple amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Since then, hundreds of other organic molecules have been synthesized under similar conditions. Many of them resemble the components of the important large molecules found in cells. It is thus plausible that in the primordial oceans, rich in organic molecules produced by the prevailing chemical reactions, life began. A number of smaller organic molecules combined accidentally to form a large self-replicating molecule such as DNA. These, in turn, combined into organized aggregates and finally into living cells.
Although the probability for the spontaneous occurrence of such events is small, the time span of evolution is probably long enough to make this scenario plausible. If that is indeed the case, the current laws of physics can explain all of life. At the present state of knowledge about life processes, the completeness of the descriptions provided by physics cannot be proved. The principles of physics have certainly explained many phenomena, but mysteries remain. At present, however, there seems to be no need to invoke any new laws.
EXERCISES
17-1. Describe the basic principles of magnetic resonance imaging.
17-2. What is your (considered) opinion of food preservation by radiation?
17-3. Through a literature search describe the most recent use of fMRI.
17-4. Discuss some of the most notable attributes of living systems that dis tinguish them from inanimate ones.
Appendix A
Basic Concepts in MechanicsIn this section, we will define some of the fundamental concepts in mechanics.
We assume that the reader is familiar with these concepts and that here a simple summary will be sufficient. A detailed discussion can be found in basic physics texts, some of which are listed in the Bibliography.
A.1
Speed and Velocity
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position with respect to time. Both magnitude and direction are necessary to specify velocity. Velocity is, therefore, a vector quantity. The magnitude of the velocity is called speed. In the special case when the velocity of an object is constant, the distance s traversed in time t is given by s vt
(A.1)
In this case, velocity can be expressed as v s
(A.2)
t
If the velocity changes along the path, the expression s/t yields the average velocity.
272
Section A.2 Acceleration A.2
Acceleration
If the velocity of an object along its path changes from point to point, its motion is said to be accelerated (or decelerated). Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity with respect to time. In the special case of uniform acceleration, the final velocity v of an object that has been accelerated for a time t is v v0 + at
(A.3)
Here v0 is the initial velocity of the object, and a is the acceleration.1 Acceleration can, therefore, be expressed as a v − v0
(A.4)
t
In the case of uniform acceleration, a number of useful relations can be simply derived. The average velocity during the interval t is vav v + v0
(A.5)
2
The distance traversed during this time is s vavt
(A.6)
Using Eqs. A.4 and A.5, we obtain s v0t + at 2
(A.7)
2
By substituting t (v − v0)/a (from Eq. A.4) into Eq. A.7, we obtain v2 v2 + 2as
(A.8)
0
1Both velocity and acceleration may vary along the path. In general, velocity is defined as the time derivative of the distance along the path of the object; that is,
s
v lim
ds
dt
t → 0
t
Acceleration is defined as the time derivative of the velocity along the path; that is, ds a dv d
d2s
dt
dt
dt dt 2 Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics
A.3
Force
Force is a push or a pull exerted on a body which tends to change the state of motion of the body.
A.4
Pressure
Pressure is the force applied to a unit area.
A.5
Mass
We have stated that a force applied to a body tends to change its state of motion. All bodies have the property of resisting change in their motion. Mass
is a quantitative measure of inertia or the resistance to a change in motion.
A.6
Weight
Every mass exerts an attractive force on every other mass; this attraction is called the gravitational force. The weight of a body is the force exerted on the body by the mass of the Earth. The weight of a body is directly proportional to its mass. Weight being a force is a vector, and it points vertically down in the direction of a suspended plumb line.
Mass and weight are related but distinct properties of an object. If a body were isolated from all other bodies, it would have no weight, but it would still have mass.
A.7 Linear Momentum
Linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity; that is,
Linear momentum mv
(A.9)
A.8 Newton’s Laws of Motion The foundations of mechanics are Newton’s three laws of motion. The laws are based on observation, and they cannot be derived from more basic principles. These laws can be stated as follows:
First Law: A body remains at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted on by an applied force.
Section A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum Second Law: The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a body is equal to the force F applied to it.
Except at very high velocities, where relativistic effects must be considered, the second law can be expressed mathematically in terms of the mass m and acceleration a of the object as2
F ma
(A.10)
This is one of the most commonly used equations in mechanics. It shows that if the applied force and the mass of the object are known, the acceleration can be calculated. When the acceleration is known, the velocity of the object and the distance traveled can be computed from the previously given equations.
The Earth’s gravitational force, like all other forces, causes an acceleration. By observing the motion of freely falling bodies, this acceleration has been measured. Near the surface of the Earth, it is approximately 9.8 m/sec2. Because gravitational acceleration is frequently used in computations, it has been given a special symbol g. Therefore, the gravitational force on an object with mass m is
Fgravity mg
(A.11)
This is, of course, also the weight of the object.
Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This law implies that when two bodies A and B interact so that A exerts a force on B, a force of the same magnitude but opposite in direction is exerted by B on A. A number of illustrations of the third law are given in the text.
A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum It follows from Newton’s laws that the total linear momentum of a system of objects remains unchanged unless acted on by an outside force.
2The second law can be expressed mathematically in terms of the time derivative of momentum: that is, mv(t + t) − mv(t) dv
Force
d (mv) m ma t → 0 t
dt
dt
Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics FIGURE A.1 The radian.
A.10
Radian
In the analysis of rotational motion, it is convenient to measure angles in a unit called a radian. With reference to Fig. A.1, the angle in radian units is defined as θ s
(A.12)
r where s is the length of the circular arc and r is the radius of rotation. In a full circle, the arc length is the circumference 2πr. Therefore in radian units the angle in a full circle is θ 2πr 2π rad
r
Hence, 1 rad 360◦ 57.3◦
2π A.11 Angular Velocity
The angular velocity ω is the angular displacement per unit time; that is, if a body rotates through an angle θ (in radians) in a time t, the angular velocity is ω θ (rad/sec)
(A.13)
t
Section A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum A.12 Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration α is the time rate of change of angular velocity. If the initial angular velocity is ω0 and the final angular velocity after a time t is ωf, the angular acceleration is3
ωf − ω0
α
(A.14)
t
A.13 Relations between Angular and Linear Motion
As an object rotates about an axis, each point in the object travels along the circumference of a circle; therefore, each point is also in linear motion. The linear distance s traversed in angular motion is s rθ
The linear velocity v of a point that is rotating at an angular velocity ω a distance r from the center of rotation is v rω
(A.15)
The direction of the vector v is at all points tangential to the path s. The linear acceleration along the path s is a rα
(A.16)
A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum
The equations for angular motion are analogous to the equations for translational motion. For a body moving with a constant angular acceleration α and initial angular velocity ω0, the relationships are shown in Table A.1.
3Both angular velocity and angular acceleration may vary along the path. In general, the instantaneous angular velocity and acceleration are defined as ω dθ ; α dω d 2θ dt
dt dt 2 Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics TABLE A.1 Equations for α constant) ω ω +
0
αt
θ
ω0t + 1αt2
2
ω2 ω2 + 2αθ
0
+ ω)
ω
(ω0
av
2
A.15 Centripetal Acceleration
As an object rotates uniformly around an axis, the magnitude of the linear velocity remains constant, but the direction of the linear velocity is continuously changing. The change in velocity always points toward the center of rotation. Therefore, a rotating body is accelerated toward the center of rotation. This acceleration is called centripetal (center-seeking) acceleration.
The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is given by ac v2 ω2r
(A.17)
r where r is the radius of rotation and v is the speed tangential to the path of rotation. Because the body is accelerated toward its center of rotation, we conclude from Newton’s second law that a force pointing toward the center of rotation must act on the body. This force, called the centripetal force Fc, is given by Fc mac mv2 mω2r
(A.18)
r where m is the mass of the rotating body.
For a body to move along a curved path, a centripetal force must be applied to it. In the absence of such a force, the body moves in a straight line, as required by Newton’s first law. Consider, for example, an object twirled at the end of a rope. The centripetal force is applied by the rope on the object.
From Newton’s third law, an equal but opposite reaction force is applied on the rope by the object. The reaction to the centripetal force is called the centrifugal force. This force is in the direction away from the center of rotation.
The centripetal force, which is required to keep the body in rotation, always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion and, therefore, does no work Section A.17 Torque TABLE A.2 Moments of Inertia of Some Simple Bodies
Body
Location of axis
Moment of inertia
A thin rod of length l Through the center
ml2/12
A thin rod of length l Through one end
ml2/3
Sphere of radius r
Along a diameter
2mr2/5
Cylinder of radius r
Along axis of symmetry mr2/2 (see Eq. A.28). In the absence of friction, energy is not required to keep a body rotating at a constant angular velocity.
A.16
Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia in angular motion is analogous to mass in translational motion. The moment of inertia I of an element of mass m located a distance from the center of rotation is
I mr 2
(A.19)
In general, when an object is in angular motion, the mass elements in the body are located at different distances from the center of rotation. The total moment of inertia is the sum of the moments of inertia of the mass elements in the body.
Unlike mass, which is a constant for a given body, the moment of inertia depends on the location of the center of rotation. In general, the moment of inertia is calculated by using integral calculus. The moments of inertia for a few objects useful for our calculations are shown in Table A.2.
A.17
Torque
Torque is defined as the tendency of a force to produce rotation about an axis.
Torque, which is usually designated by the letter L, is given by the product of the perpendicular force and the distance d from the point of application to the axis of rotation; that is (see Fig. A.2), L F cos θ × d
(A.20)
The distance d is called the lever arm or moment arm.
Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics FIGURE A.2 Torque produced by a force.
A.18 Newton’s Laws of Angular Motion
The laws governing angular motion are analogous to the laws of translational motion. Torque is analogous to force, and the moment of inertia is analogous to mass.
First Law: A body in rotation will continue its rotation with a constant angu lar velocity unless acted upon by an external torque.
Second Law: The mathematical expression of the second law in angular motion is analogous to Eq. A.10. It states that the torque is equal to the product of the moment of inertia and the angular acceleration; that is, L Iα (A.21) Third Law: For every torque, there is an equal and opposite reaction torque.
A.19 Angular Momentum
Angular momentum is defined as Angular momentum Iω
(A.22)
From Newton’s laws, it can be shown that angular momentum of a body is conserved if there is no unbalanced external torque acting on the body.
Section A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques FIGURE A.3 The resolution of a force into its vertical and horizontal components.
A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques
Any number of forces and torques can be applied simultaneously to a given object. Because forces and torques are vectors, characterized by both a magnitude and a direction, their net effect on a body is obtained by vectorial addition.
When it is required to obtain the total force acting on a body, it is often convenient to break up each force into mutually perpendicular components. This is illustrated for the two-dimensional case in Fig. A.3. Here we have chosen the horizontal x- and the vertical y-directions as the mutually perpendicular axes. In a more general three-dimensional case, a third axis is required for the analysis.
The two perpendicular components of the force F are Fx F cos θ
(A.23)
Fy F sin θ
The magnitude of the force F is given by
F F 2 x + F 2
y
(A.24)
When adding a number of forces (F1, F2, F3, . . .) the mutually perpendic ular components of the total force FT are obtained by adding the corresponding Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics components of each force; that is, (FT)x (F1)x + (F2)x + (F3)x + · · ·
(A.25)
(FT)y (F1)y + (F2)y + (F3)y + · · ·
The magnitude of the total force is FT (FT)2x + (FT)2y
(A.26)
The torque produced by a force acts to produce a rotation in either a clockwise or a counterclockwise direction. If we designate one direction of rotation as positive and the other as negative, the total torque acting on a body is obtained by the addition of the individual torques each with the appropriate sign.
A.21 Static Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium if both its linear and angular acceleration are zero. To satisfy this condition, the sum of the forces F acting on the body, as well as the sum of the torques L produced by these forces must be zero; that is,
P
P
F 0 and
L 0
(A.27)
A.22
Work
In our everyday language, the word work denotes any types of effort whether physical or mental. In physics, a more rigorous definition is required. Here work is defined as the product of force and the distance through which the force acts.
Only the force parallel to the direction of motion does work on the object. This is illustrated in Fig. A.4. A force F applied at an angle θ pulls the object along the surface through a distance D. The work done by the force is Work F cos θ × D (A.28)
A.23 Energy Energy is an important concept. We find reference to energy in connection with widely different phenomena. We speak of atomic energy, heat energy, potential energy, solar energy, chemical energy, kinetic energy; we even speak
Section A.24 Forms of Energy FIGURE A.4 Work done by a force.
of people as being full of energy. The common factor that ties together these manifestations is the possibility of obtaining work from these sources. The connection between energy and work is simple: Energy is required to do work. Energy is measured in the same units as work; in fact, there is a oneto-one correspondence between them. It takes 2 J of energy to do 2 J of work.
In all physical processes, energy is conserved. Through work, one form of energy can be converted into another, but the total amount of energy remains unchanged.
A.24 Forms of Energy A.24.1 Kinetic Energy
Objects in motion can do work by virtue of their motion. For example, when a moving object hits a stationary object, the stationary object is accelerated.
This implies that the moving object applied a force on the stationary object and performed work on it. The kinetic energy (KE) of a body with mass moving with a velocity v is KE 1 mv2
(A.29)
2
In rotational motion, the kinetic energy is KE 1 Iω2
(A.30)
2
A.24.2 Potential Energy
Potential energy of a body is the ability of the body to do work because of its position or configuration. A body of weight W raised to a height H with respect Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics to a surface has a potential energy (PE) PE WH
(A.31)
This is the amount of work that had to be performed to raise the body to height H. The same amount of energy can be retrieved by lowering the body back to the surface.
A stretched or compressed spring possesses potential energy. The force required to stretch or compress a spring is directly proportional to the length of the stretch or compression (s); that is, F ks
(A.32)
Here k is the spring constant. The potential energy stored in the stretched or compressed spring is PE 1 ks2
(A.33)
2
A.24.3 Heat
Heat is a form of energy, and as such it can be converted to work and other forms of energy. Heat, however, is not equal in rank with other forms of energy. While work and other forms of energy can be completely converted to heat, heat energy can only be converted partially to other forms of energy.
This property of heat has far-reaching consequences which are discussed in Chapter 10.
Heat is measured in calorie units. One calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C◦. The heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by 1 degree is called the specific heat. One calorie is equal to 4.184 J.
A heat unit frequently used in chemistry and in food technology is the kilocalorie or Cal which is equal to 1000 cal.
A.25
Power
The amount of work done—or energy expended—per unit time is called power. The algebraic expression for power is P E (A.34) t
where E is the energy expended in a time interval t.
Section A.26 Units and Conversions A.26
Units and Conversions
In our calculations we will mostly use SI units in which the basic units for length, mass, and time are meter, kilogram, and second. However, other units are also encountered in the text. Units and conversion factors for the most commonly encountered quantities are listed here with their abbreviations.
A.26.1 Length SI unit: meter (m) Conversions: 1 m 100 cm (centimeter) 1000 mm (millimeter) 1000 m 1 km 1 m 3.28 feet 39.37 in 1 km 0.621 mile 1 in 2.54 cm
In addition, the micron and the angstrom are used frequently in physics and biology.
1 micron (μm) 10−6 m 10−4 cm 1 angstrom ( ˚ A)∗ 10−8 cm A.26.2 Mass SI unit: kilogram (kg) Conversions: 1 kg 1000 g
The weight of a 1-kg mass is 9.8 newton (N).
A.26.3 Force SI Unit: kg m s−2, name of unit: newton (N) Conversions: 1 N 105 dynes (dyn) 0.225 lbs A.26.4 Pressure SI unit: kg m−1 s−2, name of unit: pascal (Pa) Conversions: 1 Pa 10−1 dynes/cm2 9.87 × 10−6 atmosphere (atm) 1.45 × 10−4 lb/in2 1 atm 1.01 × 105 Pa 760 mmHg (torr) Appendix A Basic Concepts in Mechanics A.26.5 Energy SI unit: kg m−2 s−2, name of unit: joule (J) Conversion: 1 J 1 N-m 107 ergs 0.239 cal 0.738 ft-lb A.26.6 Power SI unit: J s−1, name of unit: watt (W) Conversion: 1 W 107 ergs/sec 1.34 × 10−3 horsepower (hp)
Appendix B
Review of ElectricityB.1 Electric Charge
Matter is composed of atoms. An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus itself is composed of protons and neutrons. Electric charge is a property of protons and electrons. There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative. The proton is positively charged, and the electron is negatively charged. All electrical phenomena are due to these electric charges.
Charges exert forces on each other. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel each other. The electrons are held around the nucleus by the electrical attraction of the protons. Although the proton is about 2000 times heavier than the electron, the magnitude of the charge on the two is the same. There are as many positively charged protons in an atom as negatively charged electrons.
The atom as a whole is, therefore, electrically neutral. The identity of an atom is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus. Thus, for example, hydrogen has 1 proton; nitrogen has 7 protons; and gold has 79 protons.
It is possible to remove electrons from an atom, making it positively charged.
Such an atom with missing electrons is called a positive ion. It is also possible to add an electron to an atom which makes it a negative ion.
Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C). The magnitude of the charge on the proton and the electron is 1.60 × 10−19 C. The force F between two charged bodies is proportional to the product of their charges Q1 and Q2 and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them; that is, F KQ1Q2 (B.1)
R2
287
Appendix B Review of Electricity
This equation is known as Coulomb’s law. If R is measured in meters, the constant K is 9 × 109, and F is obtained in newtons.
B.2 Electric Field
An electric charge exerts a force on another electric charge; a mass exerts a force on another mass; and a magnet exerts a force on another magnet. All these forces have an important common characteristic: Exertion of the force does not require physical contact between the interacting bodies. The forces act at a distance. The concept of lines of force or field lines is useful in visualizing these forces which act at a distance.
Any object that exerts a force on another object without contact can be thought of as having lines of force emanating from it. The complete line configuration is called a force field. The lines point in the direction of the force, and their density at any point in space is proportional to the magnitude of the force at that point.
The lines of force emanate from an electric charge uniformly in all direc tions. By convention, the lines point in the direction of the force that the source charge exerts on a positive charge. Thus, the lines of force point away from a positive source charge and into a negative source charge (see Fig. B.1). The number of lines emanating from the charge is proportional to the magnitude of the electric charge. If the size of the source charge is doubled, the number of force lines is also doubled.
Lines of force need not be straight lines; as we mentioned, they point in the direction in which the force is exerted. As an example, we can consider the FIGURE B.1 Two-dimensional representation of the electric field produced by a positive point charge (a) and a negative point charge (b).
Section B.4 Electric Current FIGURE B.2 Lines of force produced by a positive and a negative charge separated by a distance d.
net field due to two charges separated by a distance d. To determine this field we must compute the direction and size of the net force on a positive charge at all points in space. This is done by adding vectorially the force lines due to each charge. The force field due to a positive and negative charge of equal magnitude separated by a distance d from each other is shown in Fig. B.2.
Here the lines of force are curved. This is, of course, the direction of the net force on a positive charge in the region surrounding the two fixed charges.
The field shown in Fig. B.2 is called a dipole field, and it is similar to the field produced by a bar magnet.
B.3 Potential Difference or Voltage
The electric field is measured in units of volt per meter (or volt per centimeter).
The product of the electric field and the distance over which the field extends is an important parameter which is called potential difference or voltage. The voltage (V ) between two points is a measure of energy transfer as the charge moves between the two points. Potential difference is measured in volts. If there is a potential difference between two points, a force is exerted on a charge placed in the region between these points. If the charge is positive, the force tends to move it away from the positive point and toward the negative point.
B.4 Electric Current
An electric current is produced by a motion of charges. The magnitude of the current depends on the amount of charge flowing past a given point in a given period of time. Current is measured in amperes (A). One ampere is 1 coulomb (C) of charge flowing past a point in 1 second (sec).
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5 Electric Circuits
The amount of current flowing between two points in a material is proportional to the potential difference between the two points and to the electrical properties of the material. The electrical properties are usually represented by three parameters: resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Resistance measures the opposition to current flow. This parameter depends on the property of the material called resistivity, and it is analogous to friction in mechanical motion. Capacitance measures the ability of the material to store electric charges. Inductance measures the opposition in the material to changes in current flow. All materials exhibit to some extent all three of these properties; often, however, one of these properties is predominant. It is possible to manufacture components with specific values of resistance, capacitance, or inductance. These are called, respectively, resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The schematic symbols for these three electrical components are shown in Fig. B.3. Electrical components can be connected together to form an electric circuit. Currents can be controlled by the appropriate choice of components and interconnections in the circuit. An example of an electric circuit is shown in Fig. B.4. Various techniques have been developed to analyze such circuits and to calculate voltages and currents at all the points in the circuit.
B.5.1 Resistor
The resistor is a circuit component that opposes current flow. Resistance (R) is measured in units of ohm (). The relation between current (I ) and FIGURE B.3 Circuit components.
FIGURE B.4 Example of an electric circuit.
Section B.5 Electric Circuits voltage (V ) is given by Ohm’s law, which is
V IR
(B.2)
Materials that present a very small resistance to current flow are called conductors. Materials with a very large resistance are called insulators. A flow of current through a resistor is always accompanied by power dissipation as electrical energy is converted to heat. The power (P) dissipated in a resistor is given by P I2R
(B.3)
The inverse of resistance is called conductance, which is usually designated by the symbol G. Conductance is measured in units of mho, also called Siemens.
The relationship between conductance and resistance is
G 1
(B.4)
R B.5.2 Capacitor
The capacitor is a circuit element that stores electric charges. In its simplest form it consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (see Fig. B.5). Capacitance (C) is measured in farads. The relation between the stored charge (Q), and the voltage across the capacitor is given by Q CV
(B.5)
In a charged capacitor, positive charges are on one side of the plate, and negative charges are on the other. The amount of energy (E) stored in such a configuration is given by E 1 CV 2
(B.6)
2
FIGURE B.5 A simple capacitor.
Appendix B Review of Electricity B.5.3 Inductor
The inductor is a device that opposes a change in the current flowing through it. Inductance is measured in units called henry.
B.6 Voltage and Current Sources
Voltages and currents can be produced by various batteries and generators.
Batteries are based on chemical reactions that result in a separation of positive and negative charges within a material. Generators produce a voltage by the motion of conductors in magnetic fields. The circuit symbols for these sources are shown in Fig. B.6.
B.7
Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity and magnetism are related phenomena. A changing electric field always produces a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field always produces an electric field. All electromagnetic phenomena can be traced to this basic interrelationship. A few of the consequences of this interaction follow:
1. An electric current always produces a magnetic field at a direction perpendicular to the current flow.
2. A current is induced in a conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field.
3. An oscillating electric charge emits electromagnetic waves at the frequency of oscillation. This radiation propagates away from the source at the speed of light. Radio waves, light, and X-rays are examples of electromagnetic radiation.
FIGURE B.6 Circuit symbols for a battery and a generator.
Appendix C
Review of Optics C.1 Geometric Optics
The characteristics of optical components, such as mirrors and lenses, can be completely derived from the wave properties of light. Such detailed calculations, however, are usually rather complex because one has to keep track of the wave front along every point on the optical component. It is possible to simplify the problem if the optical components are much larger than the wavelength of light. The simplification entails neglecting some of the wave properties of light and considering light as a ray traveling perpendicular to the wave front (Fig. C.1). In a homogeneous medium, the ray of light travels in a straight line; it alters direction only at the interface between two media. This simplified approach is called geometric optics.
The speed of light depends on the medium in which it propagates. In vacuum, light travels at a speed of 3 × 108 m/sec. In a material medium, the speed of light is always less. The speed of light in a material is characterized by the index of refraction (n) defined as n c
(C.1)
v where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed in the material.
When light enters from one medium into another, its direction of propagation is changed (see Fig. C.2). This phenomenon is called refraction. The relationship between the angle of incidence (θ1) and the angle of refraction (θ2)
293
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.1 Light rays perpendicular to the wave front.
is given by sin θ1 n2
(C.2)
sin θ2
n1
The relationship in Eq. C.2 is called Snell’s law. As shown in Fig. C.2, some of the light is also reflected. The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence.
In Fig. C.2a, the angle of incidence θ1 for the entering light is shown to be greater than the angle of refraction θ2. This implies that n2 is greater than n1 as would be the case for light entering from air into glass, for example (see Eq. C.2). If, on the other hand, the light originates in the medium of higher refractive index, as shown in Fig. C.2b, then the angle of incidence θ1 is smaller than the angle of refraction θ2. At a specific value of angle θ1 called the critical angle (designated by the symbol θc), the light emerges tangent to the surface, that is, θ2 90◦. At this point, sin θ2 1 and, therefore, sin θ1 sin θc n2/n1. Beyond this angle, that is for θ1 > θc, light originating in the medium of higher refractive index does not emerge from the medium. At the interface, all the light is reflected back into the medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. For glass, n2 is typically 1.5, and the critical angle at the glass-air interface is sin θc 1/1.5 or θc 42◦.
Transparent materials such as glass can be shaped into lenses to alter the direction of light in a specific way. Lenses fall into two general categories: converging lenses and diverging lenses. A converging lens alters the direction of light so that the rays are brought together. A diverging lens has the opposite effect; it spreads the light rays apart.
Using geometric optics, we can calculate the size and shape of images formed by optical components, but we cannot predict the inevitable blurring of images which occurs as a result of the wave nature of light.
Section C.2 Converging Lenses FIGURE C.2 (Top) Reflection and refraction of light. (Bottom) Total internal reflection.
C.2 Converging Lenses
A simple converging lens is shown in Fig. C.3. This type of a lens is called a convex lens.
Parallel rays of light passing through a convex lens converge at a point called the principal focus of the lens. The distance of this point from the lens is called the focal length f. Conversely, light from a point source at the focal point emerges from the lens as a parallel beam. The focal length of the lens is
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.3 The convex lens illuminated (a) by parallel light, (b) by point source at the focus.
determined by the index of refraction of the lens material and the curvature of the lens surfaces. We adopt the following convention in discussing lenses.
1. Light travels from left to right.
2. The radius of curvature is positive if the curved surface encountered by the light ray is convex; it is negative if the surface is concave.
It can be shown that for a thin lens the focal length is given by
1
1
(n − 1) − 1
(C.3)
f
R1 R2 where R1 and R2 are the curvatures of the first and second surfaces, respectively (Fig. C.4). In Fig. C.4, R2 is a negative number.
Focal length is a measure of the converging power of the lens. The shorter the focal length, the more powerful the lens. The focusing power of a lens is
Section C.2 Converging Lenses FIGURE C.4 Radius of curvature defined for a lens.
often expressed in diopters defined as
Focusing power
1
(diopters)
(C.4)
f (meters) If two thin lenses with focal lengths f1 and f2, respectively, are placed close together, the focal length fT of the combination is 1 1 + 1
(C.5)
fT
f1
f2
Light from a point source located beyond the focal length of the lens is converged to a point image on the other side of the lens (Fig. C.5a). This type of an image is called a real image because it can be seen on a screen placed at the point of convergence.
If the distance between the source of light and the lens is less than the focal length, the rays do not converge. They appear to emanate from a point on the source side of the lens. This apparent point of convergence is called a (Fig. C.5b).
For a thin lens, the relationship between the source and the image distances from the lens is given by 1 + 1 1
(C.6)
p
q
f
Here p and q, respectively, are the source and the image distances from the lens. By convention, q in this equation is taken as positive if the image is formed on the side of the lens opposite to the source and negative if the image is formed on the source side.
Light rays from a source very far from the lens are nearly parallel; there fore, by definition we would expect them to be focused at the principal focal point of the lens. This is confirmed by Eq. C.6, which shows that as p becomes very large (approaches infinity), q is equal to f.
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.5 Image formation by a convex lens: (a) real image, (b) virtual image.
If the source is displaced a distance x from the axis, the image is formed at a distance y from the axis such that y q
(C.7)
x
p
This is illustrated for a real image in Fig. C.6. The relationship between p and q is still given by Eq. C.6.
C.3 Images of Extended Objects
So far we have discussed only the formation of images from point sources.
The treatment, however, is easily applied to objects of finite size.
When an object is illuminated, light rays emanate from every point on the object (Fig. C.7a). Each point on the object plane a distance p from the lens
Section C.3 Images of Extended Objects FIGURE C.6 Image formation off axis.
FIGURE C.7 Image of an object: (a) real, (b) virtual.
is imaged at the corresponding point on the image plane a distance q from the lens. The relationship between the object and the image distances is given by Eq. C.6. As shown in Fig. C.7, real images are inverted and virtual images are upright. The ratio of image to object height is given by Image height −q
(C.8)
Object height p
Appendix C Review of Optics FIGURE C.8 A diverging lens.
C.4 Diverging Lenses
An example of a diverging lens is the concave lens shown in Fig. C.8. Parallel light diverges after passing through a concave lens. The apparent source of origin for the diverging rays is the focal point of the concave lens. All the equations we have presented for the converging lens apply in this case also, provided the sign conventions are obeyed. From Eq. C.3, it follows that the focal length for a diverging lens is always negative and the lens produces only virtual images (Fig. C.8).
C.5
Lens Immersed in a Material Medium
The lens equations that we have presented so far apply in the case when the lens is surrounded by air that has a refraction index of approximately 1. Let us now consider the more general situation shown in Fig. C.9, which we will need in our discussion of the eye. The lens here is embedded in a medium that has a different index of refraction (n1 and n2) on each side of the lens. It can be shown (see [15-3]) that under these conditions the relationship between the object and the image distances is n1 + n2 nL −n1 − nL − n2
(C.9)
p
q
R1
R2
Section C.5 Lens Immersed in a Material Medium FIGURE C.9 Lens immersed in a material medium.
Here nL is the refraction index of the lens material. The effective focal length in this case is 1 n2 −n1 − nL −n2
(C.10)
f
R1
R2
Note that in air n1 n2 1 and Eq. C.10 reduces to Eq. C.3.
The lens equations we have presented in this appendix assume that the lenses are thin. This is not a fully valid assumption for the lenses in the eye.
Nevertheless these equations are adequate for our purposes.
Bibliography
Chapters 1 to 6 6-1 Alexander, R. McNeill. Animal Mechanics. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968.
6-2 Baez, Albert V. The New College Physics: A Spiral Approach. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1967.
6-3 Blesser, William B. A Systems Approach to Biomedicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.
6-4 Bootzin, David, and Muffley, Harry C. Biomechanics. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1969.
6-5 Cameron, J. R., Skofronick, J. G., and Grant, R. M. Physics of the Body.
Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing, 1992.
6-6 Chapman, R. F. The Insects. New York, NY: American Elsevier Pub lishing Co., 1969.
6-7 Conaghan, P. G. “Update on Osteoarthritis Part 1: Current Concepts and the Relation to Exercise,” British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36 (2002), 330–333.
6-8 Cooper, John M., and Glassow, Ruth B. Kinesiology, 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: The C. V. Mosby Co., 1972.
6-9 Cromer, A. H. Physics for the Life Sciences. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1974.
302
Bibliography 6-10 Frankel, Victor H., and Burstein, Albert H. Orthopaedic Biomechanics.
Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1970.
6-11 French, A. P. Newtonian Mechanics. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1971.
6-12 Frost, H. M. An Introduction to Biomechanics. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas, Publisher, 1967.
6-13 Gray, James. How Animals Move. Cambridge, UK: University Press, 1953.
6-14 Heglund, N. C., Willems, P. A., Penta, M., and Cavagna, G. A. “Energy saving Gait Mechanics with Head-supported Loads,” Nature, 375 (1995), 52–54.
6-15 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
6-16 Ingber, D. E. “The Architecture of Life,” Scientific American (January 1998), 47.
6-17 Jensen, Clayne R., and Schultz, Gordon W. Applied Kinesiology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
6-18 Kenedi, R. M., ed. Symposium on Biomechanics and Related Bioengi- neering Topics. New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 1965.
6-19 Lauk, M., Chow, C. C., Pavlik, A. E., and Collins, J. J. “Human Balance out of Equilibrium: Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics in Posture Control,” The American Physical Society, 80 (January 1998), 413.
6-20 Latchaw, Marjorie, and Egstrom, Glen. Human Movement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969.
6-21 McCormick, Ernest J. Human Factors Engineering. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
6-22 Mathews, Donald K., and Fox, Edward L. The Physiological Basis of Physical Education and Athletics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1971.
6-23 Morgan, Joseph. Introduction to University Physics, Vol. 1, 2nd ed.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
6-24 Novacheck, T. F. “The Biomechanics of Running,” Gait and Posture, 7 (1998), 77–95.
Bibliography 6-25 Offenbacher, Elmer L. “Physics and the Vertical Jump,” American Jour- nal of Physics, 38 (July 1970), 829–836.
6-26 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
6-27 Roddy, E. et al.
“Evidence-based Recommendations for the Role of Exercise in the Management of Osteoarthritis,” Rheumatology, 44 (2005), 67–73.
6-28 Rome, L. C. “Testing a Muscle’s Design,” American Scientist, 85 (July– August 1997), 356.
6-29 Strait, L. A., Inman, V. T., and Ralston, H. J. “Sample Illustrations of Physical Principles Selected from Physiology and Medicine,” , 15 (1947), 375.
6-30 Sutton, Richard M. “Two Notes on the Physics of Walking,” American Journal of Physics, 23 (1955), 490.
6-31 Wells, Katherine F. Kinesiology: The Scientific Basis of Human Motion.
Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1971.
6-32 Williams, M., and Lissner, H. R. Biomechanics of Human Motion. Phil adelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1962.
6-33 Winter, D. A. “Human Balance and Posture Control during Standing and Walking,” Gait & Posture, 3 (1995), 193–214.
6-34 Wolff, H. S. Biomedical Engineering. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1970.
Chapter 7 7-1 Alexander, R. McNeill. Animal Mechanics. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968.
7-2 Bush, J. W. M., and Hu, D. L. “Walking on Water: Biolocomotion at the Interface,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 38 (2006), 339–369.
7-3 Chapman, R. F. The Insects. New York, NY: American Elsevier Pub lishing Co., 1969.
7-4 Foth, H. D., and Turk, L. M. Fundamentals of Soil Science. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
7-5 Gamow, G., and Ycas, M. Mr. Tomkins Inside Himself. New York, NY: The Viking Press, 1967.
Bibliography 7-6 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
7-7 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
7-8 Murray, J. M., and Weber, A. “The Cooperative Action of Muscle Pro teins,” Scientific American (February 1974), 59.
7-9 Rome, L. C. “Testing a Muscle’s Design,” American Scientist, 85 (July– August 1997), 356.
Chapter 8 8-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1962.
8-2 Hademenos, G. J. “The Biophysics of Stroke,” American Scientist, 85 (May–June 1997), 226.
8-3 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
8-4 Myers, G. H., and Parsonnet, V. Engineering in the Heart and Blood Vessels. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1969.
8-5 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
8-6 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D., eds. Physiology and Biophysics. Philadel phia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965.
8-7 Strait, L. A., Inman, V. T., and Ralston, H. J. “Sample Illustrations of Physical Principles Selected from Physiology and Medicine,” , 15 (1947), 375.
Chapters 9 to 11 11-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1962.
11-2 Angrist, S. W. “Perpetual Motion Machines,” Scientific American (January 1968), 114.
Bibliography 11-3 Atkins, P. W. The 2nd Law. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1994.
11-4 Brown, J. H. U., and Gann, D. S., eds. Engineering Principles in Physi- ology, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1973.
11-5 Casey, E. J. Biophysics, New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.
11-6 Loewenstein, W. R. The Touchstone of Life: Molecular Information, Cell Communication, and the Foundations of Life. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999.
11-7 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
11-8 Morowitz, H. J. Energy Flow in Biology. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1968.
11-9 Peters, R. H. The Ecological Implications of Body Size. Cambridge University Press, 1983.
11-10 Rose, A. H., ed. Thermobiology. London: Academic Press, 1967.
11-11 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D., eds. Physiology and Biophysics. Phila delphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965.
11-12 Schurch, S., Lee, M., and Gehr, P. “Pulmonary Surfactant: Surface Properties and Function of Alveolar and Airway Surfactant,” , 64(11) (1992), 1745–1750.
11-13 Stacy, R. W., Williams, D. T., Worden, R. E., and McMorris, R. W.
Biological and Medical Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955.
Chapter 12 12-1 Alexander, R. McNeil Animal Mechanics. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1968.
12-2 Brown, J. H. U., and Gann, D. S., eds. Engineering Principles in Phys- iology, Vols. 1 and 2. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1973.
12-3 Burns, D. M., and MacDonald, S. G. G. Physics for Biology and Pre-Medical Students. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970.
Bibliography 12-4 Casey, E. J. Biophysics. New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962.
12-5 Cromwell, L., Weibell, F.J., Pfeiffer, E. A., and Usselman, L. B. Bio- medical Instrumentation and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
12-6 Marshall, J. S., Pounder, E. R., and Stewart, R. W. Physics, 2nd ed.
New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1967.
12-7 Mizrach, A., Hetzroni, A., Mazor, M., Mankin, R. W., Ignat, T., Grinshpun, J., Epsky, N. D., Shuman, D., and Heath, R. R. “Acoustic Trap for Female Mediterranean Fruit Flies,” 48(2005), 2017–2022.
12-8 Morgan, J. Introduction to University Physics, 2d ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1969.
12-9 Richardson, I. W., and Neergaard, E. B. Physics for Biology and Medi- cine. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
12-10 Stacy, R. W., Williams, D. T., Worden, R. E., and McMorris, R. W.
Biological and Medical Physics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955.
Chapter 13 13-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
13-2 Bassett, C. A. L. “Electrical Effects in Bone,” Scientific American (October 1965), 18.
13-3 Bullock, T. H. “Seeing the World through a New Sense: Electrorecep tion in Fish,” American Scientist 61 (May–June 1973), 316.
13-4 Delchar, T. A. Physics in Medical Diagnosis. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1997.
13-5 Hobbie, R. K. “Nerve Conduction in the Pre-Medical Physics Course,” American Journal of Physics, 41 (October 1973), 1176.
13-6 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
Bibliography 13-7 Katz, B. “How Cells Communicate,” Scientific American (September 1961), 208.
13-8 Katz, B. Nerve Muscle and Synapse. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966.
13-9 Miller, W. H., Ratcliff, F., and Hartline, H. K. “How Cells Receive Stimuli,” Scientific American (September 1961), 223.
13-10 Scott, B. I. H. “Electricity in Plants,” Scientific American (October 1962), 107.
Chapter 14 14-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
14-2 Blesser, W. B. A Systems Approach to Biomedicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969.
14-3 Cromwell, L., Weibell, F. J., Pfeiffer, E. A., and Usselman, L. B. Bio- medical Instrumentation and Measurements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973.
14-4 Davidovits, P. Communication. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
14-5 Loizou, P. C. “Mimicking the Human Ear,” IEEE Signal Processing Magazine (September 1998), 101–130.
14-6 Scher, A. M. “The Electrocardiogram,” Scientific American (November 1961), 132.
Chapter 15 15-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962.
15-2 Davidovits, P., and Egger, M. D. “Microscopic Observation of Endothe lial Cells in the Cornea of an Intact Eye,” Nature 244 (1973), 366.
15-3 Katzir, A. “Optical Fibers in Medicine,” Scientific American (May 1989) 260, 120.
Bibliography 15-4 Marshall, J. S., Pounder, E. R., and Stewart, R. W. Physics, 2nd ed. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1967.
15-5 Muntz, W. R. A. “Vision in Frogs,” Scientific American (March 1964), 110.
15-6 Ruch, T. C., and Patton, H. D. Physiology and Biophysics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders and Co., 1965.
15-7 Wald, George. “Eye and the Camera,” Scientific American (August 1950), 32.
Chapters 16 and 17 16-1 Ackerman, E. Biophysical Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1962.
16-2 Burns, D. M., and MacDonald, S. G. G. Physics for Biology and Pre- Medical Students. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1970.
16-3 Delchar, T. A. Physics in Medical Diagnosis. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1997.
16-4 Dowsett, D. J., Kenny, P. A., and Johnston, R. E. The Physics of Diagnostic Imaging. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall Medical, 1998.
16-5 Hobbie, R. K. Intermediate Physics for Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer, 1997.
16-6 Pizer, V. “Preserving Food with Atomic Energy,” United States Atomic Energy Commission Division of Technical Information, 1970.
16-7 Pykett, I. L. “NMR Imaging in Medicine,” Scientific American (May 1982), 78.
16-8 Schr¨odinger, E. “What Is Life?” and Other Scientific Essays. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Co., 1956.
Answers to Numerical
Exercises Chapter 1 1-1(b). F 254 N (57.8 lb) 1-3. θ 72.6◦ 1-4. Maximum weight 335 N (75 lb) 1-5(a). Fm 2253 N (508 lb), Fr 2386 N (536 lb) 1-6. Fm 720 N, Fr 590 N 1-7(a). Fm 2160 N, Fr 1900 N 1-8. Fm 103 N, Fr 84 N 1-10. x 19.6 cm, v of tendon 4 cm/sec, v of weight 38 cm/sec 1-11. Fm 0.47 W, Fr 1.28 W 1-12(a). Fm 2000 N, Fr 2200 N; (b). Fm 3220 N, Fr 3490 N 1-13. FA 2.5 W, FT 3.5 W Chapter 2 2-1(a). Distance 354 m; (b). Independ of mass 2-2(a). μ 0.067 2-3(a). μ 1.95; (b). with μ 1.0, θ 39.4◦, with μ 0.01, θ 0.6◦ Chapter 3 3-1. P 4120 watt 3-2. H 126 cm 311 3-3. Fr 1.16 W, θ 65.8◦ 3-4. T 0.534 sec 3-5(a). R 13.5 m; (b). H 3.39 m; (c). 4.08 sec 3-6. v 8.6 m/sec 3-7. r 1.13 m 3-8(a). v 8.3 m/sec; (b) 16.6 cm/sec 3-9. Energy expended/sec 1350 J/sec 3-10. P 371 watt Chapter 4 4-2. F 10.1 N 4-3. ω 1.25 rad/sec; linear velocity 6.25 m/sec 4-4. ω 1.25 rad/sec 33.9 rpm 4-5. v 62.8 m/sec 4-6. Speed 1.13 m/sec 4.07 km/h 2.53 mph 4-7. T 1.6 sec 4-8. E 1.64 mv2 4-9. Fall time 1 sec
Chapter 5 5-1. v 2.39 m/sec (5.3 mph) 5-2. v 8 m/sec; with 1 cm2area v 2 m/sec 5-3. h 5.1 m 5-4. t 3 × 10−2 sec 5-5. v 17 m/sec (37 mph) 5-6. Force/cm2 4.6 × 106 dyn/cm2, yes 5-7. v 0.7 m/sec, no Chapter 6 6-1. F 2 W 6-2. 0.052 mm 6-3. h 18.4 cm 6-4. 10.3 cm
Answers to Numerical Exercises Chapter 7 7-2. P 7.8 W 7-3. v [gV(ρw − ρ)/Aρw]1/2; P 1/2[W{(ρw/ρ) −1}3/2]/(Aρw)1/2 7-5. P 1.51 × 107dyn/cm2 15 atm 7-6. Volume of swim bladder 3.8% 7-7. ρ2 ρ1(W1/W1 − W2) 7-8. p 1.46 × 105 dyn/cm2 7-11. Perimeter 9.42 km 7-12. Speed 29 cm/sec Chapter 8 8-1. P 3.19 × 10−2 torr 8-2. P 4.8 torr 8-3. h 129 cm 8-4(a). p 61 torr; (b). p 200 torr 8-5(b). R1/R2 0.56 8-6. v 26.5 cm/sec 8-7. N 7.5 × 104 8-8. p 79 torr 8-9. P 10.1 W 8-10(a). P 0.25 W; (b). P 4.5 W
Chapter 9
9-2. V 29.3 9-3(a). t 10−2 sec; (b). t 10−5 sec 9-5. N 1.08 × 1020 molecules/sec 9-6. No. breaths/min . 10.4
9-7(a). Rate 1.71 liter/hr-cm2; (b). diameter 0.5 cm 9-8. P 2.87 atm
Chapter 11 11-2. t 373 hours 11-3. v 4.05 m3 11-4. t 105 days 11-5. Weight loss 0.892 kg 11-6. H 18.7 Cal/h 11-8(b). Change 22%; (c). Kr 6.0 Cal/m2-h-C◦ 11-9. Heat removed 8.07 Cal/h 11-10. Heat loss 660 Cal/m2-h 11-11. H 14.4 Cal/h Chapter 12 12-1. R 31.6 km 12-2. 1.75 times 12-3. p 2.9 × 10−4 dyn/cm2 12-6. D 11.5 m 12-8. Min. size 1.7 × 10−2 cm Chapter 13 13-1(a). No. of ions 1.88 × 1011; (b). no. of Na+ ions 7.09 × 1014/m; No. of K+ ions 7.09 × 1015/m 13-8(a). no of cells in series 5000; (b). no of cells in parallel 2.7 × 109
Chapter 14 14-1. i 13.3 amp Chapter 15 15-1. Change in position 0.004 cm 15-3. For cornea 41.9 diopters; for lens, min power 18.7 diopters, max power 24.4 diopters 15-4. 1/f −0.39 diopters 15-5. Focusing power ±70 diopters 15-6. p 1.5 cm 15-7(a). Resolution 2.67 × 10−4 rad; (b). Resolution 6.67 × 10−4 rad 15-8. D 20 m 15-9. H 3 × 10−4 cm
Index
Absorption velocity and K c, 151–152 electromagnetic radiation, 123, 242
viscosity, 104
spectroscopy, 245
Airbag, 68–69
spectrum, 243
Alcohol, caloric value, 147
Acceleration
Aluminum angular, 277
specific heat, 119
centripetal, 278–279
thermal conductivity, 122
defined, 273
Alveoli, 129 equations of translational motion for, size, 132
30–32
Amino acid, 271
gravitational, 5, 33
Amplification, in human ear, 175
of jumper, 31–34
Amplifier, 201
Accommodation of eye, 216–217, 230
transistor, 211
Angstrom, 285
Achilles tendon, 19
Angular acceleration, 277
Actin, 95, 96
Angular momentum
Action potential, 184–186 defined, 280
in muscles, 194
equations of, 277–278
in plants, 196
Angular motion measurement, 195 forces on a curved path, 45–48 propagation, 188–190
Newton’s laws, 280
Adhesion, 90–91 pendulum strength of, 93
physical, 51–52
Adrenaline, 155
simple, 48–50
Aging, and vision, 216–217 running, 53–56
Air vs. linear motion, 277 inspired vs. expired, 130–131 walking, 50–53 motion through, 40–42
Angular velocity, 276
pressure in ear, 170
maximum, 54, 78–79
314
Index
Animal propagation vs. speed of light, 186
energetics, 136
resistance of, 186
motion, 1
sodium pump, 184
sounds produced by, 176
voltage, 184
Anvil (middle ear), 169 vs. electric cable, 186–188
Aorta, 106
blood pressure drop, 107–108
Back turbulent flow, 110–111 backaches, 18
Aperture of eye, 218–219 lever representation, 17–19
Apocrine sweat gland, 155
Bacteria, thermophilic, 145
Aqueous humor, 215–216
Ballistocardiograph, 115
Archimedes’ principle Barth´elemy, Toussaint, 249
defined, 87
Basal metabolic rate, 147 fish buoyancy and, power required to stay afloat and, Basilar membrane, 170
87–88 Bats Arteriole, 106–107, 109
chirping, 175–176
Arterisclerosis, and blood flow, 111–112 echo location, 175
Artery, 105
Battery, 292
elasticity, 112
Bernoulli’s equation, 101–102, 103
narrowing, 111, 112
stenosis and, 111
natural frequency, 112
Biceps, 7
plaque deposit, 111–112
movement of, 11–15
pressure drop, 107–108
Biological control system, 208
pulmonary, 105
features, 206–207
Astigmatism, 227
feedback, 208–210
lens for, 228, 229
in iris, 210
Atom
Biomechanics, 2
absorption spectrum, 243
Blood energy state, 241–242
adrenaline in, 155
excitation of, 242–243
cells, radioactive, 269
interactions between, 270
circulation, 105–107
nucleus, 240, 256–257
flow
structure, 239–240
arterisclerosis, 111–112
Atomic physics, 239
control, 109
Axon, 181
energetics, 110
action potential, 184–186 laminar, 103, 104, 110, 111
action potential propagation, rate, 112–113 188–190 to brain, 109 capacitance and resistance of, 186 turbulence, 110–111 circuit, analysis of, diameter of, 183
velocity, 110, 178
electrical potentials, 183–184, 185
kinetic energy, 110
electrical properties, 186–187
pressure length of, 181
arterial, 107–109
membrane at capillaries, 107
as leaky insulator, 186
measurement, 113–114
permeability, 184
systolic and diastolic, 107
myelin, 181
venal, 109
myelinated, 192–193
sugar level, 245
myelinated vs. nonmyelinated, 187
venal, 136
nodes of Ranvier, 181
viscosity, 104
Index
Bohr model of atom, 240–241, 247
Center of mass motion formation of chemical bonds, in running, 57–58
243–244
in walking, 56–57
hydrogen, 241
Centrifugal force, 45–46, 47
Bohr, Niels, 240
defined, 278
Boltzmann constant, 117–118
Centripetal acceleration, 277–278
Bone
Centripetal force, 46, 47, 277–278
density defined, 277 cuttlefish, 88–89 137Cesium, 268
electricity and, 196–197
Chatecholamine, 109
fracture
Chemical bond, formation of, 243–244 energy involved, 64–66
Chemical energy, 139 force needed to cause, 67–68
Chemical fumigation, 267
neck, 69–70
Chlorine ion, and membrane potential, 184
NMR signal, 261
Chromium isotope, in medicine, 269
osteoblasts and osteoclasts, 197
Circulatory system, 105–107
Boyle’s law, 119 body heat transfer and, 151
Brain mechanism of energy losses, 107 activity identification, 265–266 turbulent flow, 111–112
60
arteries, 109
Cobalt, 268
blood flow to, 109
Cochlea, 170–171 diagnosing disorders, 204 implants, 211–213
ischemic stroke, 112
Coefficient
nerve centers in, 150
convection, 122, 152
nerve impulses, 162
diffusion, friction, 24, 25, 46, 71
role in hearing, 175
kinetic, 25, 71
signal processing, 226
static, 25
Breathing thermal conductivity, 121
cold-blooded animals, 132
Collision heat loss by, 155–156, 157
automobile, 69–70
surfactants and, 132
duration of, 66–67
Broad jump force of, 67–68 running position, 39–40 protective device, 68–69 standing position, 37–39 Compression, 61–62 Broca, Paul Pierre, 265
Computerized tomography, 250–251, 257
Broken heart syndrome, 109
Conductance (G), 291
Bruit, 111
Conduction, thermal, 120–121
Buoyancy, of fish, 88–89 in human body, 150, 151
Conductor, 291
Calorie, 119
Cones and rods, 222, 223, 224, 225–226
intake, 148
Confocal microscopy, 232–235
Capacitor, 291
Conservation
Capillary action, 91, 92, 93
energy, 135–136
Cardiomyopathy, stress, 109
Bernoulli’s equation and, 101–102
Cardiovascular disease human physiology and, 136
arterisclerosis, 111–112
linear momentum, 275
stress cardiomyopathy, 109
Constructive interference, 166
Catfish spine fin, 27–29
Control system, 206–208
Cell, 270–271 feedback, 208–210
Center of gravity, 2
Convection, 121–122 human body, 3–4 in human body, 151–153
Index
Converging lens, 294, 295–298
molecular transport through,
Cooling mechanism, 136, 141, 150, 126–127 155–156, 158 random walk, 124–125
Cork, thermal conductivity of, 122
through biological membrane,
Cornea, 215
128–129
receive oxygen by diffusion, 133
Diopter, 219
refractive power, 220
Dipole field, 289
Coulomb, 287
Diverging lens, 294, 300
Coulomb’s law, 287–288 DNA, 143–144, 248, 250, 269, 270, 271
Critical angle, 294
Doppler effect, 178
Critical flow velocity, 104
Doughnut, energy content, 43
Cromer, A. H., 43
Dyne, 285
Crystallography, CT scan, 250–251, Cut-off blood pressure measurement,
Ear, 168
113–114
amplification in, 175
Cuttlefish, bone density, 88–89 canal, horns, 211
Davidovits, Paul, 232, 233
inner, 170–171 da Vinci, Leonardo, 1, 7–8
balance maintenance, 21
De Broglie, Louis, 246, 247
middle, 169–170
Defibrillator, 206
outer, 168–169
Dehydration, 155
performance, 171–172
Density
sound detection capability, 172–173
constant, 83
sound intensity, 173–175 of water, and floating, 87–88 threshold of hearing and pain, 173, 174 porous bones and swim bladders, Eardrum, 162, 168, 169–170, 175
88–89
Earth, forces on, 33
Depth of field, 219
Eccrine sweat gland, 155
Destructive interference, 166
ECG, See Electrocardiography
Diabetic retinopathy, laser treatment, 254
Echoes, bats and, 175
Diagnostic equipment EEG, See Electroencephalography computerized tomography, 250–251, Eel, electric, 198
257
Egger, M. David, 232, 233
electrocardiograph, 195, 202–203
Einstein, Albert, 252
electroencephalograph, 195,
Elasticity, 61
203–204
artery, 112 electromyograph (EMG), 195 insect wings, 79–80 magnetic resonance imaging, spring, 62–64
257–258
Elbow, movement of, 11–15
stethoscope, 111, 113, 177, X-rays, 249–250
Electrical technology, in biological research, 200–202
Diastolic pressure, Diathermy, 178
Electric charge, 287–288
Diffraction, 168
Electric circuit, 290–292
in eye, 224
Electric current, 289
studies with molecules, 250
effect on brain, 205
Diffusion, 123–125 sources, 292
coefficient, 127
Electric eel, 198
contact lens and, 133
Electric field, 288–289, 292
in respiratory system, 129–132
in water, 198
mean free path, 124
Electric fish, 197–198
Index
Electricity consumption in physical activity, as a natural phenomena, 180
42–43
in bone, 196–197 load carrying, 58–59 fish and, 197–198 running, 54–56
in plants, 196
electromagnetic, 122–123
magnetism and, 292
forms, 283
nervous system and, 180–196
from food, 147–149
physiological effects, 204–206
internal, 117, 139 piezoelectricity, 196–197 involved in bone fracture, 64–66
Electric shock, 204–205 kinetic, 283
Electrocardiography (ECG), 195, 202–203
insect wing in flight, 78–79
Electrode, 202 of particles in gas, 117
Electroencephalography (EEG), 195, level, 241–242
203–204
mechanical, in ultrasonic wave, 178
Electromagnetic radiation, 214 requirements, 146–149 energy and, 122–123 during pregnancy, 149 excitation of atom and, 242–243 unit and conversion, 286
Electromyography (EMG), 195
Entropy, 142
Electron, 239, 240–241
Epilepsy, 205
binding energy, 243
Equilibrium diffraction patterns, 247
human body considerations, 3–4
electric charge of, 287
stability and, 2–3 energy level, 241–242 static, 2–3, 282
excitation, methods of, 242
Eustachian tube, 170
excited state, 242
Evaporation, skin temperature control by, ground state, 241–242
155–156
high-speed (Beta particles), 256
Excited state, 242
and food preservation, 268
Exercise, osteoarthritis and, 71
impact, 242
Eye inner, 243
aging and, 216–217 in oscilloscope, 201 aperture and depth of field, 218–219 orbital restrictions, 240–241 eyeglasses, 211
orbit around nucleus, 240
focusing, 216–217, 230
outer, 243
laser treatment, 253–255 radiation and, 122–123 lens system, 219–220 shared, 244 light intensity reaching retina, wavelength, 247
207–208, 209
wavelike properties, 246
near point, 216–217
Electron microscope, 247–248 parameters, 220 EMG, See Electromyography reduced, 220–222
Emission resolution of, 223–225
spectroscopy, 245
structure, 215–216
spontaneous, 252
vs. camera, 217–218 stimulated, 252
Eyepiece, 230, 231
Emissivity, 123
of skin, 153
Falling Endoscope, 236–237 fracture due to, 67–68
Energy, 282–283 from great height, 70
chemical, 139
on snow, 70
in food, 141
Farads, 291
conservation, 135–136
Fasting, world record, 149 Index
Feedback system, 208–209 fluid, 82–86
negative feedback, 209
impulsive, 66–67
positive feedback, 209
bone fracture and, 67–68
Fetus
lines of, 288–289 energy required, 149 on a curved path, 45–48 heart, examination, 178
on the foot, 47
Fiber optics, 235 pressure in a fluid and, 82–83 fiberscopes, 236–237 static, 1–2
Fibrillation, 205–206
stopping, 69
Field line, 288
unit and conversion, 285
Fish Fourier, J. B. J., 171
buoyancy, 88–89
Fovea, 222
catfish spine fin, 27–29
Fracture electric, 197–198 due to a fall, 67–68 electronic lures, 176 energy involved, 64–66 eye, lens focusing power, 219–220 neck bone, 69–70
Flight
Frequency insect, 73–80 larmor, 259–261 hovering, 73–75 natural, of healthy artery, 112
Fluid pendulum swings, 48–49
Archimedes’ principle, 87–89
resonant, 167
blood, See Blood sound, 163, 164
body, 183
Friction, 23–24 defined, 82
at hip joint, 26–27 force and pressure, 82–86 catfish spine fin and, 27–29 friction and, 103–104 coefficient, 24, 25, 46, 71
motion of, 101
fluid, in air, 40
Bernoulli’s equation, 101–102 standing at an incline, 25–26 laminar, 103, 104
viscous, 24, 103, 107
Poiseuille’s law, 103–104, 107–108
Frog turbulent flow, 104–105
alveolal radii, 132
viscous friction, 24, 103, 107
diffusion transfer of oxygen, surface tension, 89–96
131–132
Flux, 126–127, 128
neurons in retina, 226–227
solar, 154
Fulcrum, 9–10
Focal length of lens, 295–297
Fumigation, chemical, 267
Focus, principal, of the lens, 295
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Food (fMRI), 265–266 composition and energy content, 148
Fur, 157
energy from, 141, oxidation, 147
Galvani, Luigi, 194
preservation by fumigation, 267
Gamma ray, use in food preservation, preservation by radiation, 267–268
267–268
requirements for humans, 147–148
Gas
Force behavior, 139 addition of torques and, 281–282 behavior of matter as a function of adhesive vs. cohesive, 90
temperature in, 117–119
centrifugal, 45–46, 47, 278
diffusion, 125
centripetal, 46, 47, 277–278
greenhouse, 159
contraction of muscle, 96
noble, 244
defined, 274
pressure, 118
field, 288
Generator, 292
Index
Geometric optics, 293–295
unit of, 119, 284
Gland vs. other energy forms, 138–140
apocrine, 155
Helicotrema, 170
eccrine, 155
Henry, 292
Glass
Hertz, 163
lens, 294
Hertz, Heinrich, 163
radiation and, 123, 249
High jump, 36–37
silica, 235
Hip joint
Glycerine, viscosity of, 104
friction at, 26–27
Gravitational force, 274
movement of, walking on injured, 17
Greenhouse effect, 159
Hooke, Robert, 62, 63
Greenhouse gas, 159
Hooke’s law, 62, 79
Ground state, 241–242
Hormone, 109, 207
Gyromagnetic ratio, 258, 259
Hovering flight, 73–75 power required, 76–79 Hales, Stephen, 113
Human body, See also Specific parts, Hammer (middle ear), 169 organs and systems Hearing, 168 adaptation for heat vs. cold, 156
aids, 211
critical temperature, 156
ear horns, 211
energy requirements, 146–148 brain’s role in, 175
food requirements, 147–148 cochlear implants, 211–213
metabolic rate, 146
in bats, 175–176 motion, 1–2 sound frequency and pitch, 172–173 oxygen requirements, 130–131
threshold of, 173, 174
posture, 19–21
transistorized aids for, 211
radiative heating, 154
Heart
resistance to cold, 156–157
aorta, 106
senses, limitations of, 200
atrium and ventricle, 105–106
sound production, 176 capillaries, 107 specific heat, stability of, 3–4 desynchronization of heart action, under action of external force, 4–7
205–206
sweat production, 155–156, 209
fetus, examination, 178
temperature
power produced by, 112–113
regulation, 149–151
stress, 109
regulation by convection, 151–153
Heat, 284, See also Thermodynamics regulation by evaporation, 155–156 cold and, 156–157
regulation by radiation, 153
defined, 116
Hydrogen latent, 120
Bohr model for atom of, 241
life and, 145–146 formation of molecule of, 244
loss by breathing, 155–156, 157
nuclear magnetic properties of, 258
radiative by sun, 153–154
Hydrostatic skeleton, 84–86
specific, 119, 284
Hyperopia, 227
therapeutic effects, 161
lens for, 228, 229 transfer of conduction, 120–121, 150, 151
Ice, specific heat of, 119
convection, 121–122, 151–153
Image diffusion, 123–133 of extended objects, 298–300 in human body, 149–157
on retina, 217–218
radiation, 122–123, 139, 153–154
size, 221–222, 223, 229–230
Index real, 297
Irradiation, food, 267–268 size of aperture and, 218–219
Ischemic stroke, 112
virtual, 297
Isotope, 256
Imaging oxygen, 256
computerized tomography, 250–251, 257 radioactive, 257 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), tracers, 268–269
257–258
ultrasound, 177–178
Joint with NMR, 262–265
hip
X-ray, 243, 249–250
friction at, 26–27
Impulsive force, 66–67 movement, 15–17 fracture and, 67–68 walking on injured, 17
Inductor, 292
knee problems, 71
Inertia, moment of, 279
osteoarthritis, 70–71
Infant respiratory distress syndrome, 132
Jump
Inner ear, 170–171 broad balance maintenance, 21
from running position, 39–40
basilar membrane, 170
from standing position, 37–39 cochlea, 170–171 high, 36–37 implants, 211–213 vertical helicotrema, 170 effect of gravity on, 35
Insect height of, 32–35
flight, 73
hovering, 73–75, 76–79
Kilocalorie, 284
locomotion on water, 93–95, 99
Kinesiology, 2
Microvelia, 99
Kinetic energy wing defined, 283 elasticity, 79–80 insect wing in flight, 78–79 kinetic energy when in flight, of particles in gas, 117
78–79 Kinetic friction, 23–24 muscles, 75–76 coefficient, 25, 71
Insulation, fur and feather, 122, 157
Kinetic theory of matter, 116–119
Insulator, 291
Knee joint, problems, 71
Intensity Kuhne, W., 217, 218 of light control, in reaching retina, Laminar flow, 103, 104, 110, 111
207–208, 209
Larmor frequency, 259–261
of sound, 163
Laser, 252–253 and loudness, 173–175
surgery, 253
Interference, 166–167 ophthalmological applications, Internal energy, 117, 139 253–255
Internal reflection, total, 294, 295
LASIK (Laser-assisted in Situ Ker Interneuron, 181 atomileusis), 254–255 131Iodine, 267
Latent heat, 120
Ion Lauterbur, P. C., 263 membrane potential and, 183–184 Lavoisier, Laurent, 135, 136
negative, 287
Lens, 215
positive, 287
astigmatism, 228, 229
Iris, 215 contact lens and diffusion, 133
control system, 210
converging, 294, 295–298
defined, 207
diverging, 294, 300
optical aperture, 218–219
eyepiece, 230, 231
Index Lens (cont.)
Mayer, Robert, 135–136 immersed in a material medium, Mean free path, 124
300–301
Medfly (Mediterranean fly), control of, myopia, 228, 229
177
objective, 230, 231
Membrane of eye, 219–220 axon focusing power, 216–217
as leaky insulator, 186
presbyopia and hyperopia, 228, 229
capacitance and resistance, 186
Lever, 9–11
permeability, 184
arm, 279
basilar, 170
elbow movement, 11–15 biological, diffusion through, hip movement, 15–17
128–129
spine movement, 17–19 oval window in ear, 169 standing on tip-toe on one foot, tympanic, 162, 168, 169–170, 175 19, 20
Membrane protein, solubility, 98
Light, 162, 214
Mercury, viscosity of, 104
emitted by laser, 252
Metabolic rate, 145–146 fiber-optic devices and, 237
defined, 146
intensity at retina, 207–208, 209
for selected activities, 146
penetration through tissue, 232
Metabolism, 157
properties, 215
Mho, 291
speed, 293
Micron, 285
vision and, 214–215
Microscope, 231
Limping, 17, 18
compound, 231
Linear momentum, 274
confocal, 232–235
conservation, 275
electron, 247–248
Linear motion, 277
resolution, 231–232
Lines of force, 288
Microvelia, 99
Lipoprotein, solubility, 98
Middle ear, 169–170
Lithium, 241
Eustachian tube, 170
Load carrying, energy consumption, 58–59 hammer, anvil, stirrup, 169
Logarithmic sound intensity, 174
ossicles, 169, 170, 175
Long jump, See Broad jump Miller, S. L., 271
Loudness, 173–175
Minsky, Marvin, 233
Lubrication, 25
Moisture tension in soil, 92–93 effect on human hip joint, 27
Molecule
Lumbar vertebra, fifth, 17–19
characteristic spectra, 244
Lung
diffraction studies with, 250
gas exchange in, 129–130
formation of hydrogen, 244
water vapor and, 155
organic, 270–271
X-ray, 250
transport through diffusion, 126–127
Moment arm, 279
Magnetic moment, 258, 259
Moment of inertia, 279
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 257–
Momentum
258, 262–265
angular, 280
functional, 265–266 equations of, 277–278
Magnetism, electricity and, 292
linear, 274
Marangoni propulsion, 99
conservation, 275
Mass, 274
Motion, 1–2
unit and conversion, 285
angular
Matter, kinetic theory of, 116–119
Newton’s laws, 280
Maximum angular velocity, 54, 78–79
vs. linear, 277
Index Newton’s laws, 274–275
Newton’s rotational, 30, 31
laws of angular motion, 280
equations for, 278 laws of motion thermal, 117, 124, 140
first, 274
through air, 40–42 second, 275
translational, 30–32
third, 275
Motor neuron, 181
14Nitrogen, 269
MRI, See Magnetic resonance imaging NMR, See Nuclear magnetic resonance
Muscle
Noble gas, 244
action potentials in, 194
Nodes of Ranvier, 181
biceps, 7, 11–15
Noise contraction, 8, 95–96
bruit, 111
efficiency, 42–43
laminar flow, 113
fibers, 194
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 257– insect wings, 75–76
262
myofibrils, 95
imaging with, 262–265
skeletal, 7–9, 95–96
Nuclear spin, Nucleus, 240, 256–257
spindle, 194
transmutation, 257
stimulation by electric current, triceps, 7, 11, 12
Musculoskeletal system,
Objective lens, 230, 231
interconnectedness, 21
Ohm, 290
Myelin, 181
Ohm’s law, 205, 291
Myelinated axon, 192–193
Optical spectra, 243
vs. nonmyelinated, 187
Optics, 214
fiber, 235–237
Myofibrils, 95
geometric, 293–295
Myopia, 227
vision and, 214–215
lens for, 228, 229
Oscilloscope, 201–202
Myosin, 95, 96
Osmosis, Ossicles, 169, 170, 175
Near point of the eye, 216–217
Osteoarthritis, 70–71
Neck bone, fracture, 69–70
exercise and, 71
Negative feedback, 209–210
Osteoblast, 197
Negative ion, 287
Osteoclast, 197
Nervous system Oudin, Paul, 249
action potential, 184–186
Outer ear, 168–169 action potential, propagation, 188–190
ear canal, 169
electrical phenomena and, 180–181
pinna, 168
electrical potentials in axon, 183–184, tympanic membrane, 162, 168, 169–
185
170, 175
signal propagation, 181
Oxidation of food, 147
surface potentials, 194–196
Oxygen synaptic transmission, 193–194 consumption, calories produced by, 147
vision and, 226–227
diffusion through skin, 129
Neuron, 180, 181–183
small animals, 131–132 axons and dendrites, 181, 183, See also isotopes of, 256
Axon oxidation of food, 147
classes, 181
requirement for humans, 130–131 Neutron, Newton, 5
Pacemaker, 202
Newton, Isaac, 1
electronic, 206
Index
Particle, wavelike properties, 246–247 measurement, 113–114 Pascal (Pa), 83 systolic and diastolic, 107
Pascal’s principle, 83–84 venal, 109
Pastuerization, 267
defined, 274
Pendulum fluid, 82–84 physical, 51–52, 54–56
gas, 118
simple, 48–50
in porous bones, 89
Period, of pendulum motion, 48–49
inside worm, 85
Phosphorus, radioactive, 257, 267, 269
on eardrum, 170
Photodetector, 245
Poiseuille’s equation and, 103–104
Photon, 215
sound, 164–165, 175
Photoreceptor, 222, 225–226
unit and conversion, 285
Photosynthesis, 214
Principia Mathematica, 1
Physics and life, 269–271
Projectile, range of, 37
Piezoelectric effect, 196–197
Protein
Pinna, 168
caloric value, 147
Pitch of sound, 172–173
consumption during fasting, 149
Planck’s constant, 215, 246–247, 258
resilin, 79–80
Plant solubility of membrane protein and action potential in, 196
lipoprotein, 98
electricity in, 196
specific heat, 119
soil water and, 92–93
Proton, 239–240, 287
Plaque, arterial, 111–112
Pulmonary artery, 105
Poise, 103, 104
Pupil, 215
Poiseuille, L. M., 101
defined, 207
Poiseuille’s law, 103–104
Pure tone, 163–164 estimation of blood pressure drop and, P wave, 203
107–108
Positive feedback, 209–210
Quality
Positive ion, 287
image, 218
Posture, 19–21
sound, 171
Potassium ion, axon potential and, 184
Quantum mechanics, 246–247, 270
Potential axon, 184
Radian, 276
difference, 289
Radiation, 139
energy, 283–284 electromagnetic, 122–123, 214
Power, 284
food preservation by, 267–268 defined, 78
human body, 153
generated by limbs, 88 solar, 153–154 produced by, 112–113
and soil, 159 required to hover, 76–79 therapy, 266–267 required to stay afloat, 87–88 thermal, 122
unit and conversion, 286
Radioactive Precession, 260
isotopes, 257
Pregnancy, energy requirements, 149
tracers, 269
Presbyopia, 217
Radioactivity, 256–257 lens for, 229
Random thermal motion, 124, 140
Pressure
Random walk, 124–125
Bernoulli’s equation and, 101
Real image, 297
blood
Reduced eye, 220–222 arterial, 107–109
Reflection, 165–166
at capillaries, 107
total internal, 294, 295
Index
Refraction, 165–166
Siemen, 291
defined, 293
Silver, thermal conductivity of, 122
index of, 220
Simple harmonic motion, 48 refractive power of cornea, 219–220 walking in terms of, 50–51
Resilin, 79–80
Sinusoidal sound wave, 163–164, 171, 172
Resistance of air, 40–42
Skeletal muscle, 7–9
Resistivity, 290
contraction, 95–96
Resistor, 290–291
Skin
Resolution convection and, 151–153 eye, 223–225
emissivity of, 153 microscope, 231–232 evaporative cooling, 156–157
Resonant frequency, 167
frostbite, 157
Respiratory system oxygen diffusion through, 129
diffusion process, 129–132
radiative heating of, 153–154
surfactants and breathing, 132
temperature, 150–151
Retina, 215, 222–223
control, 151
cones and rods, 222, 223, 224, Snell’s law, 235
225–226
defined, 293–294 degeneration arrest, 253–254
Sodium image size on, 221–222, 223, ions, 184, 189 229–230 pump, 184
light intensity, control of, 207–208, 209
Soil
photographic film and, 217–218
loam vs. clay, 93
Reynold’s number, 104
moisture tension, 92–93
Righting reflex, 21
specific heat, 119
Rods and cones, 222, 223, 224, 225–226 temperature, 158–159 Roentgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 249 water, 92–93
Rolling friction, 24
Solar radiation, 153–154
Root (plant), and pressure, 92
soil and, 159
Rotational motion, 30, 31
Somatosensory system, balance equations for, 278
maintenance, 21
Running
Sound, 162
broad jump, 39–40 acoustic traps, 176–177 center of mass motion in, 57–58 bell in a jar, 163 energy expended in, 54–56
clinical uses, 177
metabolic rate, 43
frequency, 163, 164, 172–173
on a curved track, 47–48 intensity, 163 speed, 53–54 and loudness, 173–175
Rupture strength, 63
logarithmic, 174
Rutherford, E., 239, 240
perception of, pitch, 172–173
Sensitivity produced by animals, 176
of ear, 169, 172, 174–175 properties, 162–165 logarithmic, 174
pure tone, 163–164
mechanical reasons for, 175
speed, 164
of eye, 226
wave, 162
Sensory aid, 211 wavelength (λ), 164
Sensory neuron, 181
Specific heat, 119, 284
Shannon, Claude, 143
Spectral line, 240
Shark, and electric field, 198
Spectrometer, 245
Shock, electric, 204–205
Spectroscopy, 244–245 stimulation of muscle with, 206
absorption, 245
Index Spectroscopy (cont.)
Sweating emission, 245
as negative feedback, 209
Spectrum, absorption, 243
cooling mechanisms, 155–156
Speed dehydration, 155
defined, 272
rate, 155
light, 293
Synapse, 193 running, 53–54 synaptic transmission, 193–194
sound, 164
Synovial fluid, 25, 27
walking, 52–53
Systems approach, 209–210
Spindle, 194
Systolic pressure, 107
Spontaneous emission, Spring, Squid, axon of, 183
Telescope, 230–231
Stability
Temperature, 117–118 equilibrium and, 2–3 body, regulation of, 149–151 human body, 4–7 critical, 156
Standing defined, 117 at an incline, 25–26 skin, 150–151 broad jump, 37–39
Terminal velocity, 41–42 tip-toe on one foot, 19, 20
Thermal conductivity, 120–121
Standing wave, 166–167
in human body, 150, 151
Static equilibrium, 2–3
Thermal motion, 117
defined, 282
random, 124, 140
Static force, 1–2
Thermal radiation, 122
Static friction, 23–24 emitted by soil, 158–159 coefficient, 25
Thermal velocity, 118
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 123
Thermodynamics, See also Heat Stenosis, 111, 112
defined, 135
Stethoscope, 111, 113, 177
first law, 135–136
electronic, 202
of living systems, 140–142
Stimulated emission, 252
second law, 137–138
Stirrup (middle ear), 169 information and, 143–144
Strength of material, 61
Thermophilic bacteria, 145 bone, 64–68 Thompson, J. J., 239
Stress
Threshold defined, 62
of hearing, 173, 174
stress cardiomyopathy, 109
of pain, 173, 174
Stretching of vision, 225–226 longitudinal, 61–62
Tissue spring, 62–64
light penetration, 232
Stroke, ischemic, 112
thermal conductivity, 122, 150
32Sulphur, 269
Tomography, computerized, 250–251, 257
Surface potential, 194–196
Torque, 279–280 recording of, 202–203 addition of force and, 281–282
Surface tension, 89–91
Torr, 83 insect locomotion on water and, Torricelli, Evangelista, 83 93–95, 99
Total internal reflection, 294, 295
muscle contraction and, 95–96
Tracer, isotopic, 268–269 soil water, 92–93
Transistor amplifier, 211
spherical liquid drops, 91–92
Translational motion, 30
Surfactants, 97–98 energy consumption, 42–43 breathing and, 132
for constant acceleration, 30–32
secreted by insects, 99
high jump, 36–37
Index long jump critical flow, 104
standing, 37–39
defined, 272
running, 39–40
terminal, 41–42
projectile range, 37
thermal, 118
through air, 40–42
Venule, 107
vertical jump, 32–35
Vertical jump
Transmutation of nucleus, 257 effect of gravity on, 35
Transport, of molecules, 126–127 height of, 32–35
Triceps, 7
Vespertilionidae bat, echo location, movement of, 11, 12
175–176
Turbulent fluid flow, 104–105
Vestibular system, balance maintenance, blood, 110–111
21
T wave, 203
Virtual image, 297
Tympanic membrane, 162, 168, 169–170, Viscosity, and Poiseuille’s law, 103–104
175
Viscous friction, 24, 103, Vision, 214–215 astigmatic, 227, 228, 229
Ultrasonic hyperopic, 227, 228, 229
diathermy, 178
image quality, 218–219
flow meter, 178
myopic, 227, 228, 229 waves, 177–178 nervous system and, 226–227
Ultrasound imaging, 177–178
presbyopic, 217, 229
Unit range, 229–230
calorie, 119
threshold of, 225–226
coulomb, 287
Vitreous humor, 216
diopter, 219
Vocal cord, 176
dyne, 285
Voltage, 289
farads, 291
and current sources, 292
henry, hertz, 163
Walking, 50 kilocalorie, 284 center of mass motion in, 56–57
mho, 291
on injured hip, 17
newton, 5
simple harmonic motion, 50–51
of energy, 286
speed, 52–53
of force, 285
Water of length, 285
content of food, 148
of mass, 285
density of, and floating, 87–88
of power, 286
elimination from body, 148
of pressure, 285
index of refraction, 220 pascal (Pa), 83 insect locomotion on, 93–95
poise, 103, 104
latent heat of vaporization, 155 radian, 276 mean free path of molecules in, 124
siemen, 291
osmosis, 129
torr, 83
sea, 89
Uranium, isotopes of, 257
soil, sound and, 166
Vein, 105
specific heat, 119
blood pressure in, 109 speed of sound in, 164
pulmonary, 105
surface tension, 89
Velocity viscosity, 104
angular, 276
Wave, See also Sound maximum, 54, 78–79
defined, 162
Index Wave (cont.)
heat converted into, 139–140 diffraction, 168 implication of second law of thermody fundamental and harmonic, 171, 172
namics, 138
interference, 166–167
muscular movement, 42
P, 203
Worm
reflection and refraction, 165–166 hydrostatic forces in moving, 84–86 standing, 166–167
movement of, 84
T, ultrasonic, 177–178
X-ray, 243, 249–250
wavelength, 164
computerized tomography, 250–251,
Weight, 274
257
loss, 155
of lungs, 250
Whiplash injury, Work Young’s modulus, 62
chemical energy and, 42
of resilin, 79–80 defined, 43, 282
rupture strength for materials and, 65 This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank
Document Outline
- 1 Static Forces
- 2 Friction
- 3 Translational Motion
- 4 Angular Motion
- 5 Elasticity and Strength of Materials
- 6 Insect Flight
- 7 Fluids
- 8 The Motion of Fluids
- 9 Heat and Kinetic Theory
- 10 Thermodynamics
- 11 Heat and Life
- 12 Waves and Sound
- 13 Electricity
- 14 Electrical Technology
- 15 Optics
- 16 Atomic Physics
- 17 Nuclear Physics
- Appendices, Bibliography, Answers to Exercises, Index
- 1.1 Equilibrium and Stability
- 1.2 Equilibrium Considerations for the Human Body
- 1.3 Stability of the Human Body under the Action of an External Force
- 1.4 Skeletal Muscles
- 1.5 Levers
- 1.6 The Elbow
- 1.7 The Hip
- 1.8 The Back
- 1.9 Standing Tip-Toe on One Foot
- 1.10 Dynamic Aspects of Posture
- Exercises
- 2.1 Standing at an Incline
- 2.2 Friction at the Hip Joint
- 2.3 Spine Fin of a Catfish
- Exercises
- 3.1 Vertical Jump
- 3.2 Effect of Gravity on the Vertical Jump
- 3.3 Running High Jump
- 3.4 Range of a Projectile
- 3.5 Standing Broad Jump
- 3.6 Running Broad Jump (Long Jump)
- 3.7 Motion through Air
- 3.8 Energy Consumed in Physical Activity
- Exercises
- 4.1 Forces on a Curved Path
- 4.2 A Runner on a Curved Track
- 4.3 Pendulum
- 4.4 Walking
- 4.5 Physical Pendulum
- 4.6 Speed of Walking and Running
- 4.7 Energy Expended in Running
- 4.8 Alternate Perspectives on Walking and Running
- 4.9 Carrying Loads
- Exercises
- 5.1 Longitudinal Stretch and Compression
- 5.2 A Spring
- 5.3 Bone Fracture: Energy Considerations
- 5.4 Impulsive Forces
- 5.5 Fracture Due to a Fall: Impulsive Force Considerations
- 5.6 Airbags: Inflating Collision Protection Devices
- 5.7 Whiplash Injury
- 5.8 Falling from Great Height
- 5.9 Osteoarthritis and Exercise
- Exercises
- 6.1 Hovering Flight
- 6.2 Insect Wing Muscles
- 6.3 Power Required for Hovering
- 6.4 Kinetic Energy of Wings in Flight
- 6.5 Elasticity of Wings
- Exercises
- 7.1 Force and Pressure in a Fluid
- 7.2 Pascal’s Principle
- 7.3 Hydrostatic Skeleton
- 7.4 Archimedes’ Principle
- 7.5 Power Required to Remain Afloat
- 7.6 Buoyancy of Fish
- 7.7 Surface Tension
- 7.8 Soil Water
- 7.9 Insect Locomotion on Water
- 7.10 Contraction of Muscles
- 7.11 Surfactants
- Exercises
- 8.1 Bernoulli’s Equation
- 8.2 Viscosity and Poiseuille’s Law
- 8.3 Turbulent Flow
- 8.4 Circulation of the Blood
- 8.5 Blood Pressure
- 8.6 Control of Blood Flow
- 8.7 Energetics of Blood Flow
- 8.8 Turbulence in the Blood
- 8.9 Arteriosclerosis and Blood Flow
- 8.10 Power Produced by the Heart
- 8.11 Measurement of Blood Pressure
- Exercises
- 9.1 Heat and Hotness
- 9.2 Kinetic Theory of Matter
- 9.3 Definitions
- 9.4 Transfer of Heat
- 9.5 Transport of Molecules by Diffusion
- 9.6 Diffusion through Membranes
- 9.7 The Respiratory System
- 9.8 Surfactants and Breathing
- 9.9 Diffusion and Contact Lenses
- Exercises
- 10.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
- 10.2 Second Law of Thermodynamics
- 10.3 Difference between Heat and Other Forms of Energy
- 10.4 Thermodynamics of Living Systems
- 10.5 Information and the Second Law
- Exercises
- 11.1 Energy Requirements of People
- 11.2 Energy from Food
- 11.3 Regulation of Body Temperature
- 11.4 Control of Skin Temperature
- 11.5 Convection
- 11.6 Radiation
- 11.7 Radiative Heating by the Sun
- 11.8 Evaporation
- 11.9 Resistance to Cold
- 11.10 Heat and Soil
- Exercises
- 12.1 Properties of Sound
- 12.2 Some Properties of Waves
- 12.3 Hearing and the Ear
- 12.4 Bats and Echoes
- 12.5 Sounds Produced by Animals
- 12.6 Acoustic Traps
- 12.7 Clinical Uses of Sound
- 12.8 Ultrasonic Waves
- Exercises
- 13.1 The Nervous System
- 13.2 Electricity in Plants
- 13.3 Electricity in the Bone
- 13.4 Electric Fish
- Exercises
- 14.1 Electrical Technology in Biological Research
- 14.2 Diagnostic Equipment
- 14.3 Physiological Effects of Electricity
- 14.4 Control Systems
- 14.5 Feedback
- 14.6 Sensory Aids
- Exercises
- 15.1 Vision
- 15.2 Nature of Light
- 15.3 Structure of the Eye
- 15.4 Accommodation
- 15.5 Eye and the Camera
- 15.6 Lens System of the Eye
- 15.7 Reduced Eye
- 15.8 Retina
- 15.9 Resolving Power of the Eye
- 15.10 Threshold of Vision
- 15.11 Vision and the Nervous System
- 15.12 Defects in Vision
- 15.13 Lens for Myopia
- 15.14 Lens for Presbyopia and Hyperopia
- 15.15 Extension of Vision
- Exercises
- 16.1 The Atom
- 16.2 Spectroscopy
- 16.3 Quantum Mechanics
- 16.4 Electron Microscope
- 16.5 X-rays
- 16.6 X-ray Computerized Tomography
- 16.7 Lasers
- Exercises
- 17.1 The Nucleus
- 17.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- 17.3 Radiation Therapy
- 17.4 Food Preservation by Radiation
- 17.5 Isotopic Tracers
- 17.6 Laws of Physics and Life
- Exercises
- A.1 Speed and Velocity
- A.2 Acceleration
- A.3 Force
- A.4 Pressure
- A.5 Mass
- A.6 Weight
- A.7 Linear Momentum
- A.8 Newton’s Laws of Motion
- A.9 Conservation of Linear Momentum
- A.10 Radian
- A.11 Angular Velocity
- A.12 Angular Acceleration
- A.13 Relations between Angular and Linear Motion
- A.14 Equations for Angular Momentum
- A.15 Centripetal Acceleration
- A.16 Moment of Inertia
- A.17 Torque
- A.18 Newton’s Laws of Angular Motion
- A.19 Angular Momentum
- A.20 Addition of Forces and Torques
- A.21 Static Equilibrium
- A.22 Work
- A.23 Energy
- A.24 Forms of Energy
- A.25 Power
- A.26 Units and Conversions
- B.1 Electric Charge
- B.2 Electric Field
- B.3 Potential Difference or Voltage
- B.4 Electric Current
- B.5 Electric Circuits
- B.6 Voltage and Current Sources
- B.7 Electricity and Magnetism
- C.1 Geometric Optics
- C.2 Converging Lenses
- C.3 Images of Extended Objects
- C.4 Diverging Lenses
- C.5 Lens Immersed in a Material Medium
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E
- F
- G
- H
- I
- J
- K
- L
- M
- N
- O
- P
- Q
- R
- S
- T
- U
- V
- W
- X,Y