ChAPTER 9 The Spread of Civilizations and the

• He founded the dynasty that ruled Ethiopia until the end of the 20th century.
• The artistic style that developed in Ethiopia was used in this modern illustration.

• The products of Egypt, the Middle East, India and Arabia were all available at the court of King Ezana.
• By the 2nd century c.e., Axum had become a power in its own right, with influence stretching from Sudan to Yemen.

• Here is a legend joining history.
• King Ezana became a Christian.
• A Byzantine historian claimed that a Greek merchant ship was captured on the African coast and that its Christian merchant and crew were killed.
• Two young boys were taken as servants to the court.
• Frumentius was the tutor to Prince Ezana, heir to the throne.
• Frumentius and the prince had a strong bond.
• The world of Christianity was sponsored by Frumentius.
• His efforts eventually led to his appointment as bishop of Ethiopia by the Christian authorities in Alexandria, and his most important convert was the king.

• The Christian kingdom of Axum was in the heart of Africa.

• The people of Axum developed a flourishing Christian society with impressive churches, monasteries, large stone columns, and a distinctive Semitic written language called "ge'ez," which was used for ceremonial life, although greek was also understood at the royal palace.
• The queen of Sheba, who was married to King Solomon, was claimed to be a ruler by the Axumites because of the translation of the Bible.
• The spread of Islam in the 8th century isolated Christian Ethiopia from the rest of the Christian world, but it still maintained its religion and independence.

• Charles gibbon, the English historian of Rome, said that Axum, once cut off "slept for a thousand years", laid the foundations of Christianity in Ethiopia.

• The themes of cultural diffusion, migrations, and cross-cultural trade are all themes that have played a central role in world history.
• The patterns of world history have been shaped by the movements of peoples, goods, and ideas.
• We have focused so far on the centers of civilization and their internal developments in the Old World and the Americas.
• The connections between the established centers and the rest of the world's peoples are explored in this chapter.
• People who lived far away have been influenced by the innovations and cultures of the major civilizations.
• Although scholars still debate the issue, many believe that important early breakthroughs, such as agriculture, the domestication of animals, pottery, and metal urgy, were not reinvented across the globe but were spread by contacts and migration.
• Most people learned about agriculture by talking to people who already practiced it.

• As with Rome, conquest has been the means of imposing ideas, language, and institutions.
• Roman culture and law were brought to the far ends of the empire by the Roman legions.
• In other places, long-distance traders have carried ideas as well as goods, and as in the case of Axum, sometimes missionary activity and local trade have been the channels through which peoples learned of one another's ways.
• The ship, the caravan, ideas, and the sword have all been used to spread culture.

• The history of Rome after the empire was invaded shows that it is not always conquerors who spread their culture.
• The conquerors of Rome absorbed the culture of a defeated civilization and adopted its ways.
• A new fusion of cultural elements was achieved.

• The peaceful spread of Chinese culture and its transformation in Japan will be shown by Japanese society.

• In the case of the Pacific islands, the people were influenced by cultural developments on the Asian mainland.
• Central Asia is a seedbed for major nomadic societies that interacted with civilizations through trade, migration, and invasion.
• In each case, we will see how ideas, techniques, and material objects were adapted to new environments and different social circum stances so that the spread of civilization and the contact of cultures was not just a matter of copying.

• The Polynesians, Germanic tribes, Slavs, the Japanese, and the early sub-Saharan Africans are all different.
• Our discussion is based on the processes of migration, cultural spread, and cultural development.
• The pace and rhythm of cultural spread varied greatly in these widely separated parts of the world, so our discussion here ranges more broadly over time.
• The story of how these peoples began to develop their distinctive cul tures, often in contact with centers of civilization, should be our focus, rather than a limited time frame.
• Some people whose role in world history later became important are introduced in this chapter.

• The migration of Africa is three times the size of the Bantu-speaking peoples and the United States.
• Less than 10% of Africa is covered by tropical forests and most of it lies in the tropics.
• The African surface ironworking was followed by savannas and arid plains and deserts.
• The growth of kingdoms such as Axum in Ethiopia and the Nile in Africa begin in the interior of the continent and flow to the sea over in the western Sudan.
• The development of movement from the coast to the interior has been difficult, but the great river systems have provided the African civilization.

• The scene of human beginnings was Africa.
• The civilization of Egypt in the Nile valley and its extension to the upper Nile kingdoms of Kush and Ethiopia were discussed in Chapter 2.
• The spread of elements of civilization to other areas of Africa will be examined in this chapter.

• Africa was often in contact with other areas of the world despite being portrayed as a dark and isolated place.
• Social and cultural innovations were lated from Asia and Europe.
• There is evidence that political and cultural influences from Africa spread to Europe and Asia, even though the contacts were not always in one direction.

• The desert is moving across a series of historical processes.
• Several people lived in the area of the Sahara during this period, according to the Archeo Mediterranean coast.

• As the temperatures in the Sahara rose, the conditions began to change.
• Much of the area was desert by 3000 b.c.
• The process continues today.

• The Sudan became a center of cultural development after about 300 b.c.e.

• Major developments in the history of Africa took place in the Nile valley and Mediterranean.

• Africa is not subject to a lot of temperature fluctuations, but there are a lot of different environments on the planet.
• Climates have changed over time.
• The Sahara region became a desert because of the changing climate.

• Many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa is evidence of the continent's links to centers of civilization in the Near East and the Mediterranean world.
• Many people were pushed to the south by the drying of the Sahara.
• The ancestors of the Negro peoples were these.
• They settled in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands near lakes and rivers.
• The first domesticated crops in the Near East were mil et and sorghum, which are not African but west Asian.
• The route of agricultural distribution may have gone through Egypt or Ethiopia, which had contacts across the Red Sea with the Arabian peninsula.
• There is evidence of agriculture before 3000 b.c.e.
• herding may have preceded cultivation in Africa.
• The long wet period from 12,000 to 7500 years ago may have caused these developments.

• Africans began to develop their own crops, such as certain varieties of rice, once the idea of planting spread.
• African crops were domesticated in a band that extends from Ethiopia across the southern Sudan to west Africa.
• Bananas were introduced from southeast Asia.

• Outside Africa also brought livestock.
• Domestic sheep were introduced from Asia.
• The use of horses and chariots to traverse the desert and trade routes across the desert can be seen in the rock paint ings.
• Horses became the symbol of authority and power in some states that developed large cavalry armies.
• In the 14th century b.c.e., the later west African empire of Mali could field 10,000 riders according to one observer.
• The tsetse fly carried sleeping sickness, or trypanoso ness that limited pastoralism, to which horses, cattle, and humans are susceptible.
• There were no cavalry campaigns in western and central Africa.

• African cavalries were brought to a halt by this tiny foe.

• The balance between limits and opportunities was changed by new elements.

• It was an efficient means of transportation due to its ability to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply.
• The camel transformed the desert from a barrier to a route of trade and communication.

• Some early copper metallurgy sites have been found in west Africa, but most of Africa moved directly from stone to iron without going through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze.
• Iron was worked in the Near East and Anatolia for at least a thousand years before it was used in Africa.
• By the 8th century b.c.e., the Phoenicians were able to bring their knowledge of iron smelting to their colonies, such as Carthage in north Africa.
• During the last millennium b.c.e., this knowledge penetrated into the forests and savannas of west Africa, at the same time that ironmaking was reaching western Europe.

• Evidence of ironmaking has been found in several countries, and iron implements seem to have replaced stone ones at several sites.
• The complexity of African societies was changed by this technological shift.
• Power was represented by iron.
• In west Africa, the blacksmith who made tools and weapons had an important place in society with special religious powers.
• Those who knew the secrets of ironmaking gained power.

• Ironmaking traveled from the Red Sea into Ethiopia and east Africa and down the Nile into the Sudan, where large African states such as Meroe were in close contact with Egypt.
• Within a thousand years, iron had reached the southern part of Africa.
• Both agriculture and war are featured in the culture.
• The adoption of agriculture and the use of iron tools and weapons were simultaneous in the later stages of the story.

• Unlike the peoples of the Americas, metallurgy was a very late and limited development in central Nigeria.

• 1100 degrees Fahrenheit is needed for the production of city-states.
• The artistic traditions in that region drew from the cultural tradition.

• Ife became a kind of aristocracy.

• The spread of agriculture and later of iron was accompanied by a great movement of people from the Nok Culture.
• People fled the drying of the Sahara in eastern movement.
• Most of the languages south of a line from rivers are part of the Bantu family.

• The process is uncertain and may have caused the Bantu expansion.

• The migrations moved to the central Sudan and then into the forests of west and central Africa.
• The means of movement were provided by the rivers.
• Bantu peoples traveled from central Africa to the east coast, where they met people from a different tradition.

• Bantu depended on both fishing and agriculture.

• People's lives changed as a result of the migrations.

• Some regions have developed long-distance trade in pottery, metals, canoes, and crafts.
• In many places ritual forms of kingship reinforced by elaborate cer emonies replaced older systems of authority based on age or kinship.

• The societies gave birth to wisdom.

• A child is very rare.

• A child is like a precious coral.

• You can't buy a child on the market.

• The child you can buy for money is a slave.

• A child is the only one who gives us joy.

• One shouldn't get too excited over a child.

Is it the one who has had a child?

• In about a thousand years, the Bantu-speaking peoples spread their languages and cultures among the existing populations, absorbing the original peoples and being absorbed by them.
• The Bantu peoples had reached the southern end of the continent by the 13th century.
• Sorghum's progress stopped because of the winter rains.
• The earlier inhabitants stayed farther to the south.
• Africa's major features were in place by that time.
• There are societies left in Africa that have ironworking knowledge.
• There are pockets of people who are not speaking Bantu.

• The cultures of sub-Saharan Africa and Egypt are similar in many ways, such as brother-sister marriage among rulers and certain rituals when a ruler takes office.

• There is extensive contact between Egypt and peoples living in the Sudan and northern Ethiopia along the Nile valley.

• In Chapter 2, we talked about the contacts with Egypt and the fact that the capitals of the Kushites were influenced by Egyptian culture.
• The mineral ores and fuels were needed to make iron on a large scale.
• Meroe flourished because of the technology and trade with Egypt and the Mediterranean.

• Meroe was not the only one.
• The eastern Sudan and Ethiopia region had other town-based societies.

• Around the 1st century c.e., the kingdom of Axum was more important than Meroe.
• Another cultural stream was introduced into Africa.
• It seems to have been influenced by settlers from the Arabian peninsula.
• It traded with Alexandrian Egypt, Rome, Byzantium, and India.
• A fusion of cultural elements resulted from those contacts.
• The Red Sea in Yemen on the Arabian peninsula was where Axum was involved in military and political affairs.
• By the 3rd century c.e., Meroe was defeated by Axum, which became the dominant power in the horn of Africa.
• Cross-fertilization of cultures across the Red Sea can be seen in the history of Axum.

• The influence and contact between this African kingdom and the outside world goes back a long way.

• Much of the distinctive culture of Christian Ethiopia can be traced back to the civilization of Axum.
• The site of the kings of the Mediterranean and western Asia was used to mark the burial of other people.
• The largest is shown and practiced.

• In the 4th century c.e., the defeated leaders of Meroe moved west into the Sudan and established themselves at Kordofan.
• Their influence may have extended further west.
• Egypt, Arabia, and even Persia are believed to be the original home of the royal families and ancient kingdoms in west Africa.

• The peoples of the savanna were able to serve as a bridge between the southern gold-Producing forest zone in the region of the Niger and Senegal river valleys and the markets of north Africa.
• The first great sub-Saharan north along established caravan routes that crossed the Sahara was created by the Soninke people.

• The west African peoples created a trading state.
• During the height of saying that the kingdom was an ancient one, chroniclers wrote that 20 kings had ruled before the time of Muhammad.

• The myths of Origin have fascinated anthropologists for a long time and were part of an oral literature until about literary scholars and folklorists in the 12th century.

• Claude Levi-Strauss was sweet and bitter.
• Audhumla, the cow, believed that all myths were built around certain basic structures and she lived alone in a cold, misty plain, where there was no one to see her.
• A giant is named after myths.
• He said that Ymir came out of the dark north and lay down on the ice near the cultures of South American Indians.
• "You must let me drink of your milk," said the giant, and though her milk was bitter, he liked it.
• She licked Europe and China because she felt a sense of change and history came to her before the salt.
• The locks rose out of the ice and the southern day shone on them to question the separation of myth and history.
• The giant frowned but the cow continued to lick the salt, and after three licks an entire man looked at the possible historical context and content of myths.

• When the giant looked at the beautiful man, his origins were shrouded in mystery and he took a terrible oath that still hasn't been explained.
• He would never stop fighting until either he or Bur, the hero, peoples' explanations of their own origins or those of their ancestors are dead on the ground.
• He kept his promise.

• The great old giant Ymir was pierced with a spear by one of the sons of these heroes, who after many combats did at last slay the A series of origin epics and tales among the Luba peoples.
• The people who lived in central Africa to the east of the Kongo kingdom drowned all the hideous they collected in the 20th century.
• The idea of leaving the brood was only for one who fled.

• On the right bank of the Lualaba, in the country of the east.
• There used to be a man and a woman in this area.
• The heroes looked at each other and said "he who builds many houses" and "she who makes at the words of Odin."
• They were ignorant of each other.

• They paid to each other twins of the same sex, who became inseparable homage to a king and father.
• One day, the twins found a locality that was very similar to the one they found one day.
• Their parents allowed them to ride Baldur, the most beautiful of their children.
• They devoted themselves to fishing after he left the village.

• They brought forth twins, who lived in the same heroes, and then came a shell chariot, which sat Frigga, the incestuous manner far from their parents.

• The Lord of Heaven is said to have sent two young children to Izanagi and his consort, Izanami, to subdue chaos and create of the gods.
• After the earth had been created, the songs and sagas of the Germanic beauty were drawn from.
• There was no man, no fowl, no dog, and no fresh water.

• The shell grew at the end of a great time.
• Izanagi and Izanami built a shrine.

• A No voice said before they stretched the long, curving shore.
• The shapes of others were on the far horizon when he called again.

• The two set out to look at their new domains.

• No one answered.
• Only Tangaroa's voice could be heard, as they traveled to each new land, marveling at each new land.

• There was no rock that could crawl to him.

• There wasn't any sand to crawl to him.
• The country of the eight great islands was called Tangaroa because he was not obeyed.
• They became known as Japan because he overturned his time passed.

• When Tangaroa was wearied from confinement and serving in the shrine took much of her time stepped out from another shell that covered him, she found the long journeys exhausting.

• "My dear husband, there is nothing I want to do more than to live here with you in peace and contentment, so he took his strength for a mountain range and his ribs for that," she said.
• The ridges that ascend now.

• In the years that followed, trees and shrubs and plants were used to clothe the land.

• The first was the Seaspirit, and the blood of Tangaroa became hot, and it floated away the next MountainSpirit, and then in succession, the spirits of to make the redness of the sky and also rainbows.
• There is red fields, trees, rivers, and all natural things.
• It is made from Tangaroa's blood.

• The gods were called by Tangaroa.

• The seasons were born when Tu was with him.

• Everything has a shell.

• The forests grew thick and dense, and in the groves shell, where the gods placed the sun, the flocks of birds gathered and sang.
• Crops and harvests the moon and other stars.

• The land is a shell to the stones and the water, and to the Izanagi and his wife, it was a place of peace.
• When a daughter is born to a family, who is the god is from her, since the shell of a man is woman.
• Their joy was unbounded because a woman's shell is woman.

• Everyone can't remember the things that are in the world.

• They named her Amaterasu.

• What are the roles of men and women in the myths recorded here was collected in 1822.

• Tangaroa lived within his shell for a long time.

• A series of conversions among the elite of the west African states took place after the king of Gao converted to Islam.
• The conversion of the mass took more time.

• The present-day Republic of Mali is the location of the ancient kingdom of Ghana, not to be confused with the modern nation of Ghana.
• In return for gold, it traded for salt, cloth, and manufactured goods from north Africa and the Mediterranean.

• Gold, slaves, and salt were moved into the Mediterranean world through trade routes in the western Sahara region.
• In the sahel along the margins of the Sahara, a series of large states emerged whose merchants controlled those routes and whose power was derived from their strategic location.

• In 1067 c.e., al-Bakri, a scholar from Muslim Spain, wrote about the beauty and power of the country.

• Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on his right are the sons of the kings of his country wearing splendid garments and their hair braided with gold.

• One was occupied by the king and his court, surrounded by the dwellings of the Capital of empire of Ghana.
• There were shrines to the local deities in this city.
• Two adjoining cities were inhabited by long-distance Muslim traders, religious leaders, and scholars.
• The mud-walled architecture of north Africa inspired its mosques and houses.
• The population of these cities may have reached 20,000.

• It should be noted that the Normans invaded England with less than 5000 men.
• A kingdom dominated by the royal family and a group of elite retainers was described in Al-Bakri's account.

• One of the most well-known images of the country was that of wealth.

• Although there was a lot of fantasy in these accounts, it was obvious that Ghana was a powerful kingdom.
• The gold trade in northern Africa was controlled by Abu Bakr ibn Umar.
• The gold trade across the Sahara was controlled by the Almoravids.
• A new fusion of Sudanic and Saharan peoples took place after a new country was conquered.

• The power of the African kingdoms of the savanna was weakened and other states came to Spain.

• The Empire was centered between the common people and the elite.
• The creation of instability and the emergence of new states emerged during the time when the former provinces broke away.
• In the 13th century, ghana had a tradition of trade and military power.

• Historians constantly search for new ways to understand a historical source.
• The foundation for the modern depend on the archeological record was laid by von Humboldt.
• Cultures study historical linguistics.

• The great migration of people from Europe to Asia.
• Language is used to guide the thought of Asia into India and western Europe.
• The spread of language is a guide to its speakers' historical relationships to others.

• Our migrations have been furthered by the development of historical linguistics.
• The study of the early settlement of the Americas is based on techniques that have become indispensably study of the vocabulary, structure, and pensable aids.

• A case in point is the study of language as a histori Bantu migration.

• The structure of thought and language may be different as they and the relationship change.
• The languages in that family were influenced by linguistic insights.
• People are separated by cultural bias.
• Linguists shared their opinion of the language.
• In his essay "On Lan further divergence, so that over time a large number of related Guaage" (1836), he wrote that some languages were "more perfect" and better languages could result from the original language.
• We can establish linguistic subgroup and their of those things to the people involved by looking at structural and vocabu of describing the color of a llama's coat.
• There is no relationship between the two languages as well as to the parent language.
• The word for nobility or private property probably didn't have the study of the 300 to 600 Bantu languages.
• More than 400 million people live in Africa, and the vocabulary of a language can be inde today.
• It shows what people thought.

• The original speakers must have had these things because of the diversity of languages.
• Since their separation, the more time has elapsed.

• Some linguists thought they could establish the Polynesians, the Bantu, and the Indo-Europeans.
• They could calculate the rate at which linguistic changes took place by studying the distribution of words in various Polynesian languages.
• The original speakers of the Polynesians attempted to calculate the percentage of change or loss from their parent language on the basis of 100 or 200 basic words.
• This technique, called glottochronol island or islands in the western Pacific, and they grew taro, yams, ogy, is no longer popular because it is clear that languages do not bananas, and sugar cane before their expansion and dispersal.

• The historical many factors are put together with the linguistic evidence.
• Rates of change in written languages can be difficult to record.
• Language change can provide further historical evidence when used in conjunction with archeology and in the case of Aztec and Roman expansion.

• It is easy to see that the words are similar.

• A common origin can be indicated by historical linguistics and foreign language variations.

• There is a difference between a dialect and a common origin.
• The social and languages should be the focus of our attention.
• There are historical reasons for the predominance of some languages despite the similar sounds in these two sets.
• The relationship between linguistics and language families is underscored by the meanings.

• Whenever possible, historical linguistics has developed various meth together.

• In the vast expanse of territory that stretched from the steppes of the Ukraine across the center of significant features, there was a variety of nomadic, herding peoples.
• These were peoples who practiced pastoralism, moving their herds behind the kingdoms of sub-seasonality and living in close proximity to their animals.

• The painting shows horses being brought to the emperor of China.

• Such tribute payments were often used by nomadic peoples to acknowledge their subordination to strong dynasties in the civilized core regions, such as China.
• The kings and emperors gave great presents to the nomad leaders.
• The Chinese used the exchanges of gifts to establish more regular trading relationships.

• An intermediate tribe that migrates year after year in regular patterns to feed and water their flocks or herds, form of ecological adaptation influenced by climate, rainfall, and distance.
• The nomadic way of life was hard and it placed animal herds that feed on the virtues of courage and strength in order to measure wealth and status.

• The societies that jealously guarded their pastures but made hospitality a populous than shifting cultivation virtue were needed by travelers in the vast expenses of the deserts or plains where the nomads lived.

• The ability to lead was a combination of a charismatic personality, personal courage, and the support of kinsmen.
• Service in marketing goods was one of the more varied roles that women had.
• The arts of the nomads used the products of their herds and flocks in their designs.

• The centers of civilization have long been a place of attraction and rejection for nomadic peoples.
• They raided the sedentary populations of towns and villages, drawn by their surplus food and richer material culture, but were sometimes also employed by the settled societies that sought to exploit the military prowess of the nomads.
• Traffic along the Silk Road from western China to the Middle East was helped by nomads.
• China, Byzantium, Persia, and Rome all had close and ambiguous relations with the nomads on their borders.
• In Egypt in the 2nd millennium b.c.e., the Hyksos created their own successor states after they captured or destroyed empires.
• The settled peoples had to adopt the institutions, social arrangements, and economic practices of the nomadic peoples in order for them to conquer the centers of civilization.
• Most of history has been made by the sedentary peoples and the city dwel ers who supported them, but the interplay with the nomads has often affected the course of civilized history.

• The first nomadic peoples about whom we know a good deal are the Germanic tribes of the mid-2nd millennium b.c.e.

• The early civilizations of the Middle East and the Indus plains were threatened by horse nomads for more than a thousand years.
• The early Greeks settled in the lands to which they migrated, while the Hittites established their own empire and centers of civilization.
• The Scythians, who invaded Europe and Asia Minor, and the Aryans, who menaced Harappan civilization in India, wreaked havoc on these settled groups as late as the last centuries b.c.e.
• China was devastated in the 4th century b.c.e.

• The area of the Dnieper River north of the Black and Caspian seas was the original homeland of the Huns.
• Linguistic evidence shows that they were both herders and farmers.

• They became riders after using their horses to pull carts.
• The people from Europe were moving toward India.
• The populations that occupied Europe came from the ancient homeland.

• Celts and germans spoke the same language.
• Most of Britain was stretched from Spain northward into the British Isles.
• They were organized in small regional king and Ireland, and in small doms with fierce warrior leaders, and they mixed agricultural and hunting economies.
• Their most impressive buildings were crude stone forts and array of stone agricultural and hunting economies, set up to honor the gods of nature, and they had no regional kingdoms.
• The Celts were considered barbarians by the Romans.

• Celts came under Roman influence as Rome expanded into Gaul, Spain, and Britain.
• There was a Romanized Celts population in western Europe.

• The northwestern part of the European continent was populated by Germanic peoples.
• Their culture and institutions were very similar to those of the Celts.
• The Germanic tribes north of the empire's boundaries were undistinguished barbarians.
• The Romans had already developed a wary respect for the German warriors, so he might have added "and its warlike people."

• Tacitus criticized Rome's moral degeneracy by emphasizing the virtues of the Germans.
• He was impressed by the strength and bravery of the Germans.
• He pointed out that warriors were pledged to support their chiefs and that the chiefs led by example and tried to outdo their men in battle.
• The size of a chief's retinue was a measure of his power and distinction.

• Women, the elderly, and slaves all did household chores.
• Women were thought to have a gift of prophecy.
• Their advice was listened to.

• A bride-price was paid to the woman when men and women married late.
• The oxen, horse, and arms symbolized the union of the couple and their shared responsibilities.
• Women were supposed to give the gifts to their children.
• The relationship between a man and his sisters' sons was very strong.
• Infanticide was not practiced, adultery was rare, and the married state was respected.

• The rude material life of the Germans, their lack of cities, their simple dwellings, and their lack of writing were all commented on by Tacitus.
• The people of northwestern Europe did not have a civilization.
• The Germanic tribes, for example, had several important achievements and changes during the final centuries of the classical era.
• Like the Celts, the Germanic peoples mixed agriculture and hunting, and they also herded cattle in a nomadic pattern.
• Agriculture improved in the 1st century c.e.
• among many Germans.
• Improvements in iron use and the manufacture of cloth and other items were marked.
• Knowledge of Roman skills spread beyond the empire's boundaries and resulted in some of these improvements.

• Over a period of 2000 years, the monument was built.
• Thousands of people must have labored to build these monuments because some of the stones weigh as much as 90,000 pounds.
• There are a lot of theories about who built the monument.

• By the 3rd and 4th centuries, political cohesion among some German groups improved.
• Like many nomadic peoples, the Germans had been organized in tribes of a few thousand members each, with individual family groups resolving most disputes.
• If a tribe has a king or an assembly of warrior chiefs, vigorous discussion of any policy issue was essential.
• European institutions in the centuries after the classical era would be affected by group loyalty and political equality.
• Some German tribes merged into larger units as they learned to copy Roman military structure and were forced by Roman pressure to improve their organizational ability.
• The power of individual kings increased as they ruled large confederations of tribes.

• There were important changes in the Germanic lands during the classical era, with improvements in agriculture, trade, manufacture, and politics, as well as the Germans who joined the Roman Empire.

• Germanic culture seems to have stayed the same outside of Rome.
• The German religion was animistic and worshiped the spirits of nature.
• Horses were the most common sacrifice.

• The Germans made their first clear mark in world history as growing bands began to move growth, pressure of Asian groups on southward into the Roman Empire, ultimately probing into Italy, Spain, and north Africa.

• The role ofitus was to topple it.

• The map of European peoples was altered during the final century of the Roman Empire.

• Germanic groups had an influence on Rome beyond the pressures.
• It helped prepare Europe for the gradual development of civilization after Rome.
• The new civilization reflected many Roman legacies and a strong Christian influence, but also built on some Germanic elements.
• As Rome fell, a new Germanic center was taking shape that would have a large influence in the following centuries.
• By the 5th century, political confederations were being formed by the growing populations of the Nordic countries.
• This would lead to invasions and trade throughout the Mediterranean world.

• The pattern of precivilizational advance in eastern Europe was similar to that in northwestern Europe, with some influence from the Hellenistic kingdoms and then the Roman Empire.

• The southern part of Russia was home to agriculture as early as 3000 b.c.e., spreading from the Middle East.
• Iron was brought about by a wave of invasions about 1000 b.c.e.
• The Scythian state controlled the region from the 7th to the 3rd centuries b.c.e.
• after several invasions from central Asia.
• The Scythians were nomadic warriors, but agriculture flourished in the plain north of the Black Sea.
• Scythian rule was followed by an invasion by a group of people known as the sarmatians, who live in the central Caucasus region of Russia today.
• Greek and Persian trade and cultural influence spread into this region under both Scythians and Sarma tians.

• In advance of the Germanic northwest, some trading cities had been formed.

• As with the Germans to the west, it would be premature to refer to a civilization of eastern Europe beyond the Mediterranean zone at the time of Rome's fall.
• The Slavic world was characterized by an increasingly prosperous agricultural economy and rudiments of political organization beyond the tribal level.

• They are protected from wild plants by being adapted to the environment.
• In the first instance, the human dwellings, shrines, and granaries, which are combined to human group works its way into the environment in which form villages and sometimes grow into cities.

• sev plants and animals share a common pattern of human adaptation, similar to the Between the niche pattern and the holding pattern.

• The ashes tation is being used.
• People who practice this approach use their fires as naturalfertilizers, changing the environment in which they live.
• The area was cleared on the forest floor.
• The staple of their diet is the foods grown in this, which include clear forests, haul away stones, and plow grasses.

• After working a they dig ditches to carry water to the rice fields, which are particular clearing for a year or two, shifting farmers move to surrounded by dikes to hold the water in during the growing sea another patch in the forest, where they again begin the burning son.
• They clear fields and forests to support domes.

• In which areas will it be possible to build highly centralized and savanna grasslands where they live in the winter and spring, political systems with considerable state control of local will introduce large herds of domesticated livestock.

What would a people gain if they chose the holding pattern and temporary camps of tents or wagons near their herds?

• There are examples of different types of adaptation in this map, including wet-rice agriculture, hunting and gathering, dry farming, shifting cultivation, and pastoralism.
• Discuss the questions in this section after matching the patterns of adaptation.

• The Japanese developed a unique civilization from a blend of their own culture and Chinese influences.
• The most important agents of Chinese culture were merchants and monks, and eventually Japanese students who studied in China.

• The transmission of key elements was indirect.
• The peoples and kingdoms of Korea had adapted key in Chinese culture to the offshore aspects of Chinese civilization to their own cultures earlier than the Japanese.

• The Japanese retained their political independence despite acknowledging the cultural superiority of the Chinese Middle Kingdom.
• The people of Japan imported Chinese ideas more than most of the other people.

• The four main islands that make up the homeland of the Japanese people rise abruptly and dra culture they had already matically from the Pacific Ocean along the northeast coast of Asia.
• Formed by volcanic activity.

• They only have a small portion of their surface area that is extensive enough to cultivate wet rice, a staple of the Japanese diet from prehistoric times.

• Although poor in natural resources, the islands are difficult to match in their combination of warm climate and subtle natural beauty that instilled in the Japanese people a refined aesthetic sensibility and sensitivity to the natural world reflected in their religion, art, and architecture.
• The islands' limited resource base nurtured a disciplined, hard-working population that was regulated by strict legal codes and ruled through much of the islands' history by warrior elites.

• By the end of the classical era, distinct cultures had emerged in both Japan and Korea despite borrowing from China.

• The ancestors of the Japanese people migrated to the islands as early as 5000 b.c.e., according to archeological evidence.
• Over the course of many centuries, the migrants came in small bands and in larger waves.
• After 3000 cordlike decoration gave the people their name, they produced a distinctive pottery.

• Manchuria produced a distinctive pottery form when most of the new settlers crossed to the islands from the Korean peninsula.

• They were isolated from political upheavals and social changes occurring on the mainland.

• Over the past two millennia, the Japanese have gradually displaced or absorbed nearly all the introduction of wet-rice cultivation, ing Ainu, building a strong sense of cultural and ethnic identity.

• The religion of the people of the islands had taken steps to create a civilization of their own.
• In culture, devotees worshiped the last centuries b.c.e., migrants from the mainland introduced wet-rice agriculture and ironworking numerous gods and spirits associated with the natural world.

• The 4th and clans were dominated by a small warrior aristocracy until the early 5th century.
• The clan elites received support from the 5th century.
• They were also served by cult around Amaterasu and Shinto, slaves like their counterparts in China were a small minority of the Japanese people.
• The social distinctions of the southern islands and the lowland plains were noted by visitors from the mainland.

• They remarked on the strong position of women in early Japanese culture, in contrast to their subordination in China.

• The legends of the creation of the world indicate the importance of women in early Japanese culture.

• The gods and spirits associated with the natural world were worshiped by Shinto devotees.
• Huge trees or mountains, such as Mount Fuji, were identified with some of the dei ties.

• Gods and spirits were thought to be capable of good and evil.

• The impact on architecture in the modern world has been made by 300 KILOMETERS.

• The priest-chief heads of the Yamato clan claimed descent from the sun goddess.

• The classical era of Japanese civilization began in the central plains of the largest lowland plains of the southern islands under the control of the Yamato.
• Hokkaido, where most of their remain to southern Korea, was extended by their sway by the late 4th century.
• Descendants of Yamato were brought to reside overseas.

• The combination of these contacts and the Yamatos' successful campaigns to unify the Japanese people led to profound transforma tions in Japanese society and culture in the centuries that followed.

• Writing with the Chinese characters made it possible for the Yamato to begin to build a real bureaucracy and establish their control over vassal clan heads and the peasantry.
• The use of the Chinese written language made it possible for the Japanese to learn from Chinese texts on a wide range of subjects, from science and philosophy to art and religion.
• The works were imported from the 5th cen tury onward.
• Japanese students and scholars who were proficient in Chinese were sent to China to learn.

• The transmission of Chinese influence to Japan was influenced by the Buddhist religion.
• Buddhism was adopted by the people of China and the rulers of the warring kingdoms after the fall of the Han dynasty.
• Shinto architecture was designed to reflect reverence for and harmony with nature and in the 6th century, a Korean ruler sent Buddhist images and scrip Izumo, Japan.

• It was officially adopted as the religion of the Yamato domain in the late 590s after considerable debate and even open conflict among the families serving the imperial household over the advantages and dangers of introducing Buddhism into Japan.

• Japanese rulers tried to spread the new religion among their subjects.

• The warrior aristocracy and peasants kept their long standing reverence for Shinto spirits and deities despite converting to the new beliefs.
• Shintoism and Buddhism were twin pillars of state and society in Japan.
• The Japanese elite supported the efforts of Buddhist monks to spread their faith, and the monks in turn served as advisors to the emperor and regional lords.
• The monks stressed ethical prescriptions that supported rule by a strong monarch and a centralized state in their teachings.

• Buddhist monks provided colorful rituals that enriched the peasants' lives and charms to ward off sickness or evil spirits, but the com mon people knew little of Buddhist teachings beyond highly mythologized versions of the Buddha's life.

• They tried after ancient imperial centers of China in order to introduce genuine bureaucratic control at the local level.

• The rulers of Yamato wanted to build a peasant conscript army and impose legal codes on a landholding system similar to those in China.

• Chinese influences were felt in virtual monks after the introduction of Buddhism.
• The imperial centers of China were developed by a class of monks and scholars who never fully exercised their power at the imperial court.
• Trade with China and Korea.

• New tools and techniques imported from the mainland made possible a great expansion of the islands' previously marginal mining industry.

• The introduction into Japan of the patriarchal and patrilineal family, which had long been domi nant in China, presented a major challenge to traditional Japanese approaches to gender roles and relationships.
• The ideal of wives and lovers who were accomplished in literature and the arts was preserved by the courtly elites at the imperial capitals of Nara and Heian.
• The control that Japanese women had over their own children was eroded by the adoption of Chinese law codes.
• Polygamy was spread among the Japanese aristocracy.

• The elite's refusal to allow women from the imperial family to rule in their own right was not the first time.
• Japanese women were increasingly subservient to their fathers and husbands.
• In China and India, entry into religious orders or successful careers as courtesans were the only alternatives to careers as wives and mothers.

• Chinese Influence and Japanese Resistance Contacts with China and innovations based on the Chinese model were pushed from the 4th century.
• The Japanese rulers wanted to increase the power of the state to control the warrior nobles and to take resources from the peasants.
• The rulers' legiti macy was enhanced by Buddhist ethics and Confucian legal codes, Chinese rituals gave a new dignity and luster to court routines, and the growth of a Chinese-style bureaucracy provided the means for creating the first genuine state in Japanese history.
• The Japanese rulers could argue that the adoption of Chinese ways was voluntary because of their political independence from China.
• Only imports that would strengthen the Japanese state can be accepted.
• Chinese ideas and institutions could be changed to fit the needs of the Japanese people.
• The innovators argued that the Japanese needed to borrow from their ancient and advanced Chinese neighbors in order to become civilized.

• Many attempts to imitate Chinese patterns failed because Japanese rulers lacked the resources of the Chinese emperors and worked with a society that differed greatly in scale and organization.

• The peasants had to support the bloated bureaucracy that resulted from the imitation of China.

• The Chinese lines foundered due to the opposition of regional lords and their retainers.
• The attempt to make soldiers of the peasantry was frustrated by the warrior elite.
• In this era, conscripts in Japan were more like forced laborers.
• Many of the Chinese legal injunctions were not enforced in Japan.
• At the height of the early dynasties' power, the impressive capital cities laid out by the architects remained half-built and underpopulated.

• Japan was not made in China's image.
• The introduction of writing, Buddhism, and other imports from China gave rise to concerns about preserving Japan's own culture.
• In the mid-7th century, controversy over foreign influences became a central element in violent struggles between the families closest to the throne.
• Until the 8th century, each struggle was won by the forces that favored imports from abroad.

• The peoples of the far Pacific, who had left the Asian mainland before the rise of classical China and New Zealand, were unaffected by the spread of Chinese and Indian civilization.
• They brought with them societies from late Neolithic Asia and developed them in isolation from the rest of the Pacific.

• One of the great epics of human achievement is the peopling of the islands of the Pacific Ocean.

• The waters of the Pacific are dotted with thousands of islands, and the distance from southeast Asia to Central America is 12,000 miles.
• The islands vary in size from tiny atolls formed by coral reefs to large "high" islands with volcanic peaks and lush valleys.
• New Zealand does not lie in the tropics, but most of these islands do.
• They are inhabited by a variety of peoples whose physical appearance, language, and culture are quite different but whose origins seem to be in Asia.

• The story of the Polynesians can serve as a case study of the spread of culture by long distance maritime migration in the Pacific.
• We are not dealing with the spread from a great center of civilization but with the migration of peoples and their adaptation to new challenges in isolation.

• We must rely on the evidence of archeology and linguistics, their own oral traditions, and the observations of Europeans who first contacted them to reconstruct the history of their societies, because they left no written records.

• Linguistic evidence is a starting point.
• The Austronesians were from Asia, but they were not the first people to migrate from Asia to the Pacific.

• Other clues may be provided by new DNA analyses.
• The Polynesian peoples of New Zealand are related to the pre- Chinese peoples of Taiwan.

• There are islands in the east from Melanesia to the Pacific.
• By the time of this expansion, these people had developed a variety of fishing techniques, raised dogs, pigs, and chickens, and grew yams, taro, and other crops.
• Archeologists can identify their island.

• Stone adzes, fishhooks, and other implements can be found in New Zealand.

• Basic principles of economy and social orga nization can be found throughout Polyne sia.

• The map shows the expansion of Polynesians from Indonesia and the Philippines to New Zealand, Easter Island, and Hawaii.
• The area grew in size and density.
• By the late 18th century, the ocean created a variety of societies, but some basic elements of their language and culture were lost.

• Many Polynesian islands were characterized by societies with power ful chiefdoms, and in some places, such as Hawaii, they became extremely hierarchical.
• For wars and interisland raiding, chiefs were able to mobilize their followers.
• The basis of the chiefs' power was based on ritual and religion.

• Shelter could be given to people, animals, and plants with the use of double canoes.
• With large triangular sails, these long-distance voyaging; carried vessels, some of which were 60 to 100 feet long, were capable of long voyages at sea and could travel a platform between canoes for more than 120 miles a day in good weather.
• They could sail against the tides and winds.

• navigation was a problem.
• The voyages were accidental, but Polynesian traditions and the ability of some Pacific islanders to navigate long distances by observing the stars, wave patterns, and other techniques support the idea that voyages were a mistake.

• The arrival of Tahitian chiefs who made voyages to and from Hawaii for about 200 years is celebrated in Hawaiian traditions.
• ).

• Many of the Polynesians' voyaging seems to have been sporadic, as groups pushed by war, popu, or a spirit of exploration followed a chief or navigator into the ocean.
• When the Europeans arrived, long-range voyaging was rarely practiced.
• The Polynesians colonized almost every island in the Western merchants to establish the vast Pacific.

• We can use the large islands of New Zealand and Hawaii as examples of Polynesian societies that developed in response to certain conditions.
• There are eight major islands in Hawaii.
• The volcanic nature of the islands and the tropi cal climate created an environment that impressed the early inhabitants.
• The islands are likely to have been set in at least two waves.
• Over a long period of time, early Polynesian culture was adapted and elaborated in isola tion.
• The population grew to 200,000 by the time of European contact in the 1700s, because the islands had good soil.
• Towns and cities were absent, and houses were scattered along the coast and in valleys leading to the higher interior.
• Many families competed for control of the islands.
• The Polynesian mariners were great navigators.

• The Hawaiian society claimed to be descended from the gods.
• Marriage to their sisters ensured the purity of their descent from the gods.
• There are helmets and capes in great detail.

• The ali'i were feared and revered.
• The rule of the ali'i was supported by a class of lesser nobility and subchiefs.

• In Polynesia, the land was divided into sections that traveled from the ocean to the top of mountain ridges.
• As landholders cultivated taro in the mountain valleys, they drew upon large man-made coastal fisheries for food.

• The community's control of land was a central aspect of social and political relations.
• Commoners were seen as a separate people within the hierarchy.
• It was kapu for women to eat certain foods, to enter the house of a chief, to eat bade certain activities, to view certain ceremonies limited to the chiefs, or even to cast a shadow on social discourse.

• It could lead to death.
• The number of kapu surrounding a chief was a sign of his status in the society, as a sign of his position as material goods.

• A lot of aspects of life were ritualized.
• The gods were honored at centers that were sacred.
• Many ceremonies were accompanied by ritual feasting and hula.
• Human sacrifice was offered to Ku, the god of war.
• The gods of fer tility and agricultural rebirth were important to the Hawaiians.
• The chiefs received their tribute from the commoners at the end of the Makahiki festival, which lasted for four months.
• In the hopes of stimulating fertility, kapu, hulas, and sexual activity were engaged frequently during this time.

• Lovemaking was an art and a preoccupation of the Hawaiians, with important religious, kin ship, and political meanings.

• Hawaii is seen as the most successful Polynesian society in terms of its political and social complexity, economic foundations, art and material culture, and religion.
• The Hawaiians used a Neolithic technology to create a complex culture.
• Although they lacked a written language, their legends and oral histories, which can be traced back to the original canoes of the first migrants, were remarkable achievements that formed and preserved their culture.

• As early as the 8th century, the crews of canoes or rafts from the Society Islands and other parts of eastern Polynesia had sailed thousands of miles to the southwest and by chance discovered the two large islands that make up New Zealand.
• They embarked on a struggle to survive in the colder and harsher environment of the islands over the centuries.
• As many as 200,000 people descended from the Polynesian seafarers who lived in the islands when the Europeans first came to stay in the late 18th century, so their success is evi denced.

• The mist covered islands of New Zealand were referred to as the "land of the long white clouds" due to the lack of plants beyond berries and fern roots.
• The introduction of new crops such as the sweet potato, taro, and yam, as well as fishing, helped fill the gap left by the loss of a source of food in Polynesia.

• The moderate climate and rich soils of the north island made it more suitable for settlement than the cold and desolate south island.
• The forests and croplands on the north island were taken over by the Maori tribes.
• Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, tribal territories with clearly defined boundaries existed throughout most of the north island.

• The Maori lived in large, elaborately carved society in New Zealand.
• The hapu village tribes, consisting of extended fami and allotted by a communal council to each of the extended families for its support, owned all the land the Maori farmed for their subsistence.

• Weak leaders were quickly displaced by more able warriors.
• The free men of a given group limited the power of the hapu and tribal chiefs.

• Most hapu communities had slaves, usually prisoners of war or their descendants.

• Women had a strong voice in the family, but they were subservient to men.

• They enjoyed a monopoly on positions of leadership and highly prestigious activities such as making war and woodcarving.

• Many kinds of religious and craft experts were recognized, despite the society's inability to support full-time specialists.
• According to social status and func tions, priests were of many different types.
• The chiefs were trained to be priests.
• The chief-priest knew the special prayers to protect the tribe.
• The gods and spirits of the Maori world were always present.
• At the other end of the social scale were shamans, who specialized in healing and served as the medium by which gods and spirits made their desires known to humans.

• A wide variety of experts, including priests, rang from those who built canoes, woodcarvers and tattoo specialists.
• Those with skills relating to making war were the most important experts.
• The society was obsessed with war.
• During the appropriate season, tribes and hapus fought with each other.
• Young men proved their worth as warriors, and leaders were able to maintain their positions without demonstrating their martial prowess.
• Much of the time and energy was devoted to planning campaigns against neighboring tribes or building intricate hilltop fortresses.
• The combats of the Maori wars were fierce and the loss of life was low.
• The preferred mode of combat was hand-to-hand fighting with spears and exquisitely carved war clubs.
• Surprise attacks and ambushes were highly praised.
• The first enemy killed in battle would be cut out and offered to the gods of the tribe.
• Enemy casualties were eaten and enemy prisoners were enslaved.

• The environment of New Zealand's landfall was harsh but beautiful.
• They had developed a fairly steady and productive agricultural system on the basis of imported crops.
• Their material culture was impressive even though they did not work.
• They beat the Polynesian societies in woodworking and decoration.
• They had developed a rich oral tradition which placed a premium on oratorical skills and produced a complex and fascinating collection of myths and legends.
• The hapu and the tribe have developed well organized communities despite the fact that they are divided.

• The limited resources of the Maori prevented them from achieving the full occupational specialization that was critical to the advancement of true civilization elsewhere.
• The Maori had limited technological advances and their resistance to disease.
• The Europeans had more sophisticated tools and weapons that made them vulnerable to diseases that decimated the tribes of New Zealand.
• Although their skills in war allowed the Maori to survive in the long run, they were powerless to prevent the destruction of the world they had known before the Europeans.

• Specific characteristics in art, language, and the like were displayed by the four emerging areas.

• The societies that formed Saharan Africa were in contact with more established civilization on the fringes of the major core of world civilization.
• Polynesia stood out by its early classical period.
• They separated from Asia.
• This resulted in an impressive set of inde or imported agriculture, they were able to form more structured pendent achievements as Polynesian society advanced and spread, political units and develop a more complex social hierarchy.
• The availability of outside influence can explain impor teristics from its own past, as each of the emerging societies exhibited important charac other words.
• These characteristics led to differences between societies.

• Expansions and contacts established during the clas for the Japanese, the Slavs, Celts, and Germans, and the Sudanic king sical period would lead directly to further developments in the doms of Africa.

• The new influences that helped reestablish vigorous range of contacts, either through migration into greater interaction societies in the same areas or deliberate spillover, had a vital spillover effect in northern with an established civilization.
• We are returned to imitation by this fact.
• As the classical centers declined, the nomadic peoples brought forth new influences through trade, migration, or invasion.

• The contact in that Polynesian island is recounted in some of the basic texts.

• The spread of Polynesians through Japan and China is compared to the spread of Germanic tribes with Rome and Europe.

• China, India, and Rome have economic systems and cultures that are spread to other peoples.