Chapter 11

• The major theories of personality are presented in this chapter.

• There are a number of ways to quantify personality differences.

• One of the questions posed by psychologists is how these differences occur.

• Basic processes by Hans eysenck.
• In this chapter, we will see that heredity has an influence on the personality of the "Big Five" trait.
• Freud has a model for personality development.
• We will consider the perspective of psychologists who believe that basic pro cesses of learning can account for some personality differences.

• This statement usually means that a person has made a positive impression on you and Basic Premises has characteristics that you like.

• In ancient Greece and Rome, actors wore masks to portray their personality characteristics.
• The masks made it easier for a small group of actors to portray different roles.

• The idea that a relatively stable pattern of individual's personality is relatively consistent is the second defining component.
• As we will see later in the chapter, psychologists have debated and studied the issues of consistency across situations and stability over time, as we will see later in the chapter.

• Cats are not always friendly.

• Slow walkers are fast walkers.

• Being able to flick a light switch makes me feel strong.

• Case studies, interviews, naturalistic observations, laboratory investigations, and psychological tests are some of the methods psychologists use to examine personality.

• Judgement is not required to score these tests because of the limited range of answers.

• The need to identify recruits who were not mentally stable and not capable of serving in the military is what led to the development of modern self-report assessment measures.

• The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and the California Psychological Inventory are two of the most frequently used personality inventories.

• The MMPI was first published in 1943 by Starke Hathaway and J. C. McKinley of the University of Minnesota.
• The purpose of the MMPI is to help diagnose psychological disorders such as depression, yes or no or true or false and schizophrenia.
• They kept items that were answered differently by normal people and those with psychological disorders.

• A revision of the MMPI, the MMPI-2 has 567 items and 10 clinical dimensions or scales designed to assess characteristic symptoms associated with several of the major psychological disor ders.
• The test was revised in order to provide current standards based on a national sample and to update the content of the items.
• The four validity scales were designed to detect the tendency of test takers to present themselves in a favorable light, as well as to assess other unusual ways of responding.
• The MMPI-2 has scales for depression, Hypochondriasis, Paranoia, and Schizophrenia.

• This person is sad about life or themselves.
• These clients tend to view the world in a negative way.
• They don't like interacting with people because of their pessimistic views of life.

• The MMPI-2-RF is a shorter version of the test.
• The two versions of the test have similar scores.

• The MMPI can be used in at least 22 languages and in many nations and cultures.
• Test developers follow a number of procedures when adapting the test for use outside of the United States.
• During the MMPI-2 revision the acceptability of the test was enhanced by the elimination of objectionable items.
• Each time the test is changed, the issue of item content must be addressed.
• People taking the test in Arabic nations might consider items referring to sex to be inappropriate.
• In addition to issues related to content, the items themselves must be translated.
• The items are translated from English.
• The back-and-forth process identifies any failures to convey the original meaning of the items.

• The MMPI has served as the basis for the development of other personality inventories.

• The 20 CPI scales, such as dominance, responsibility, and sociability, have been used to predict academic achievement, to understand leadership, to study individuals in various occupations, and to study the personality of drug users.
• The CPI has been translated into 29 languages.

• Chapter eleven is the most widely used self-report measure of pathology.

• The time required to administer and score a lengthy, all-encompassing personality inventory such as the MMPI is one of the limitations.
• The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), which measures severity of depression, is a result of this perceived limitation.
• Self-report inventories give the chance for less-than-honest responses.
• The MMPI and MMPI-2 have a number of validity scales that they use to evaluate the patient's honesty.
• The examiner can proceed to the clinical scales if the scores on the L Scale are valid.

• She said cartoonbank.com when you told her what you saw.

• The stimuli used in projective tests to evaluate personality are similar to those clouds.

The test involves making up stories about pictures, drawing, or using complete sentences such as "I think other people."

• Proponents of projective tests believe that it is difficult to fake responses on personality tests because there are no correct or best answers.
• People project their personality characteristics onto ambiguous stimuli in pro jective tests.
• These responses are thought to reflect unconscious aspects of personality that are not likely to be revealed in answers to more obvious self-report inventory items.

• Thematic Apperception Test is a projective test that has been used to make predictions of future achievement related behaviors.
• There are vague black-and-white pictures on the 20 TAT cards.
• When administering the test, the psychologist asks the participant to make up a story to fit what is happening in the card and what the character is thinking and feeling, and to give the outcome.

• The Rorschach Inkblot Test is one of the most widely used projective tests.
• There are five cards in the test that are black, white, and gray.

• The administration of the Rorschach test involves several steps.
• The examiner displays the cards one at a time and asks the client to report what he or she sees.
• The psychologist writes down the client's description of each card and then inquires about the aspects of each card that influenced the responses.
• The psychologist can code the responses on the basis of characteris tics such as the part of the card used, the use of color, and the content of the responses.
• Users of the Rorschach test believe that the responses yield information about an individual's personality.

• Administering and interpreting projective stimuli requires extensive training.
• The degree of subjective judgment required to in or interpretation like this has led some psychologists to conclude that projective tests do not meet the same standards as self-report inventories.
• To address the meaning of the con.

• Disciplined and self-controlled outside, you tend to be worried inside.

• There are many methods used to analyze personality.
• Nancy has a computer-generated personality analysis.
• She thought that a computer had analyzed her answers to the GPA to produce an analysis for her.
• She wasn't aware that the items on the GPA are not typical of self-report inventories; they were selected by researchers who wanted to determine if people would accept general personality feedback they thought was based on unusual items.
• She didn't reveal much about her personality when she responded to those items.

• The computer-generated personality description that Nancy received is similar to other methods of analyzing per sonality, such as handwriting analyses and horoscopes.
• The statements in Table 11-2 were collected from an astrology book and are similar to those found in Nancy's personality analysis.

• Many people consult their horoscopes every day despite the fact that astrology has no scientific basis.

• Write down your answers before you read further.

• Ask the same questions if you read the other statements.

• The statements describe a large percentage of the population.

• The tendency to describe oneself as descriptive of oneself seems to be a universal phenomenon.

• Nancy's personality analysis statements are similar to those offered by fortune tellers.
• Fortune tellers use clues such as clothing, physical features, speech, gestures, and eye contact to find information.

• Self-report inventories and projective techniques are two of the many ways to evaluate personality.
• Direct interviews and observation of behavior are included in other procedures.
• Direct observations are used frequently by mental psychologists who believe that childhood experiences are important in shaping personality.
• They might want to observe the interactions of children at a child-care center.

• Consistency in behavior is one of the elements of personality.

• Walter Mischel was responsible for predicting how successful Peace Corps volunteers would be.
• "Highly generalized behavioral consistencies have not been demonstrated" was the conclusion that was reached after analyzing reports.
• When you are out with your friends, your behavior may be different than when you are with relatives.
• An ob server might find it hard to believe that you are the same person.
• That is the point of Mischel's point, that behavior is a function of situations.

• As we grow older, it seems natural for some personality change to take place.
• When you are 60 years old, your personality as a 19-year-old first-year college student will not be the same.

• The idea of consistency of behavior was dealt a blow by Mischel.
• There are several reasons for believing that there is consistency in behavior.
• One reason is that we rely on preconceived notions of how behaviors are related and may jump to conclusions that are consistent with those preconceived no tions.
• You can conclude that a friendly person is honest even if you have no evidence to support it.

• Intelligence, emotional reactions, and physical appearance are all consistent over time.
• Researchers have found that certain emotional reactions are stable over time.
• Intelligence test scores are stable into adulthood after early childhood.

• There may be limitations in the methods used to study consistency, despite the fact that a number of studies have failed to demonstrate consistency.
• The following situation can be seen as an example of a problem.
• Final grades for a course will be based on a single multiple-choice item, according to your instructor.
• The moans and groans can be heard.
• Let's look at the reasons for your objection.
• One multiple-choice item is not a good indicator of how much I have learned.
• A single multiple-choice item is not a good indicator of your knowledge of the course material.
• The false premise that scientists in the field of personality seek to predict a single response of a particular individual in a completely novel situation is often used to argue against the consistency of behaviors.

• We could develop a self-report inventory to measure altruism.
• We can find out how many people volunteered to work for a charity last year by looking at the scores on our altruism measure.
• There may be problems with this indicator.
• Write down your answer before you read it.

• A group of high scorers and a group of low scorers are separated into two smaller groups on the basis of their altruism scores.
• We ask the individuals in each group if they volunteered to help a charity last year, and they don't find any differences between the two groups.
• How many of them donated money to the poor, how many gave clothing to charitable organizations, and how many signed petitions requesting funds to build homeless shelters are some of the questions we can ask.

• There may be few differences between the two groups of individuals.
• A pattern emerges when we look at several behaviors together.
• A single test item is a weak indicator of your knowledge of course material, just as a single behavior is a weak indicator of altruism.
• Patterns become visible when the behaviors are added together.

• The concept of aggregation is not new.
• Cumulative curves that are aggregations of a series of behaviors over time are examined by psychologists who study operant condition ing, instead of studying a single bar press in a Skinner box.
• When we aggregate behaviors, we can determine if they are consistent over time.

• Chapter eleven psychologists are interested in helping behavior in this photograph.

• Proponents of both views believe they are correct and that the other side must be wrong.
• There is a contradiction in the evidence offered by each side.

• It's behavior is specific to a situation.

• People have stable tendencies to respond in certain ways.

• Consistency in behavioral tendencies is dependent on the situation.
• The likeli hood that a person will exhibit is influenced by the situation.
• There are clear standards for acceptable behavior at a funeral, so few people laugh at it.
• If we were interested in studying sense of humor and limited our observations to funerals, we might conclude that people with a high sense of humor were inconsistent.
• The role of the situation needs to be acknowledged.
• A pattern of consistency would emerge if we expanded our observations to other situations.
• People who are high in humor would laugh a lot.

• The various techniques used to analyze or measure personality and whether personality is consistent have been discussed, and we now turn our attention to the various theo retical views of personality that psychologists have developed.

• The various theories or perspectives that psychologists have developed to explain human personality stress different aspects or processes.
• All theories may not be the same in their ability to explain personality.
• There are five useful guidelines for evaluating theories or per spectives.
• The table summarizes the guidelines.

• As you read about the various theories and perspectives of personality, we hope that you will study these guidelines carefully and keep them in mind.

• The more parsimonious theory is preferred when comparing theories.

• This section begins with a hands-on activity.

• Pick "Simu lations" on your course home page to complete the IPIP-NEO Personality Test.
• The Big Five personality traits are measured by the IPIP-NEO.
• The Five-Factor Model of personality is the primary purpose of the online inventory.
• The report explains the consequences of one's standing on five broad personality domains.
• Normal differences in personality should be obvious to people who know you.
• The five broad domains and thirty sub-domains of personality are estimated by this inventory.
• The inventory doesn't reveal hidden, secret information about you.
• The report is meant to be objective.
• Measurement error, misunderstandings, carelessness, and mischievous responding can invalidate the report.
• The test results are wrong if knowledgeable acquaintances disagree with them.

• trait theories are used to describe yourself as well as your friends and relatives.
• Most approaches to personality use the concept of traits to explain the development of individual differences.
• trait theory has become very popular.

• Some people have high levels of a trait while others have low levels.
• The normal curve shows that most people have a mod erate degree of a given trait.
• The statements in Table 11-2 do not provide information about how much of a trait is exhibited.
• Most self-report inventories allow us to determine the level of the trait that was assessed.

• The building blocks of personality were described by psychologist Gordon Allport.
• He looked at everyday language because it seems likely that the most important individual differ ences in human transactions would be single terms in our language.

• The large number of terms seemed to make it difficult to describe a person's personality.

• The key personal for differences among people has been searched for by personality psychologists.

• Cattell's approach was to administer a wide variety of personality measures to many people and to use the results to identify the key personality traits.
• Some bits of information tended to cluster together.

• Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire provides an assessment of the levels of a person's source traits.
• The same 16 traits can be used to describe each of us, but the levels of those traits vary from person to person, which accounts for our distinctiveness as individuals.

• Hans Eysenck was always interested in how a trait is described in a summary term.

• Extraversion is one of several traits illustrated here.

• Eysenck said we can describe personality as consisting of three basic traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.
• Neu roticism is a type of emotional instability that includes anxiety, guilt feelings, low self-esteem, and shyness.
• Psychoticism is characterized by aggressiveness, impul sivity, and a lack of empathy.
• Extraversion is a trait that can be seen as a continuum from extreme to extreme.
• Many people have scores that put them in the middle of the distribution, because this trait is a continuum.

• There are a number of ways in which extroverts and introverts differ.

• Extroverts prefer to work in large groups and have a short attention span.
• Extroverted students prefer face-to-face interaction in the classroom but they did not differ from other students in their comfort level with computers in a class that used com puters for quizzes, discussions, and e-mails.
• College students' scores on extraversion have increased in recent years.

• Despite the work of Cattell and Eysenck, there is a growing consensus that personal ity traits can be reduced to five basic ones.

• There are five traits described in Table 11-4.
• Many psychologists consider the Big Five approach to be an important development in personality research.
• There is an issue of whether there are five dimensions to personality or some other number.

• There are several reasons for concluding that the five traits are basic di mensions of personality.

• People with low scores are described as quiet, reserved, and lacking in energy.

• A high scorer is described as fundamentally altruistic.
• People who score low are not nice.

• People who score low are disorganized, careless, inefficient, and undependable.

• People who score low are calm and comfortable with themselves.

• People who score low prefer routine and are not intellectually oriented.

• The ability to detect genetic and neurological bases of complex behavior has increased due to the advancement of genetics and neuroscience.
• This ability combined with the interest in the Big Five has led to the explo incorporating those icons into your ration of trait heritabilities.
• The heritability of the Big Five has been assessed.

• According to the researchers, "51% to 42% of individual difference variation among the Big Five dimensions is genetic in origin."
• The finding of heritability is not a guarantee of finding specific genetic causes.
• At this point in time, scientists should use the discoveries as a way to continue their research.

• An investigation of their stability is relevant to the definition of personality.

• There was a correlation between scores on a self-report inventory and personality ratings.
• A growing body of research suggests that personality traits have long-term stability.
• The Big Five are used in personnel selection.

• The five-factor model of personality has been the focus of a lot of attention.
• Some people don't think the five factors capture the essence of personality.
• The deeper organizing principles of personality are not addressed by question naire items.
• The use of complex mathematical procedures, such as factor analysis, to identify the supposed key traits rests on the assumption that everyone has the same interpretation when reading the questionnaires.
• According to these psychologists, if we use questionnaires to get a glimpse of personality, what we get is a description on a selection of traits that are just statistical entities and only skim the personality's surface.
• The rich sources of information for assessing personality are provided by experienced clinicians who listen to clients tell stories about their lives.

• Clinicians rate personality-related state ments as describing a patient on a scale of 0 to 7.
• The dimensions of personality are identified by using a statistical sorting technique.
• Table 11-5 shows some of the proposed dimensions.

• The dimensions have relevance to understanding personality disorders because they involve characteristics not tapped by the Big Five factors.
• The assessment system will help therapists develop better treatment plans for their clients.

• A syndicate of King Features.

• This first aspect focuses on a person's strengths and inner resources they can use to deal with difficulties in their lives, in line with psychology's growing interest in positive aspects of humankind.

• Hostile people misinterpret the actions and words of others.
• They are given either direct or passive hostile actions.

• The existence of three major traits was proposed by Hans eysenck.

• A model of five major traits is offered by current research.
• A list of trait terms was developed by Gordon allport.

What is the term psychologists use for access to those processes?

What is the term that describes fortune tellers' use of schizophrenia and Hypomania?

• Both sisters are easy to befriend.

• People have different personality traits.

• Some of the earliest attempts to relate person ality to biological factors seem to be primitive.
• The research tools were too crude and the hypotheses too broad to start a search.

• A person's humor was believed to determine their characteristics.
• A person with a lot of black bile was thought to be depressed.
• The role of biological factors in personality has continued despite the fact that the body is not filled with humors.

• The brain was compared to a muscle by the author, and he tried to locate various characteristics by looking for well-developed parts of the brain.
• The development of underlying brain tissue might be signaled by bumps on the skull.

• The interest in phrenology faded as it became clear that the bumps on the skull were not related to personal characteristics.
• The study of brain functions was encouraged by phrenology.

• The shape of one's body is thought to determine one's personality.
• Information about the personality of people representing each of the body types was collected by Sheldon.
• Endomorphs love comfort and are outgo ing, mesomorphs are assertive and energetic, and ectomorphs are restrained and lonely.

• When other researchers could not replicate these correlations, they suspected that pre conceptions about the relationship of body type to personality had influenced the results.
• Although the work has not received a lot of research support, it is possible that it contains a truth.
• A phrenology bust showing a nervous system that keeps one slim is an example of a nervous system that makes one shy and introverted.

• Although there is little evidence that body type is related to person, researchers are looking into the role of other biological factors in personality.

• The person's general level of neural arousal is one of those factors.

• Organisms seek an optimal level of stimulation that varies by individual.
• It is perceived as unpleasant if stimulation is too far above or below that level.
• The broad trait of extra version is related to sensation seeking.

• There are several related components to sensation seeking.

• People with high scores on the sensation-seeking scale are more likely to work in drag racing.

• You can estimate your degree of sensation seeking by taking a test that is similar to the items on the scale.

• The scale was designed to measure differences among indi viduals seeking stimulation from a variety of sources.
• Pick the alternative that best indicates your preference for each item.
• At the end of the chapter, check your choices against the scoring key.

• When I go to an amusement park, I like to ride the roller coaster over and over.

• The carousel is a ride that I like when I go to an amusement park.

• The weather alert fills me with fear.

• Seeing a weather alert makes me want to watch the storm.

• I was excited by the thought of trying a new drug.

• If all drugs were banned, we would be better off.

• I would love to climb a mountain.

• I don't like climbing a steep mountain.

• Gambling makes me happy.

• I would love to drive an Indy 500 car.

• I wouldn't consider driving an Indy 500 car.

• I don't like adventure films.

• I like to know where I am going before I go on a vacation.

• I want to play it safe when it comes to investing.

• I'm not afraid to take a lot of risk when it comes to investing.

• High sensation seekers like spicy, sour, and crunchy foods more than low sensation seekers.
• It is likely that this preference is due to the variety of foods that can be found.
• High sensation seekers use more drugs and alcohol than low sensation seekers.
• People in high-risk occupations such as firefighters, race car drivers, riot-squad police officers, and emergency room nurses tend to score high on this scale.
• The expected differences between sports and recreation are similar.
• Gambling is related to sensation seeking.
• It is important to identify risk takers early in life.
• Children who were high risk takers were more likely to cause accidents.
• The sensation-seeking scores of young drivers seem to be related to their intention to exceed highway speed limits as well as their tendency to be more aggressive compared to their peers.

• Differences in behavior related to sensa tion seeking may have a genetic basis.
• The neurotransmitter norepinephrine is broken down by the monoamine oxidase.

• There is a correlation between MAO levels and sensation and the scale seeking behavior.
• Paragraph 2002 indicates that low levels of MAO and high levels of norepinephrine are related to high sensation-seeking scores.
• The gamblers who are known for their impulsiveness and risk taking exhibit low levels of MAO.
• Dopamine may be involved in behaviors introduced in this chapter.
• This finding could help explain the association between sensation seeking and use of a variety of drugs.

• The findings are intriguing, despite the fact that a correlation between a biological variable and a personality variable does not prove causality.

• A growing body of research shows the importance of biological factors in personality characteristics.
• The study of twins can shed light on personality quirks.

• Jim Springer and Jim Lewis were adopted into separate families.
• They both liked math, but not spelling.
• Both had law enforcement training and worked as deputy sheriffs.
• They vacationed in Florida, drove Chevrolets, and had dogs named Toy.
• Both Linda and Betty were married to other women.
• Both of them have headaches late in the afternoon.

• Twins who were separated at birth are depicted in this story.

• Twin pairs like those just described have been recruited by the University of Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart.
• Twin pairs that are separated by friends, relatives or the twins themselves are brought to the attention of the researchers.

• Write down your answers before you read further.

• The twins shown here are studying at the University of Minnesota.
• Many of the twins reported similar experiences and behaviors.

• The story of the Jim twins is dramatic, but we should ask if the sim ilarities are coincidences.
• During the lengthy testing the participants had many opportunities to discover similarities in their behaviors.

• In Chapter 9, it was stated that identical twins have the same genes as your brother or sister.

• Twins share the same genes, so we would expect their personality to be the same.
• There is a problem in conducting research on twins, which is that they may be treated differently than other twins.
• We don't know if the similarities between identical twins are due to their identical heredity or to their environments.
• The separation of twins early in life allows researchers to understand the effects of nature and nurture.

• The results of a study of 44 pairs of identical twins who were separated early in life were reported by the University of Minnesota.
• The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire yields 11 scales and was completed by the twins.
• The correlations for identical twins reared apart and for those reared together are very small.

• The correlations are the same if the twins were reared apart or together.

• We talked about possible genetic influences on the Big Five earlier.
• A study was conducted in Germany and Poland.
• The twin's personality was assessed by two different raters.
• There was a correlation of.63 between the raters and their peers.
• The twins' self-report ratings correlated with the peer ratings.

• The researchers concluded that personality measured by self-ratings or peer ratings shows a genetic influence, with no evidence for a shared environmental influ ence.
• Similar results were obtained in a study of twins in Canada and Germany, which the researchers interpreted as support for ge netic influences on personality traits across cultures.

• Twins reared together and reared apart.

• The personality characteristics are determined by the achievement role.

• The Big Five traits were assessed.

• The source is based on Angleitner, Riemann, and Strelau.

• Half of the personality traits are not shared in identical twins.

• Researchers focused on differences across families in trying to explain siblings' differences.
• The environment shared by siblings is not as important as the nonshared environment.
• Each child experiences the environment differently and these nonshared environmental factors seem to be more impor tant than shared experiences.
• Survey results and naturalistic observations show that parents may not treat each child differently, despite social pressure to do so.

• A lot of our personality may be determined by genetics.
• The evolutionary perspective predicts that the aspects of our personality that help us adapt to environmental demands will be passed on to future generations.

• According to the theory of psy chologist David Buss, evolution has an impact on the type of people that men and women choose as dates and mates.
• Buss thinks that women will choose men with good sources of food, shelter and protection.
• In humans, resources can take many forms.
• Hard-working, ambitious, energetic, and persevering are some of the personality characteristics that appear to correlate with achievement potential.
• Buss believes that women will reject dates and sexual overtures from men who do not meet all of the criteria.
• According to the evolution ary argument, males should come to value and view as attractive those physical and behavioral cues in potential mates that correlate with female reproductive capacity.

• Perpetuation of a per son's genes via his or her offspring is a key underlying principle.
• Women seek men with resources in order to increase the chances of survival because they produce only a limited number of offspring.
• Men seek a number of temporary mates or seek a single long-term mate in order to perpetuate their genes.
• In either case, reproductive ability is the main characteristic that men seek, and Buss believes that age and health are two important indicators of this characteristic.

• One study that exemplifies the research support for Buss's theory tested the role of salary in date selection by men and women.
• They predicted that willingness to date would increase as sal ary increased and that salary would be more important to women.
• In three groups, male and female participants rated opposite-sex pictures in terms of willingness to date.
• In the lowest salary group, scores were the least willingness to date and increased at the next two levels.
• The women were more willing to date at the highest level of salary.

• Genetics present at birth can have an influence on our personality.
• There is a very different approach to under standing personality.
• Sigmund Freud thought that our early experiences set the stage for personality throughout life, but his focus was on how unconscious factors could determine our personality.

• According to heritability estimates between 20% type and personality, William sheldon suggested a relationship between body teristics.

• Both types of twins were the same.

• A high score on a test designed for twins is likely if their personality scores were not related.

• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a neurologist, developed a theory of personality that emphasized unconscious factors and a therapy for patients with abnormal behaviors.
• Most people know the name Sigmund Freud.
• You should recognize Freud's impact if you have.
• Freud's views and theories have found their way into several academic disciplines as well as into everyday speech.

• Understanding the times in which Freud lived is important to understanding Freud.

• Freud was born to Jewish parents in Austria in 1856.
• The Victorian era was notorious for its views of sexuality.
• Freud was prevented from pursuing a career as a scientist because of extreme anti-Semitic prejudice.
• He reluctantly went into private practice as a neurologist because his future looked bleak and he needed money to get married.

• Women with hysterical disorders were most of Freud's patients.
• Freud proposed that these disorders were caused by psychological conflicts.
• Freud thought that the events had actually happened, but later realized they were fantasies.
• He thought his patients couldn't differentiate between what happened earlier in their lives and their sexual de sires.
• Some critics believe Freud uncovered evidence of sexual abuse of children, which he was either unwilling to report or unable to accept as true.

• Freud believed that his patients didn't know about the sex.
• The influence of conflicts in the form of physical and psychological symptoms would continue if they were not brought to conscious awareness.

• Freud's theory is based on three concepts: psychic determinism, instincts, and levels of consciousness.
• Let's take a look at each concept.

• Freud believed that events that happened earlier in our lives determine a lot of our behavior.
• Sexual conflicts can cause physical symptoms in adulthood.

• Before reading further, give these questions some thought and write down a theory for your answer.
• A Freudian slip is an example of the concept of psychic determinism.
• According to actions.

• You can imagine attending a boring party that drags on for hours.
• Many of us who have attended meetings have felt this way before.

• The same way that a car is propelled by the energy contained in gasoline, Freud believed we are driven by certain instincts.

• Freud proposed that there are different levels of consciousness.

• The techniques of psychodynamic therapy are used to gain access to the unconscious.
• Freud believes that conscious thought is only a small part of our inner life and that unconscious forces are the main cause of our behavior.

• According to Freud's comprehensive theory, the mind consists of three separate entities but it is the source of instincts interacting elements: the id, the ego, and the superego.

• The elements of the mind that operate according to reality are examined in the next sections.

• The id is a psychodynamic theory that has no concern for the needs or desires of others or society as a whole.

• The idealistic ego ideal is reined in by a new structure, as the id's relentless demands for instant gratification show.
• The ego must tolerate some delay and frustration because our surroundings provide immediate gratification of our needs.

• Imagine driving down a highway and exceeding the speed limit.
• You can see the red lights of the state police cruiser in your mirror.
• Your heart beats fast and you start to sweat as you wonder if the trooper is after you.
• Your heartbeat returns to normal when the cruiser zips by on its way to catch a real speeder.
• You reacted the way you did because you were going to be punished.
• This feeling came from your conscience.
• The moral part of the superego tells us when we have violated our parents' and society's rules.
• The conscience exacts punishment for the possibility of violating those rules for many of us.

• The positive side of the superego is represented by the ego ideal.
• The ego ideal motivates us to strive for perfectness.

• The id, ego, and superego are similar to a car with special features.
• This car is designed to pull both to the left and to the right side of the road at the same time.
• The id and the superego are represented by the left and right wheels.
• The id tries to satisfy basic biological drives while the superego tries to impose moralistic goals in their place.
• The id and the superego are irrational and unrealistic.
• The driver is responsible for making adjustments when the id and superego are fighting.
• The ego is trying to find a middle road between the two forces.

• The ego is trying to deal with the demands of the id and the superego.
• The conflict lies beneath the surface in the unconscious, if you recall the model of the mind.

• Imagine that the egos are in conflict.
• Give these to describe mostly unconscious methods of reducing anxiety or guilt, and write down your answers before reading further.

• The first stage of psychosexual anxiety or guilt is a warning to the ego that conflict is occurring.

• The effect of defense mechanisms is to reduce guilt.

• People who claim to be morally repulsed by homosexuality, yet have been found to be secretively engaged in development in which the fixation homosexual behaviors and lifestyle is a common example.

• The focus of pleasure is the anus vices of high-price prostitutes, which hardly seemed to be and conflict often occurs as efforts.
• The use of defense mechanisms can be helpful or harmful depending on how much a person relies on them.

• An individual's personality develops through a series of stages stretching from infancy to adulthood according to Freud.
• The oral, anal, phallic, and genital stages are the five stages of psychosexual development.

• Babies and toddlers can be seen putting objects in their mouths.
• The child's personality may become fixated if oral needs are delayed.
• fixation at the oral stage can be seen in behaviors such as chewing on pencils and in personality characteristics such as excessive dependency, optimism, and gullibility.

• The erogenous zone shifts to the anus when the child gains muscular control.
• The key to this stage is toilet training.
• The way parents approach toilet training can affect their children.
• These people are the first stage of Freud's psycho ous.
• The child may rebel if the parents are strict and demanding.

• Defense mechanisms protect the ego from fear.

• Despite overwhelming evidence that the cancer that is anxiety-arousing and behaving is not treatable, the parent is still convinced that it did not exist.

• Proposing socially acceptable feelings or you did not do well on an exam in your economics reasons.

• Defending against unacceptable feelings can cause a person to be attracted to pornographic material and behavior by showing the opposite yet being repulsed by the thought of such material.

• Children enjoy fondling their genitals during the third stage of psychosexual activity.

• The name of this complex is derived from a character in an ancient Greek Process who killed his father and married his mother, and when he discovered the phallic stage in which a boy the truth, he gouged out his eyes and spent the rest of his life.

• The young boy is afraid his father will retaliate for these forbidden sexual and aggres.

• He tries to be like his father in his behavior, values, attitudes, and sexual orientation when the process occurs.
• According to Freud, a successful resolution of the Oedipal complex leads to wishes for her father to have a male sex role.

• A girl's attraction to her father is based on a fantasy that she will get a penis from him.
• She fantasizes about having a baby as a means of gaining an organ.
• The girl begins to identify with her mother when she begins to suppress her sexual desires.

• The female superego ends up weaker than the male because of Oedipal castration.
• This belief has not been supported by leads to normal adult sexual development research.

• Children enter a period when their sexual interests are suppressed.
• Sexual pleasure comes from heterosexual relationships.
• The selfish qualities of earlier stages of development are still experienced by adolescents at the beginning of the genital stage.
• The foundation for adult relationships is set when they develop greater ability to establish such relationships as they mature.
• The study chart summarizes Freud's stages of psychosexual development.

• Both supporters and critics of Freud.
• An outline on the topic formerly his greatest admirers who once advocated his views, but for a variety of reasons, was written by some of his most outspoken critics.
• They did not accept Freud's emphasis on the id and the role of sexual motives as influence on modern psychology.

• One of the best-known neo-Freudians, Carl Jung, split from Freud on more than one issue and developed his own psychodynamic viewpoint.
• Jung didn't want to place as much emphasis on sexuality as Freud did.
• Jung put more emphasis on the unconscious than Freud did, and he stressed a more generalized life force.

• These Archetypes cause us to respond to events in our environment in different ways.

• The life force of an extravert is turned outward.
• The word association test was developed as a personality assessment device.
• Jung believed that an unconscious emotional problem might exist if a person took a long time to respond to a word.

• Karen Horney, an early follower of Freudian thinking, rejected several Freudian notions and added several of her own.
• She saw personality problems as a result of basic anxiety that all people share.
• In an unfriendly world, we feel isolated and helpless.
• We want to reduce anxiety.

• The type of situation that is producing the anxiety should affect the choice of which behavior pattern a person uses.
• A person's behavior becomes abnormal when he or she only uses one adjustment pattern.

• The Vienna Psychoanalytic Society ejected Alfred Adler because of his disagreements with Freud.
• Freud emphasized the sexual drive in explaining personality, according to Adler.
• He said the primary drive is social.

• The young child is weak when compared to adults.

• The effect of this comparison is that the child tries to overcome the feelings of being inferior throughout the rest of his or her life.
• People develop different lifestyles to achieve superiority.
• They want to develop new skills and abilities that lead to a sense of superiority.

• Adler shifted the emphasis of personality theory from the id to the ego in order to gain control over others.
• The Greek philosopher Demosthenes was embarrassed by his stuttering as a child, so he spent years practicing speaking clearly and becoming a great orator.

• The self was the most important part of his personality.
• It is always trying for unity.
• We possess free will, so we can mold our own destinies.
• Adler was the first theorist to stress the importance of birth order as a determinant of personality.
• His system lacks hard data and replicability because it is mostly based on anecdotes.

• Freud's ideas about sexuality in children met with strong negative reactions when they were first published.
• The idea of viewing children as sexual beings was repulsed by most people.
• About 300 copies of Freud's book on dreams were sold when it was published.

• Freud's ideas have had a lasting impact.
• Many of Freud's proposals, such as unconscious influences on emotional responses, are supported by research.
• Psychoanalysis concepts and neural pathways in the brain have begun to be linked in research.
• Freud's con cept of oppression has not stood up to scrutiny.
• Many people don't seem to be able to forget painful and anxiety-inducing thoughts, rather than relegating them to the unconscious.
• It is difficult to conduct research on psychody namic concepts.
• Freud did not specify the conditions that might lead to fixations, so it is almost impossible to examine the effect of parenting practices on fixations.
• The tests have had mixed results.

• Freud's theory is based on the study of a small number of dis turbed people, who may not provide the basis for generalizations applicable to most people.
• Many of the patients that Freud treated were women, yet he developed a theory that dealt primarily with male sexuality, making generalizations difficult.
• His method of collecting data was not well received by researchers.
• Freud sat behind the patient, who was relaxing on a couch.
• Freud was listening to what the patient was saying.
• After the session was over, Freud didn't write anything down about what the patient had said.
• Confidence in many critics was not guaranteed by subjectivity.
• Freud's entire system is questionable because he never verified the information that his patients gave him.
• He used this information to build his theory.

• Freud's views of women have been criticized by many psychologists.

• Freud was the first to outline a stage theory of develop ment and to identify key influences at each stage, and he drew attention to the importance of early childhood experiences.
• Freud drew attention to the impact of sexuality on human behavior.
• At a time when the public wanted to keep sexuality hidden, it took courage for him to offer his ideas.
• The importance of unconscious factors in determining behavior was noted by him.
• We don't know the reasons behind our behavior.
• One of the enduring contributions of psychodynamic theory is the concept of the unconscious.

• Freud's work popularized counseling and psychotherapy in the United States and around the world.

• Critics note that Freud's theory focused on concern for one's own desires, irresponsibility, and the denigration of women.
• Freud believed that women were more vain than men, and that they had little sense of justice, due to the lack of a penis.
• Freud's belief in uncon scious instinctual drives may have overstated the case for such influences.

• A number of psychological perspectives developed in opposition to psychodynamic theory.
• Compared with Freud and his followers, the proponents of these perspectives had very different views on per sonality.
• We look at personality from a variety of perspectives.

• Freud said that behaviors, feelings, and thoughts occur during the phallic stage.

• Freud is credited with pointing out the influence of early structures of the mind occur beneath the level of conscious childhood experiences and with developing a stage theory of awareness.

• A police cruiser is in front of you as you drive to your appointment.

• Behavior theory attempts to explain human personality.
• Its approach is vastly different from the other theories.
• Skinner and the other behaviorists don't want to look for inner forces that affect a person's personality.

• They believe that they can explain the behaviors that constitute a person's personality if they have knowledge and understanding of the reinforcers and punishers that the person has been exposed to.
• Chapter eleven shows that the child is also bad at kindergarten.
• The behavior the child learns at home is generalized to the school setting.
• There are no theoreti cal constructs to deal with in the behaviorist's theory of personality, just observable behaviors and the reinforcers or punishers that maintain these behaviors.
• Skinner and his followers are strict determinists.
• The behaviorists say that freedom is more of an illusion than a reality.

• Behavioral approaches to personality have had widespread and beneficial results, far from the feared outcomes of dehumanizing or reducing humans to the status of robots.

• It's hard to imagine anyone in our society who hasn't heard of behavior modification.
• Skinner's principles of operant conditioning are the basis of this technique of behavioral change.
• The use of behavior modification has been used to treat a number of mental illnesses.

• The behaviorist approach to personality is supported by many pieces of controlled, scientific research.
• There are no unobservable constructs that are difficult to research.
• In terms of parsimony, the behaviorist approach is very strong.

• Environmental influences such as reinforcement are important to psychologists.
• Learning can influence personality according to studies of heritability.
• There is more to understanding personality than a person's learning experiences suggest, according to some psychologists.
• Each person comes to see his or her environment differently because of our unique histo ries of reinforcement and punishment.

• Reinforcement does not stamp in a behavior.
• Most of the reinforcers we strive to obtain are social, and most learning occurs in social situations.

• He acknowledges the role of cognitive factors in whether the person sees his or her standing human behavior.

• When you take an exam, apply for a job, or ask someone out on a date, you have a notion of the likelihood of success or failure.

• Contention that person variables, what's more, people differ in their tendencies to view themselves as capable of influ situation variables, and behavior encing reinforcers or being subject to fate (Zuckerman, Knee, Kieffer, & Gagne, 2004).

• Each item on the I-E Scale has a choice of an external or internal alternative.

• The individual's learning history is a factor that can account for differences in control.
• Cultural factors seem to affect the scores.
• People in Western countries tend to have more internal scores than people in Far Eastern countries.
• Over the past few decades, young Americans' control of their lives has moved to the external end of the continuum compared to their parents.
• The global economic upheaval and high unemployment rates of the past few years may be moving us even further in the external direction.
• There is a link between low socio-economic status and external control.

• Our sense of self is influenced by cultural differences.

• American responses tend to be more detailed.

• Japanese responses are more concerned with the responses of others.
• Most American respondents focus on ways that make them unique in comparison to others.

• They show differences in socializing.

• When we talk about personality, we need to keep in mind the cultural context in which we ask questions.

• Albert Bandura is well known for his research on observational learning and for using modeling to overcome phobias.
• The answer is that a combination of factors, including an individual's cognitive abilities, interact to produce a particular behavior.
• Albert Bandura added a concern that these factors work together and influence one another.

• The behavioral/learning approaches look at how environments affect behavior.

• The environment is an effect of behavior.
• One way personality influences situations is by how we choose them.
• Bandura's model their time in the library, extraverted people are likely to attend parties.

• Bandura is the source of a complete understanding of personality.

• The more confident a person is in his or her ability to deal with life's challenges, the better.
• A person's sense of self-efficacy has a powerful effect on his or her behavior, expectancies differ from one yet self-efficacy is not considered a trait.
• In behavior, self-efficacy can be understood in relation to specific behaviors and situations.
• It isn't generalized across situations.

• There are four sources of information that can affect self-efficacy.
• Factors such as similarity to the observed person affect the effect of observing others.

• We may associ ate aversive emotional states with poor performance, perceived incompetence, or per Pair up with another student.

• A range of outcomes have been applied to the concept of self-efficacy.
• He should explain his theory for rotter, social learning, and Bandura after treatment for alcohol problems.
• Questions and discussion are related to a career outcome.

• Some psychologists believe that we need to look at unique human aspects and qualities in order to understand human beings.
• Our ability to make choices and our individual control of their behavior perspectives are what sets us apart from lower and Carl rogers.

• They look at the present and the need to develop a healthy personality.
• The individual's perception of events is more significant than the learning theorist's or therapist's perception.
• Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are two of the most notable representatives of this perspective.

• Humanistic psychology is the third force in American psychology because it offers an alternative to psychodynamic theory and behaviorism.
• He thought that the perspectives were incomplete because they viewed people as captives of their environments.
• He didn't believe that the study of laboratory animals or individuals suffering from psychological disorders provided a proper foundation for understanding human behavior.

• Human beings have a set of needs that are organized in a hierarchy.
• There are needs for safety, love and belongingness, and self-esteem.
• Our behavior is affected by these basic needs.
• You can turn to safety or be loved by others if you satisfy your needs.
• Most people never reach the top level of the hierarchy because of the basic biological needs.

• The need to develop one's full potential is what it is.
• The need exists in everyone, but it's difficult to get it because of the environment.
• When our basic needs are met, energy is available for use.
• Maslow looked for healthy, self-actualized individuals who were capable of doing the best that they could.

• Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Albert Einstein were self-actualized people.
• He used historical documents to study them because many of them were dead.
• The details of his analysis of these self-actualized individuals are unknown, but he arrived at several general conclusions about their characteristics.
• He found that these individuals were comfortable with their perception of their environments.
• The list of self-actualized individuals is not representative of historical figures who he analyzed the general population.

• He held a positive view of the human.
• Many of his concepts, such as self-actualization, are difficult to test.

• Have an efficient perception of reality and are comfortable with it.

• Carl Rogers believed that people are innately good and are directed toward growth, development, and personal fulfillment.
• He believed that the organisms tendency to develop all its capabilities in ways which serve to maintain or enhance the person was an inherent tendency.
• According to his clinical experience, people are often derailed from their quest for fulfillment.

• Our concept of self emerges as we develop.
• Rogers's theory states that the self is our sense of "I" or "me" and that it is generally conscious and accessible.
• Our perception of our abilities, behaviors, and characteristics is the self-concept.
• Rogers believed that we act according to our self-concept.
• We act in positive ways if we have a positive self concept, and in negative ways if we have a negative self concept.

• People have a strong need to be loved, according to Maslow and Rogers.
• If they engage in behaviors that are approved by others, they will be given.
• According to Rogers, if you grow up believing that affection is a condition, you will distort your own experiences in order to feel good about yourself.
• Children may be told that they are incapable of doing something or that they are stupid.
• They may begin to question themselves if conditions are placed on their self-worth.
• The child's self-concept can be negatively affected by this positive regard, in which love and praise are not given unless the child complies with the expectations of others.

• When the two sides of the coin don't match up, there is a discrepancy between the real self and ideal self.

• The major theoretical perspectives on personality are summarized in the accompanying study chart.

• The distinctiveness of a person's personality as a result of nitive factors can influence the person's behavior and learning history.

• Self-efficacy can change over time, unlike a trait.

• Humanistic approaches were opposed to the social situations.

• He said that people's self-concepts should be in line with their ideal self-concept.