Chapter 4

• The Curve of Forgetting is about the brain, endocrine, and nervous systems.
• We discuss several recent developments in the study of Processing System memory and examine the phe Human Memory as an Information nomenon of memory.
• The Stages-of-Memory Model is the basis of learning and memory.

• We are starting to focus on the processes that define The Levels-of-Processing Model what makes us human and how we function as individuals and as a group.

• Let's define our topic so that we can begin an in-depth examination of memory.

• It is possible that memory is related to learning.
• We wouldn't have anything to store in our memories if we didn't learn or acquire new knowledge from The Memory Wars.

• She lost contact with her high school classmates because of her infrequent trips back home.

• The study of memory began in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

• Ebbinghaus used other stimuli in his experiments because everyday words have meanings and associations attached to them.

• The system or process by which stimuli are formed is complicating the products or results of learning the results.

• The task used to consist of memorize lists of non Stimuli used to study memory.
• Think about all the lists or syllables that we learn before you start questioning the importance of studying how one learns.

• We learn the alphabet, the names of the presidents, and the multiplication tables in grade school.
• We learn phone numbers, ZIP codes, addresses, and lock combinations as we grow up.
• The studies of lists were relevant.

• The next step was to figure out a way to measure memory.
• If someone says that you only have to ask a participant what he or she has learned to measure memory, you might be skeptical.
• Measuring memory is not easy.

• Write down some ideas about how you might test memory when a person learns a bunch of nonsense.
• It is important to identify the specific response you are measuring.
• As a participant, you are given a set of items to remember and asked to reproduce the sequence in the exact order in which it was presented.
• If you have mastered this technique, you are a pioneer in the study of human beings.

• The task is to get as many items as possible.
• The major parts of a neuron, the different lobes of the brain, and the historical figures in psychology are examples of free recall.
• The preferred method of measuring learning is free recall.
• Right now, you can experience this method.

• If you want to read one word at a time at a com fortable pace, cover each word in Table 4-1 with a card and then read one word at a time at a com fortable pace.
• When you get to the bottom of the list, there is an instruction to recall the words.
• As many words as you can remember, write them down.

• One of the most interesting findings from studies of free recall and serial learning is that the position of the material to be recalled affects the chances that it will be remembered.
• Try to remember the words.
• You can reveal one word at a time by placing a card over the list.
• When you get to the bottom of the list, close the book and write down as many words as you can remember.

• The beginning and end of the list are more likely to be recalled than the middle of the list.

• You have to associate an unfamiliar word with a familiar word.
• The familiar word is presented and the foreign word associated with it is produced.

• You should cover the english words after study.

• Try to remember the english translation using theLithuanian word as a cue.

• The recalled taros are learned in pairs.

• The curve of forgetting is one of the most important findings of the research.

• The best time to store learned material is after the learning.
• We forget more and more as time goes on.
• This finding has been repeated many times.
• The participants recalled the most when they were tested immediately after learning.

• It is better to distribute learning trials across a pe Study a bit every day, rather than mass them in a single block of learning.
• You learn across several days.

• A little every day is the optimal way to learn information.
• The night tributed practice is the opposite of what students do when they cram for exams.

• Students rely on the high rate of recall immediately after learning trials.
• Students cram because they don't plan their study time.
• There are ways to improve the way you study.
• There are several suggestions for improving your studying in the section on Techniques for Improving Memory later in the chapter.

• A multiple-choice test is involved in taking this type of memory.

• The test of retention that compares her ability to recognize the faces of her past classmates will be quite good.

• You have to work hard to study the same list.
• The amount of time is calculated by the researcher.
• The material needs to be relearned so that you can match your performance criterion, higher criterion level can have higher and the two scores are compared.
• If learning happened quickly the second time.

• The higher the criterion level in the initial study stages, the better the memory is during later testing.
• Studying for a comprehensive final exam is a good example of re learning.
• It will take you less time and effort to relearn the material if you worked hard earlier on in your studies.

• The basic understanding of human memory was provided by the work of Ebbinghaus and other early psychologists.
• Few psychologists study how people learn lists of nonsense syllables, they are more interested in examining the processes by which memories are formed, stored, retrieved, and used.
• The mechanical association-based model of memory was abandoned by most psychologists.
• A new view of the mind suggests that the mind is an active agent with many other organizational properties.
• Different questions were posed by this developing view.

• Kayo is a successful real estate agent.

• Let's take a closer look at each stage.

• A lot of the time or trials required is devoted to rehearsing the input, organizing to relearn the material, and relating the groups to already stored information.

• As you drive to school, you might listen to a new song on the radio.
• When sounds are transduced into neural impulses, information is transformed into a song.
• Chapter four processing unit has a name and file path that helps relate it to similar programs.

• If we plan to use the information more than once, we need to keep it in the memory system.
• Some bits of information are stored briefly, used only once, and then discarded, but others, like telephone numbers, are used frequently and are therefore stored on a more permanent basis.

• When a computer program is named and stored, we can use it again.
• Hu man's memory works the same way.
• We have retrieved a memory when we recall it.

• We don't store information randomly.

• Write down your teacher's name in order to see how the process works.
• Tell us about the process that led you to that name.

• You may recall your school building, your third- grade classroom, the ride to school on the bus, and the names of your classmates if you find the name of your teacher.
• Each of these memories could be used to retrieve related memories.
• There are a lot of things you can do to get the name of your teacher.

• The network of related memories can be small and only a few specific cues can retrieve a memory.
• When an apparent stranger begins a conversation with you in the store, it's a good example.
• The "stranger" is talking to you as if they have known each other for a long time, but you have no idea who this person is.
• Knowing about cues helps answer the question.

• The memory returns when the specific cues are presented.

• It is likely that this comment refers to people with very good memories and that some of them have photographic memory.
• The visual in it, stored memories are brought image persists after stimulation, can be scanned like a photograph, and offers relatively accurate detail.
• It looks like these people take photographs and store them in their minds for future use.

• Napoleon Bonaparte and Leonardo da Vinci are two famous people who have vivid photographic memory.
• Leonardo was able to draw detailed portraits of people after only meeting them once.
• It appears to be relatively rare.

• The human memory is no better than the memories of those who do not possess eidetic imagery, because once a visual diagram has faded, the memory is no better than the memories of those who do not possess it.

• Our model of memory would serve as a diagram.

• There are three types of memory and how they are used in our daily lives.

• It has the potential to be huge because sensory memory provides us with a fleeting image of the stim uli present at a particular moment.
• Think about all the things you are exposed to.
• The smell of the coffee in your cup, the voices of a study group nearby, the music you hear, the pressure of the chair on your back and legs, the temperature of the air are just a few of the things that come to mind.
• Because many stimuli are received all the time, sensory memory can only last a short time.

• Sensory information that is not selected for further processing by higher brain centers is replaced by incoming stimuli.

• The Stimuli that we attend are those that have been selected from sensory memory for further processing, and other stimuli have been lost.

• Human memory is similar to a computer's information processing system because it has separate stages.

• Researchers presented a display of 12 letters to participants.

• The entire pattern was flashed in 20th of a second.
• The participants were able to remember and write down as many letters as possible.
• They were only able to identify 4 or 5 of the 12 letters.
• Dramatic improvement was produced by some changes made in later experiments.
• Because participants reported seeing more letters than they could report, Sperling's next step was to assign a different tone to each row of the pattern.
• The pattern of 12 letters was flashed for 20th of a second.
• After one of the three tones was sounded, the participants were asked to write down the letters in the row they were from.
• The participants were able to identify three or four letters in a row regardless of which row was signaled.
• The original experiment indicated that there was a lot of information in the memory.
• The participants had to remember all the letters when one of the tones was sounded because they didn't know which row would be signaled.
• When the tone was sounded a second after the letters were presented, participants could only remember one or two letters in the row.
• A lot of information is lost very quickly after the stimuli are presented.

• There is more than one amount of information lost from sensory memory.

• It depends on how much processing effort is spent in the next stage of memory.
• We can either process a few items very thoroughly and lose a lot from sensory memory or we can process a larger number of items less thoroughly and retain more from sensory memory.

• We have been talking about visual sensory memory because it is easy to study.

• The answer appears to be yes, although less research has been done.

• The proposal was supported by a study in which participants heard lists of letters from different locations.
• If students were asked to repeat the letters from a specific speaker immediately after the list was read, they would do better.
• Their performance decreased if a delay was imposed.
• The results are similar to those reported by Sperling.
• Some research suggests that echoic sensory memory can last as long as 20 seconds.
• Auditory sensory memory can be experienced.
• Hit the top of your desk with your hands.
• The sound is a sensory memory.

• Take a look at the following situation.
• Jim isn't paying attention to the lecture in class.
• He is going to see a movie that evening.
• He is rubbing his hand on the edge of the desk.
• Jim became aware of his behavior after rubbing his hand on the desk.
• He is certain that he is still feeling the sensation when he leaves the desk.
• Before reading further, you should write down some things.

• Jim is having a sensation.
• For a brief moment after you leave the desk, you will feel a sensation that you are still touching it.

• We need to explore the different types of memory to answer this question.

• Information is transferred from sensory memory to conscious awareness once it has been attended to.
• It appears that items are lost in about 10 to 20 seconds, although researchers don't know how long such memories last.

• After 18 seconds after a presentation of a three-letter stimuli, recall fell from 100% correct to 10% correct.

• Write them on a piece of paper and not look at the page.
• This task was difficult for you.
• You could handle two phone numbers better.
• Before reading further, write down some possible answers.

• George Miller, a psychologist, proposed that we can hold seven items (plus or minus two) in the same place at any one time, because of exercises like this one and extensive research.
• You might be sure that the 7 ; 2 proposal is incorrect after a moment's reflection.
• We are dealing with more than seven items when we remember two telephone numbers.
• If we counted each digit separately, that would be true.
• Say the first telephone number aloud, and you can hear the chunks.
• When you said the phone number aloud, you probably said 316, 343, and 5800.
• A chunk is like a pail with several items that can be recalled together from memory.
• We are imposing meaning on the information by chunking it.
• The more meaning you can associate with a piece of information, the better your memory is for that information.

• The principle of grouping or chunking is that each item may consist of a chunk or group of items.
• The capacity of STM can be increased significantly.

• STM does not last very long without rehearsal.

• After studying it for 15 seconds, close your book and write down as many items as you can.

• There are more items in this list than the magic number.
• It will be hard for you to remember each word on its own.

• The original concept was too short.
• 10 or 20 seconds was enough to input and store information, but not enough to process it.
• Working memory is a place where mental effort is applied.
• We can increase the amount of information we have with the help of categories.

• comprehension of sentences can tax our memory processes.

• You are aware of my inability to speak German.

• You learn this sentence piece by piece, then put the pieces together to make sense of it.
• The process of putting words together in a sentence occurs in working memory when we retrieve words from long-term memory.
• Let's say that you are listening to a lecture in which your instructor makes a very interesting point.
• You retrieve meanings from long-term memory when you hold the sentence in short-term memory.
• Working memory is used to make sense of the new sentences you've just heard.
• Researchers have begun to identify brain regions that are active when we use working memory.
• Order and item memory are separable, and different brain regions seem to be involved.
• The parietal and prefrontal cortex are found in the brains of humans.
• Future research using brain scans will help define the brain regions involved in working memory.

• The importance of practice is emphasized in the stages-of-memory model.
• Unrehearsed items seem to be more likely to be transferred.
• You will remember your friend's new phone number better if you repeat it several times.

• Some types of rehearsal help in transferring information, while others don't.
• Two groups of people were asked to learn a list of items, such as nonsense or telephone numbers.
• Both groups were given the same amount of time to rehearse.
• The retention test was given before the presentation.
• After the retention test, one group was told to forget all the items from a given list.
• The second group was told to look at all the lists.

• After all the lists had been presented, large differences were apparent on a retention test.
• The participants who were told to forget did worse than those who were told to remember.

• You have to take a final exam on the memory stage.

• Maintenance and elaborative have been studied.

• Maintenance rehearsal can include things like the telephone number for the pizza restaurant you just looked up, or the material you tried to cram for a test.
• Research participants who are directed to forget a list as soon as they have learned and repeated it use this type of rehearsal.
• If meaningful elements are present when you are introduced, you will have a better chance of remembering someone's name.
• I would like you to meet my friend.
• He is the chief parole officer for the state.
• Several elements that are useful to memory are provided by him.
• The more meaningful the material, the better it is learned.
• An example of this process at work islaborative rehearsal, which results in a more permanent memory and promotes the transfer of information.
• Ltm has a very large capacity.

• Old memories may be recalled instead of the specific memory we are looking for.
• You have a new address and telephone number when you move to a new house or apart rehearsal.
• This problem can last for a long time.

• There can be interference at the movie theater.
• Consider the example.

• You try to remember the preview but can't because of the situation in which you learned more recently.
• We can't retrieve the movie title that is stored in Ltm.

• Old memories are recalled in place of new memories.

• If B is recalled better, Proactive interference will occur.
• A interfered with the recall of B.

• New memories are recalled in place of old memories.

• If A is recalled better by the control group, retroactive interference will occur.
• The result shows that B interfered with the recall of A.

• New information may be combined with old information to create a new memory.
• The main components of the model are summarized in the study chart.

• The stages-of-memory approach isn't the only model of memory that has been developed.
• The levels-of-processing model is an influential model.

• Seeing an image on the TV for a short time is called echoic memory.

• A memory stage in which information is held in consciousness and remembers the number of pizza.
• While you dial, working memory is the active place.

• Unless rehearsal takes place, it lasts for a few seconds.

• This ability seems to be sion.
• We tend to recall items that are relatively rare when we try to recall a list.
• This phenomenon lasts 20 seconds.

• Memories may not be retrievable because of the learning method.

• More recently, computers and human memory have been used to retrieve material.

• They have to learn a list of things that describe sensory memory.

• He remembers the old number despite some memory loss due to fading or decay.

• She is learning a new language.

• The test nelsan took dealt with the content of the article.

• The stages-of-memory model is a good one, but it is not the only account of how memory works.
• In this section, we look at other models of the memory process.

• The model suggests that there is only one type of memory store and that its capacity is enormous.
• Memo ries may be retained for a long time after entering this store.

• Theory states that deeper is more important.
• Two examples are the maintenance and elaborative rehearsal and the information techniques discussed earlier.

• I want to understand more about human behavior.

• Processing only the physical charac teristics of an object is a very shallow level.
• At a more complex level of processing, we consider the fact that the object has pages.
• This is an elab orative rehearsal.
• We are dealing with a book.
• We now consider what type of book this is and whether it will help us in any of our courses this semester.
• This last type of processing requires us to examine the book and compare it with other books and with information already stored in memory.

• We don't automatically progress from one level to another because we spend more time processing.
• If all of our processing time is spent at a very shallow level, we won't be able to remember anything.
• Only shallow cues will be able to access and retrieve this memory.
• We might not be able to retrieve it later if we only listened to the sound of a person's name.
• The person's physical features, occupation, personality, address, and so forth wouldn't help because they weren't practiced when the memory was stored.
• The sound of the person's name is the only way to remember it.
• The more meaningful cues that are rehearsed at deeper levels of processing are more meaningful than the physical ones.

• The deeper the level of processing, the more likely the in formation will be stored.
• Depth of processing is more important than time spent processing.

• The instructions given to research participants can have a big impact on what is learned.
• The effects that different types of processing can produce were demonstrated in one classic study.
• Four groups of people were told to study the same list of words.
• The instructions for each group were shown in Table 4-3.
• All four groups were given a recall test.
• Group 4 was not surprised by the test.

• The stagesof-memory model and levels-ofprocessing theory are related.

• Rate the pleasantness of each word if your ideal model has elements of Group 3.

• The words should be memorised for the recall test.

• Adapted from Hyde and Jenkins.

• The surprise value of the test did not produce the results because Groups 3 and 4 did not differ.
• The groups had different levels of process ing in which they engaged.
• Group 1 and 2 only counted letters and marked e's.
• The information was processed at a very shallow level by Groups 1 and 2.
• Group 3 participants who rated the pleasantness of the words and Group 4 participants who memorised the words for a test were able to remember the information better because they had taken the words into account.

• The beginning of this section describes a memory experiment.
• The levels of processing were the focus of the experiment.
• Other partici pants were not required to prepare a brief presentation, but only to read the journal article.
• When researchers designed the study, they believed that a deeper level of processing would result in better comprehension.
• The participants who were required to deliver a presentation on the topic remembered more of the material when tested later.

• Many studies show that depth or level of pro cessing influences our memories, but this theory has not gone away.
• It is difficult to know how many levels there are without a clear definition of what a level is.
• Some researchers have been encouraged to look at different levels of processing in terms of the amount of effort put into it.

• Several studies have shown that better retention is linked to greater effort.
• Imagine that you are part of an experiment in which the task is to learn words that rhyme.
• You have to memorize the rhyming words that you have created.

• When studying Will you remember your rhyming words better than people who are only asked to attend classes.
• The answer is yes because your effort in vivid examples was more than their effort in merely remembering the information that is connected to them.
• If you want to remember the terms and concepts in your psychology class, try coming up things you've learned before or in other ways with your own examples.

• The assumption that we are a succession of independent stages has yet to be verified.
• Other approaches have been developed because of the facts.

• Explicit memory can be divided into three categories.
• Implicit memory can be divided into two categories.

• These items are almost, but not in memory.
• Semantic memory is a type of memory that can be used for general knowledge and facts.

• The United States of America was founded by George Washington.

• The seasons are winter, spring, summer and fall.

• Oil is used in asphalt.

• You know the answer, but you can't get it.
• Many people who are experiencing TOT may be able to report the first letter of the word, they may know some of the other letters in the word, and are likely to report related words.
• When you consider that the person cannot report the word itself, the degree of information available can be remarkable.
• For example, the Italian language designates masculine or feminine words that are not in English.
• Italian speakers are able to report whether the blocked word is masculine or feminine when caught in the TOT dilemma.

• Let's see if you have a good memory.
• Before reading the answers to the questions, write them down.

• You were able to find four types of long-term memory.

• Examples of the type are what most TOT experiences involve.

• Take the following test to find out if the TOT phenomenon is relevant to the study of memory.
• You can write down as many state capitals as you can by covering the letters that follow with strips of paper.
• Find the columns and see if you can remember those that were on the tip of your tongue.
• The answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

• These memories involve things that happened at certain times.
• When we use Episodic memory, we mentally travel back into the past.
• There are some examples of your authors' memories.

• As the TOT phenomenon has been studied to help us learn more about semantic memory, flashbulb memories have been examined to provide information about epi sodic memory.
• Our memories of such events are more detailed than our memories of everyday episodes.
• The Danes who lived through the Nazi occupation and ultimate liberation had vivid memories of World War II.
• They checked their memories against objective records for factual questions.
• The members of the resistance movement had more vivid, detailed, and accurate memories than the people who did not participate.
• flashbulb memories are similar to photos taken with a digital camera.
• The images reflect flashbulb and in a few seconds you have a perfect re-creation of the scene that you can look memories for many people worldwide.

• The situation is illuminated in your mind.

• Because more effort is spent in the formation of flashbulb memories, such high in which prior exposure to lighting of details might lead to deeper levels of processing as well as provide more items, more items may aid subsequent learning.

• It is difficult to give examples that everyone can identify.
• The terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, DC, in September 2001 are flashbulb memories for many people.
• New generations will not have flashbulb memories.

• The day that you found out about the death of a loved one can create flashbulb memories, but not all flashbulb memories are big national events.

• Strong emotional reactions to events, such as 9/11, seem to provide fer tile ground to establish long- lasting memories, but evidence indicates that the memories may not be as accurate or consistent as they were once believed to be.
• The emotional component of the memory may lead us to discuss the memory over and over, at times having the effect of altering the mem ory, although confidence in the memory often remains quite high.

"Priming is a nonconscious form of human memory, which is concerned with percep tual identification of words and objects and which has only recently been recognized as separate from other forms of memory or memory systems"

• It is difficult to detect and study implicit memory because it does not operate on a conscious level.
• The pa tients with amnesia were able to learn the same words when they were able to study a group of words.

• They were sensitized to the words they were to learn during the earlier study period.
• The earlier study session prepared the patients to recognize the objects they were to learn.

• Although we still have a lot to learn, priming appears to facilitate proce dural and semantic memory processes by improving our ability to identify perceptual stimuli or objects we encounter.
• When we're unconscious, we're alert to the fact that we've encountered a particular object before.

• The deeper levels of processing are involved in the priming effect.

• Remembering how to start a lawnmower is an example of procedural memory.
• Procedural memory can be classified as either explicit or implicit.

• You can remember the steps required to ride a bicycle, but most of the time you don't.
• A person's procedural memory is used at the same time as other types of mem ory.
• Bicyclists can see the meaning of traffic signs at the same time.
• H.M., a patient with profound anterograde amnesia, was able to learn new motor skills in the laboratory and in his everyday life, which is compelling evidence that procedural memory is in the implicit category.
• H.M. was unaware of this example of procedural memory.

• The study chart shows the different types of LTM.
• Before reading further, you should review it for a few minutes.

• Texas is the largest of the continental states.

• Patients with amnesia study the identification of words and objects.

• During spring break last year, she paid a surprise visit to her former teacher.

• Sometimes we are able to get back some amazing memories.
• Things we should remember seem to be gone forever.

• Retrieval is the process by which we locate a memory that has been stored and bring it into consciousness.
• Most people have good and bad memories, so psychologists are interested in studying them.

• Write down some possible reasons for the question before you read further.

• Retrieval from STM is not instantaneous, as was suggested by a series of classic studies.
• Par ticipants were asked to keep a series of letters in their possession.
• They were presented with a letter, such as B, and were asked if it was in the list they were holding.
• The participants should have responded immediately if retrieval was not involved.
• The participants took longer to answer as additional letters were added to the list.
• To match the test letter with the ones they had stored, they scanned the entire list.
• The longer the list, the harder it is to find a match.

• The process of retrieving a specific memory is straightforward, but the process of retrieving long-term memories is different.
• Various processes may be involved in the situation.
• Retrieval of memories in recognition tasks and recall tasks are different.

• The multiple-choice test is easier for most people because you only have to choose the right answer.
• Consider the questions from Chapter 2.

• It is possible that recognition tasks do not require the same amount of processing.
• It might be easier to retrieve memories through recognition.

• One type of memory task is not always easier than the other.
• We search stored memories during the initial stage of recall and recognition retrieval.
• We don't store information as separate bits and pieces, but as a network of related items.

• The process of reestablishing a network is called the retrieval process.
• The association between "library" and "shelves" is stronger than the association between "library" and "quiet".
• The Network of related concepts relation can be direct or indirect.

• Some of our memories are not arranged in a way that makes sense to a network of related items.

• Coffee lines depict stronger links.

• You have to tell her about the concert you went to.
• You have been to several concerts in the past year and you have an organized cluster of knowledge about it.
• Your recall of last weekend's concert will be influenced by the specific events that occurred at the concert in question.
• You have things like a visit to a doctor, the first day of class, a wedding ceremony, negotiations to buy a new car, and so on.

• Semantic networks can help with memory.
• Concepts that are related have a better chance of being recalled.
• You may be more likely to believe that two events happened together because of your history.
• It is possible that the two events did not happen at the same time.
• You remember it happening.
• You might remember eating your aunt's famous pumpkin pie for Thanksgiv ing last year, when in reality your aunt did not bring her pie because she burned it the morning it was eaten.

• Semantic networks can be useful for studying.
• The more strong the connections, the more likely you will be able to recall them.
• You've been looking for the cortical lobes.

• In this case, you need to remember more than just names to answer the questions, and you need to organize the knowledge in an organized way.
• The instructor wants the information in your schema.

• When attempting to retrieve something, specific cues should be present in a very similar way.

• Part of the information will be better when we know that the testing took place in a different place than the one where the studying took place.
• In the classroom where you took the test, most of the effective retrieval cues were missing.
• It was difficult to get the information you needed.

• Before reading further, give this issue some thought and write down some possibilities.

• Try to study in the room where the test will be given.
• You can retrieve the memory with the help of the cues in the room.
• If you can't study in the room where the test will be given, try different places.

• The variety will prevent a single set of cues from being associated with the material you are learning.
• Retrieval of your memories will not be tied to a specific set of environmental cues.

• For a number of years, psychologists have known that if you learn material under certain conditions, you will be able to retrieve it.
• Randi drank a lot of coffee while she was studying.
• Coffee has a lot ofCaffeine, a central nervous system Stimuli, so Randi was alert during her study session.
• When the memories of the material she was studying were not present, her physical state became one of the stimuli that were present.
• Randi's retrieval will be best when she 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217

• Mood states include being happy or sad.
• The logic is easy to understand.
• When you are happy, you should be able to retrieve material more quickly.
• Retrieval should be more difficult if the mood state that was present during learning differs from the one present during testing.

• In Chapter 3, we learned that odors can be linked to both emotions and memories.
• The link between smell and memory has been tested.
• Students who only smelled an odor during the test session recalled more antonyms than students who only smelled an odor during the learning session.
• Three very dif ferent odors were used to demonstrate that the memory effect was not limited to one odor.
• The results showed that participants who smelled the same odor during both training and testing remembered antonyms better than participants who only smelled an odor during testing.

• The phenomenon of state- dependent learning shows that it can be hard to get memories from a specific set of circumstances.
• Maybe we have memories of events that happened years ago when we were studying.

• If you drink and study memory recall material, you'll see that it's in the area of witness testimony.
• The testimony plays an important stimulant.

• Over the past two decades, 250 people have been exonerating through the use of DNA evidence.
• Many of these innocent people spent decades in prison or on parole before their names were cleared.

• A large amount of research has been stimulated by the possibility of inaccurate reports.
• What can happen to a memory once it is retrieved is one of the most startling findings.
• When a memory is retrieved from LTM, it appears to be placed in STM for conscious processing.
• Your report may not correspond to what actually happened because the new memory contains more information.

• The effect was tested in several ingenious experiments conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues.
• Two groups of people watched a series of slides that showed an impending collision between a red sports car and another car.
• A group saw a car approaching a stop sign.
• The second group saw a sports car approach a yield sign.
• The participants were asked a series of questions after the presentation was over.
• The questions were consistent with what the participants had seen.
• If they had seen a stop sign, the questions referred to it, and if they had seen a yield sign, the questions referred to it.
• If they had seen a stop sign, the questions were different, but if they had seen a yield sign, they were the same.
• All participants were shown pairs of slides and asked to pick the one they had actually seen.

• A large number of participants who were asked questions after seeing the slides picked the slide they had seen.
• The misinformation effect is a result of the inconsistent questions changing their memory of the incident.
• Many participants reported an incorrect memory when they retrieved it because they had been asked questions that were inconsistent.
• The results of this type of research have implications for how police question witnesses.
• They have to be careful in how they question witnesses because suggestive questioning can't alter their memories.

• Research information is also used to demonstrate the memory-altering effects of questions.
• Memory for events has shown that participants can be influenced by many factors, including race and violence.
• The correlation between confidence and identification accuracy is low after an incident.

• Chapter four can rise and fall as a function of viewing conditions.
• The false memory effect is very strong and does not fade quickly.
• There are problems with the results that they create for the credibility of testimony.

• The sudden recall of supposedly repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse is one of the most dramatic and significant controversies in recent years.
• The issue has been dubbed the "memory wars" because of the intense debate.
• The headline of a newspaper article was "Troy Davis Execution Fuels Eyewitness ID Debate" It has been reported that the memories can be found decades after the abuse.
• The basis for the controversy can be seen in the following cases.

• A woman's therapist would suggest that the root of her depression was likely incest that occurred when she was a child.
• The woman said she remembered her father raping her when she was just 4 years old.
• The therapist wanted to know more about the ther apy.
• The woman wrote pages about other cases of sexual abuse by her father.
• After confronting her parents about the abuse, she began the process of charging her father.
• After completing treatment at the hospital and consulting with new therapists, she concluded that the memories were just artifacts of the imagination encouraged by the therapist in the hospital and a pop psychol ogy book she was reading at the time.

• A woman who was in the hospital program to treat obese reported that she had been sexually abused by her brother.
• She joined a therapy group for incest survivors.
• Her parents had left her brother's room untouched after he was killed in a war more than 15 years before.
• When she returned to her brother's room she found evidence of abuse including handcuffs, pornography, and a diary where he recorded his sexual experiments on his little sister.

• A woman entered therapy in 1986 to help her cope with a traumatic event that her daughter had recently experienced.
• Her therapist used a lot of techniques.
• The client had repressed memories of being a part of a satanic cult, having sex with animals, and eating babies.
• She was 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 The repressed memories were implanted by the therapist and none of them were true.

• The statute of limi tations has been extended in half of the states in the United States.
• More and more victims are using revised laws to file civil and criminal actions.

• If the recovered memories are repressed, it's a Freudian defense mechanism where the individual has no recollection of an often traumatic event.
• For traumatic memories, there are questions of whether or not they can be forgotten for a long time.

• There are two basic methods for recovering "repressed" memories.

• One way of retrieving is through therapy.
• A 20- to 30-year-old woman will usually seek therapy for a variety of problems.
• Many thera pists believe that childhood sexual abuse is associated with a range of problems.
• Some of them ask about the existence of childhood abuse in the first therapy session, despite the client's denials.

• A majority of therapists use memory-recovery techniques to help their patients remember abuse.

• It is unfortunate that memory-recovery techniques can help people create illusory memories.
• The technique of using hypnotism to aid recall is likely to elicit inaccurate reports.
• The accuracy of recall can be affected by the influence of hypnotism.
• It may be instrumental in implanting false memories in individuals through the use of formal hypnotic procedures or even through simple suggestions.

• The other method in which these "repressed" memories are recovered is often very sudden and outside of the therapy environment.
• These instances of recov ered memories are often shocking to the individual and not the result of an intentional therapeutic exercise.
• Friends and family members of the individual often report that the individual had talked about or referred to the trauma in the past, suggesting that the individual had not forgotten about it.
• A person has forgotten about the event.
• Sometimes their sudden memory of the trauma is the result of a sudden realization of what had actually happened to them.

• A 30-year-old woman may have talked to her husband in the past about her interactions with her uncle when she was a child.
• She may have only referred to the interactions as an innocent form of play, such as tickling, and not have thought about abuse.
• This woman may have talked about the incident several times, but had never thought about what had actually happened.
• One day, this woman might be attending a community lecture on survivors of childhood sexual abuse.
• One of the speakers talks about her experiences with an adult who started tickling and then began fondling.
• Suddenly our 30-year old woman has a lot of memories from when she was younger.
• When she confides in her husband, he reminds her that she had told him about previous incidences.

• There are more instances of corroborated memories when the recovered memories are obtained through the forgot-it-all-along effect.
• This doesn't mean that all memories obtained through the forgot-it-all-along effect and therapy are true.

• There are criticisms of the false memory studies.
• Chapter four has been reporting events that actually happened.
• The scenarios used in false memory studies are plausible, but childhood sexual abuse is less likely to be faked.
• They were able to implant a bizarre and improbable event memory, which provides further support that memories can be implanted.

• The false-memory research and the repressed memory controversy stimulated Kelly Michaels to work at the Wee research, and she came up with the idea that memory is fallible, quirky, and Care Day Nursery in Maplewood.

• Do you remember seeing the same thing?
• We see things that don't exist with visual illusions.
• Her case snowballed.
• We may remember things that never happened because of memory illusions.

• In studies where children said Kelly licked peanut lists of words, the strength and believability of memory illusions were shown.
• In these stud butter off their genitals, forced them ies, participants claimed that they remembered exactly who said the critical but non to drink urine and eat feces.
• Some participants refused to believe that the fake words were not part of the original list when they heard a replay of the original.
• Research shows that memory illusions are created for very com blocks.
• Being hospitalized at a young age is one example of a plex situation.
• One of your authors had the experience of realizing that one of her childhood memories never actually ended up being convicted of 15 charges and sentenced to 15 years in prison.

• They seem to operate in the same way as other normal memory processes.

• Maybe they wouldn't take her to trial the most apparent difference because of the amount of detail recalled.

• A type of plagiarism in which we forget the source of information we read and use it as if it were our own.

• Dejavu is the illusion of seeing something for the first time and then experiencing it for the first time.

• The proper meaning of words can't be remembered.

• A patient with damage to the right side of the brain displayed more memory illusions than a person without the same damage.

• Eyewitness testimony is relevant to memory illusions.
• Research has progressed beyond demonstrating the fallibility of testimony to examining specific factors, other than adding misleading questions and planting pieces of misinformation that can create such memory illusions.
• Interviewer bias is one of the factors that can lead to memory illusions.
• Research shows that memory recall under hypnosis is no more accurate than those under nonhypnotized conditions.
• Highly hypnotizable individuals report more memory illusions than nonhypnotized persons.
• The number of memory illusions is not reduced by warning people of the possibility of sug gestibility.

• The use of suggestive questions and the problems associated with them led researchers to develop new procedures to increase retrieval of accurate information.
• Researchers listen to tape recordings of police interviews with information on traditional police interviews.
• Typically, the in terviewer asked many questions, which often elicited brief responses, usually asked closed-ended questions, and frequently interrupted, thus interfering with the flow of information and making it difficult to establish a relationship.
• The interviewer using the cognitive approach asks less open-ended questions than the traditional interview.
• The interviewer is given plenty of time to respond, so he or she is provid ing a narrative rather than responding to a series of rapid-fire, closed-ended questions.

• The interview begins by asking the person to report everything about the incident, for example, a question is likely to be phrased as "Describe the incident" rather than "What color was the car?"
• The second part of the interview requires witnesses to remember the context of the incident.

• It is possible to enhance memory retrieval.
• The witness is asked to remember events in different temporal orders.
• The witness is asked to look at the event from the perspective of the perpetrators or the victim.
• There is an increase of up to 75% in the amount of information gathered compared to typical police interviews, according to research.

• Although there may be incorrect information, it is usually small.

• It's clear that memory illusions are very common.
• Future research will be interesting.

• Brad is an art major and is having difficulty in his history class.
• Brad is thinking about dropping the course.
• He needs to pass this required course to complete his degree.

• For a long time, psychologists have been trying to find ways to help Brad.
• There are several factors that influence learning and memory, as you can see from Table 4-5.

• The number of sessions is related to the learning and memory.

• There should be more study sessions.
• Spaced practice sessions are more effective than massed practice.

• A group of items of the same general type will learn better than a group of different items.

• The items at the beginning and end of a study session are more likely to be learned than the items in the middle.

• Finding some meaning in the material is the key to re membering the history assignment.
• He will have difficulty learning it if U.S. history has little meaning to him.

• Brad knows that if he studies as often as possible, he will do better on his tests, but he takes several breaks between study sessions to improve the distribution of sessions.
• For the best learning to occur, the material he is studying should be meaningful, and he should not try to study several different topics in the same session.
• These procedures could help raise your grades.

• Now that you know how to arrange your study sessions, you want to go to cartoonbank.com.
• All rights know more.

• There are memory techniques that have been shown to work.

• They are forms of rehearsal and result in deeper processing.
• If you want to remember new material, you have to first recall previously learned information and then recall the new information that has been sociated with it.
• You can decide if the devices work.
• Some practice is required to use the procedures effectively.
• Images, the method of loci, pegword technique, group memories ing, and coding are some of the previously stored common techniques.

• You will remember better if you use mental pictures or images of the items you are studying.
• If you want to increase recall, you need to visualize them as you learn and repeat them over and over again.

• If you are learning someone's name and their last name is Walker, you could try to remember it by imagining this person moving around in a walker as you memorize their name.

• Two more specific techniques for mental imagery have been developed.

• The ancient Greek orators used visual imagery and locations to help them memorize speeches or entire epics.
• When the order in which you need to remember items is important, this memory technique is useful.
• You start with a set of familiar locations.
• If you live on campus, you could list the major landmarks you see every time you walk from your dormitory room to the student union.
• The front door of the student union is one of the landmarks that could include the door to your room, the staircase to the first floor, the outside door, a tree, a statue, and so forth.
• You would assign an item to each location.
• If you wanted to learn the parts of the brain, you could pair the medulla with your door, the cerebel lum with the staircase, and so on.
• You could imagine a dulla on your door.
• The staircase could become the cerebellum.
• Some people think that more bizarre images have a better effect on memory.
• To recall the parts of the brain in order, you would call up the men tal image of the things you encounter on the way to the student union and remember the part of the brain associated with each location.
• It has been found that this procedure is highly effective.

• Don can name all of the songs on the most popular "oldies" rock CDs.
• Don is studying for a test.
• He listens to some of his favorite songs.
• Don hopes that listening to music will help him score higher on the test.
• Each section of the material he is studying has one type of music he plays.
• During the first section he listens to Beatles music, and then during the next section he listens to Billy Joel.
• Before reading further, write down an answer to the question.
• To learn a set of items, Don has to assign one item to each song on a CD.
• Don is using the pegword technique to help him remember items from his psychology test.

• Mark H. Ashcraft and Gabriel A. radvansky wrote "example of pegword technique" in the 5th edition of CoGNITIoN.
• Pearson education, Inc., Upper Saddle river, New Jersey granted permission to print and electronically reproduce.

• You can answer with a group of numbers.
• You can group together the first three or four items, the next three or four, and so forth if you must learn in a certain order.
• This method of grouping is used when we learn telephone numbers.
• The possibilities for grouping increase if the material is not remembered in a particular order.
• You can group items according to their type, their ending, their length, or any other way in which they are similar.

• A list of words and remembering a phone number seem to be the most common STM tasks.

• The items that are not relevant to the learner are not learned as easily as more relevant items.
• Special codes are created to help people learn material that isn't relevant.
• Once the items have been learned, it's important to decode them.

• Two popular coding tech names are acrostics and Acronyms.
• You need to remember the acronym and decode the definitions on the other.
• To help remember the names of the Great Lakes, all you need to do is recall the acronym HOMES and then choose a card that says M (Lake Michigan), E (Lake Erie) or both.

• Let's say you have a particular strategy with the material signed the task of remembering the names of the first seven presidents of the United States.

• One approach would be to memorize things.
• Students create acrostics when they study.

• Evaluating techniques for improving memory naturally led psychologists to look for the basis of memory.
• We look at their findings next.

• h.M. was 7 years old when he was hit by a bicycle and injured his head.
• He had surgery to remove large portions of his amygdala and hippocampus when he was 27.

• The physical changes that accompany learning and memory have been isolated by psychologists.
• They tried to describe the basis of learning and memory.
• Patients who suffer memory loss as a result of head injuries are the focus of their research.

• A word is formed by the memory of people, places, and things.
• We will discuss the effects of psychological traumas in Chapter 12.

• There is an inability to store new memories.
• Chapter four he ate for lunch, what was on television last night, or what year it was.
• He lived from moment to moment, ex cept for his pre-1953 memories.

• You should be able to reach two tentative conclusions on the basis of this case.
• The stages of memory processing and the basis of memory are related.
• Write down the two conclusions after a few moments of review.
• H.M.'s problem has to do with the memory-storage process.
• New information is not reaching long-term storage.
• The second conclusion is that the hippocampus is involved in the process of storing new memories.
• H.M.'s operation would wipe out memories stored before 1953 if they were stored in the hippocampus.

• Animal research supports the idea that the hippocampus is involved in storing memories.
• When the hippocampus is removed from both hemispheres of the brain in laboratory animals, they have difficulty holding information about a learning task they have just mastered.

• The trauma may result in the loss of memory of events.
• The hypothesis is that the greatest memory loss is for events that happened before the trauma.
• If the oven door is open, the souffle will fall.
• The consolidation process for recent memories has been interrupted by the head trauma.

• The consolidation hypothesis has been supported by both human and animal studies.
• The electric current is passed through the patient's brain.
• ECT is able to reduce the depression.
• A human patient undergoing eCT may suffer grade amnesia due to the effects of eCT on the formation of a memory.

• The longer the delay between completion of the task and the ap consolidation hypothesis, the less the effect ofECS.
• In the longer delay conditions, consolidation and transfer assumed that the memory had more time to consolidate and therefore did not do so.

• Rats usually step down Loss of memories that were stored from the platform.
• The rats received 888-269-5556 888-269-5556 888-269-5556 888-269-5556 888-269-5556 888-269-5556 888-269-5556 888-269-5556.
• The rats were told to stay on the platform to avoid a foot shock.
• The rats were tested.

• When a foot shock is received after stepping off the platform, it appears that the mem ory of the shock is consolidated more strongly if it is applied 10 or 30 seconds after the shock.

• They only proposed one type of memory.

• There are four types of LTM that can fit into two therapists.
• Explicit and implicit are some of the major categories developed by psychologists.

• Grouping and coding can be used to find an item we want to recall.

• Two popular forms of coding are if the first letter of each word is not present for a bit of information and if the first letter of each word is not a verse.

• They reflect on the traumatic event before it is lost.

• They used hypnotism to make sure that the event had actually happened.

How does the model of memory change over time?

• The second model is only interested in one type of memory.

• The dream active process is combined with the sodium amytal treatment.

• The first model theorizes that there is only one type of mem ness that made participants susceptible to sugges ory.

• People who speak of working memory are psychologists.

• He can't remember plowing into a truck.