27.29 Reptilian Diversity

• The reptile clade has five groups with living members, along with extinct groups such as the pterosaurs and nonflying dinosaurs.

• The earliest members of the crocodilian family lived on land more than 200 million years ago.

• Some species were able to breathe air through their upturned nostrils.

• Many of the species in this group are able to fly.
• Their skeletons were fused to a boxlike shell.
• Some turtles hummingbird have an even more specialized skeleton live on land, while others live in a freshwater or marine environment that allows it to fly in all directions.

• Its beak is used to feed on the food source.

• There are snakes in Zealand.

• A feather has a central air Wrist filled shaft.
• Birds have feathers.

• A precise shape is what you should hook.

• A bird's wings environments are its most obvious adaptation for flight.
• Some mammals are able to conserve water by using the same principles of aerodynamics as the wings of an airplane.
• Flapping the wings is powered by contractions they can survive in arid environments while drinking little or no water.

• There are many benefits to flight.
• It allows escape from the earthbound predator.

• Flight allows the animal to stay in its cool, relatively humid burrow during the heat of the day and also allows some birds to migrate great distances at night.

• Flying requires a lot of energy from your metabolism.

• Birds have good eyesight.
• The visual is lost when the animal exhales.

• The amnio mamtes absorb water so effectively that pathways and from our own, t, named for their distinctive little water is lost in feces and urine.

• Most mammals have teeth and have a high metabolism.

• mammals and reptiles are metabolism.
• As in birds, mammals have larger sister groups.
• The brains of mammals and reptiles are larger than those of other animals, and many of them are capable of learning.
• The jaws of amniotes calle are uniform in size and shape.
• Early nonmammalian synapsids mammals have a variety of teeth with sizes and shapes adapted without hair.
• Many kinds of foods are chewed over the course.
• The first mammals arose about 180 years ago.
• The major mammals were not abundant in the 70 million years ago when mammals and dinosaurs coexisted.

• By 140 million years ago, the three major mam mals had emerged.

• The platypus and four species of spiny anteaters comprise the five species of monotremes, which are found only in Australia.
• There are more than 5,300 species of monotremes living today.

• They are the only mammals that lay eggs.

• The primate group includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes.
• Humans are part of the ape group.

• The earliest known primate were tree-dwel ers, and many derived characters of primate are adapted to the demands of living in the trees.
• Chimpanzees can hang onto tree branches with grasping hands and feet.
• All primate have a thumb that is relatively immobile and separate from the other mammals.
• Like eutherians, they have nipples that provide milk and fingers.
• There are monkeys and apes that give birth to live young.
• Offspring can touch the surface of the mother's pouch and finish their growth while nursing from a nipple in their side.

• A large brain and short jaws give primates a flat face.

• Their eyes are close to each other.
• When swinging from branch to branch in trees, the overlap of their forward-facing eyes enhance depth perception.

• The majority of nonhuman apes are found in Asia and Africa.
• Apes have long arms, short legs, and no tail.

• A clade of 5,010 mammal species are called eutherians.
• Chimpanzees and koalas are very social and have longer pregnancies thanutherians.

A mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a mammal is a

• The derived characters of humans were shared by the early hominins.

• Some fossils suggest that they had flat faces.

• Tarsiers are more upright than other apes.

• New World monkeys were upright for a long time.
• Consider Ardipithecus ramidus.
• The brain of this species was much smaller than that of H. sapiens.

• Orangutans play softball.

• Homo habilis lived up to 1.6 mil ion years ago.
• H. habilis had a larger brain volume than earlier hominins.

• The primate evolutionary tree shows that the anderthals had a larger brain than the pres.

• About 50 million years ago, monkeys and apes began diverging from other primate relatives.

• Humans stood upright and walked on two legs 40,000 years ago.

• Fossil evidence shows that the ancestors of humans and Chimpanzees are 99% the same.
• Mans are from Africa.

• The older species gave rise to the extinct human ancestors.

• A group of humans and extinct species have been found that are more closely related to us than to Chimpanzees.

• The change affected aspects of ecologi nated.

• Early marine communities had no large suspension feeders in the Middle East and the oldest fossils of H. sapiens outside Africa are from that time period.
• Food particles are suspended in water.
• Researchers think that the ocean waters were cloudy and thick with organisms in one or more waves, first into Asia and then into Europe and Australia.
• The oldest turbid waters in the New World had low oxygen levels and are thought to be 15,000 years old.

• As humans spread from Africa to the rest of the world, condition for over abil ion years, despite the fact that algae they entered regions inhabited by Neanderthals and other.
• The question is whether most of that time.

• The early Cambrian saw a decrease in the number of cyanobacteria.
• The most extensive evidence that may have been caused by the activities of crustaceans was reported in 2015.
• It was found that the cave contained pension feeders that could process an enormous amount of water.
• The amount of Neanderthal DNA in the ocean water that animals filter every 20 days is equivalent to the amount that most organisms live.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• There are suspended matter from the water from the grassland to the tundra.
• The ocean waters would have become clearer.
• According to tal results, the change occurred because the foxes which require more light for photosynthesis than do the cyanobacteria which are fed upon seabirds, increased in abundance and moved to deeper waters that in turn meant less bird guano.

• Along with changes in water clarity and a shift to algae as favored slow-growing tundra shrubs instead of grasses, there is a different set of feeding relationships to be replaced.

• The rise of animals set in motion a series of larger animals.

• The extinction of some species was caused by the origin of mobile, Heterotrophic animals with a com with predator and scavengers.

• Plants had a simple structure before animals joined them, as a result of increases in animal diversity.
• We'll look at the ongoing evolutionary effects harnessed energy from the sun and draw essential nutrients from one particular animal species.

• Animals had changed these ecosystems a long time ago.
• Two species that interact can exert pressures on one another to be important, but new biotic interactions another.
• An animal may evolve in response to selection imposed by animals, and they, in turn, were being eaten by predator plants.
• The animal may evolve in response to other animals consuming organic debris.
• Much of the network is driven by animals.

• Charles Darwin predicted the existence of communities based on the impact animals have on the environment.
• These birds feed on plants and grasses in the marsh.
• Lesser snow geese can reach the bottom of the tube at low population numbers.

• The feeding activities of the birds can cause a marsh to be converted to a mudflat.

• Large effects can be had by predator.

• The original state of the marsh can be seen in the area inside the fence that the geese could not access.

• Increased incidence and expression of prey defenses are often accompanied by the same thing.

• The crabs were presented with green crabs from the northern and southern populations.

• What Maine is separated by 450 km of coastline.
• There are eight different sizes of depen in the cage.

• The results of the experiment should be summarized in words.
• These are done 14 times.

• Natural selection may have affected populations of flat from northern and southern populations in the southern Gulf of Maine over the last 100 years.

• There is a version of the Scientific Skills Exercise that can be assigned.

• Scientific skills can be used to interpret data.
• By making large changes to the environment.

• When the origin species is present, such pressures also occur.
• We are likely causing evolutionary of new species in one group of organisms.
• We have caused the evolution of resis cape from the new group by using antibiotics to kil radiations in other organisms.

• Evolutionary change in species that we hunt for sport has been caused by animal groups having diversified.
• New sources of food for parasites and organisms that target older and larger fish can be found in cod fisheries.
• The tissues of the host have been reduced.
• Individuals reach sexual maturity on a single host species when they reach the age and size of parasites.
• Natural selection favors fish that are mature of animals because they are more likely to reproduce before they are caught.

• The future course of evolution can be seen from photographs or the window.

• The size at maturity has dropped.

• Predict how evolution in response to fishing will affect cod populations.

• The mol uscs have questionable buttons.
• The animal group has the largest number of documented extinctions.
• Figure 27.41 is The silent extinction.
• A group of freshwater mol uscs that can make natural largely unheralded but sobering 40% of the world's pearls are among the world's most threatened animals.
• Habitat loss, introduced species, overharvesting, and other human actions have resulted in extinctions.
• The land snails of the pearl mussel species that used to live in North America have become extinct in the last 100 years and are among the world's most threatened animal groups.
• Many pearl 270 are in danger of extinction.

• The enduring ability of native species, and overharvesting, is a reminder of the threats faced by pearl mussels and other mol uscs.
• Reducing through evolution in some places.
• Biology exalts life's diver water 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476

• There is hope that with corrective measures, other C O N C E P T C H E C K 2 7.

• Our discussion of how humans affect evolution brings the Cambrian period, and explains how animals may have this unit on the history of life to an end.
• The changes were influenced by this organization.

How did the colonization of land by animals affect the organisms on the ground?

• Human actions often break large areas, not ladderlike "progress," however we choose to of forest or grassland into smal remnant parcels that support measure it.
• There are almost as many species as there are individuals.
• Predict how genes flow, genetic drift, and extinction risk will differ between the original and remnant populations of ray-finned fishes.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• Provide evidence.

• The oldest known members of living animal phyla are found in the fossils of the Cambrian explosion.

• Birds are the most diverse reptile group.

• Human and extinct species are related to certain developmental traits that are integrated into a functional whole.

• The early hominins had a small brain.

• Bilaterally symmetric animals have spread from Africa to other continents.

• The fossil record shows trends in which brains have caused sweeping changes in early oceans, such as an in large relative to body size evolved.

• Human actions have caused evolution by natural selection and have the potential to cause a mass extinction.

• Evidence shows that animals originated between 710 and 770 million years ago.

• As the support for the more active metabolism of mobile animals moved forward, the body twisted to the left, like that of a lizard.
• The most recent ing could be considered when running.

• Larger organisms tend to have larger brains than smaller ones.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• Plants are allies.

• Chemicals are involved in coordinating plant responses to the environment.

• Local environmental conditions affect URRY2751_02_U05_Final.indd 574 30/08/15 11:38 AM than in animals.

• They have a head of their branches.
• Plants respond to chal enges romanesco, a relative of broccoli.
• Romanesco's and opportunities in their local environment are due to the fact that each of growth.

• The growth pattern of romanesco makes it look like it was created by a computer, but it's from the side of a shoot that's shaded.

• Changes in growth and development are critical in facilitating a pattern of stem.

• The evolution of nonvascular and subject to natural selection was described in chapter 26.
• The stem segments between leaves are shortened in this chapter to make them bushier.
• If the altered architecture enhances the plant's primary producers and ability to access resources such as light, it will be of great agricultural importance.
• The population will have evolved because taxonomists split the produce more offspring.

• Monocots and Eudicots have other structures.
• Plants show more diversity in their ferences as wel.

• Two cotyledons and cells have different types of tissues that carry out different functions.
• A is a group of cel s consisting of one or more types that perform a specialized function.

• The production of leaves, stems, and roots is only one stage in a plant's life.
• Sexual reproduction is related to the growth of most plants.

• Veins are associated with the production of flow ers, a topic we'll discuss in Concept 30.1.

• Terrestrial organisms that live and draw resources from two different environments-- below the ground and above the ground-- are usually scattered in a ring around their evolutionary history.
• A plant needs to absorb water, minerals, and CO2 from below the ground surface and from above the ground.

• The roots absorb minerals from the soil.

• The role of absorption in taproot systems is re strict, which is related to Figure 28.2 A comparison of monocots and eudicots.

• The classes of angiosperms are named for the number of cotyledons that are expensive to make.
• Monocots have one cotyledon.

• Orchids, bamboos, palms, and lilies, as well as grasses, such as wheat, maize, provide an advantage for pollen and seed dispersal.

• Some of the plants that have a trailing growth habit are oaks and beans.

• There are specialized functions in Figure 28.5.

• They are also known as air in their roots.

• The plant is idealized.

• By projecting above the water's surface at low tide, the root system can get root dies early on and doesn't form a tap root.
• There is not enough oxygen in the mud.

• There are aerial roots.

• In the crevices of tall trees, each root forms its own roots.
• The aerial roots created a thick mat of slender roots.

• This Cambodian is good at preventing soil erosion because the mat of roots holds the top soil in place.

• Shoots grow upward in most plants because of the absorption of water and minerals and the shade that comes from the tips of the elongating roots.

• The absorption of water and minerals from the soil is greatly improved by increasing the root's surface area.

• In most plants, the main source of energy is the air.

• Plants have leaves and buds.
• To maximize quirements, it's important to orient the shoot in a way that shortens it.
• A dense covering of hairs may help the process.
• Another function of stems is to repel herbivorous insects but may also trap air near the leaf and elevate reproductive structures, thereby facilitating the disper surface, thereby reducing gas exchange and, consequently, sal of pol en and fruit.
• Green stems can perform a limited amount of photosynthesis.
• There are conflicting demands and amount of photosynthesis.
• The leaves vary extensively in form.

• The majority of the growth of a young shoot is concentrated near the Grasses and other monocots with no petioles.
• The sheath that surrounds the stem is not the only base of the leaf.

• In the upper angle formed Monocots and Eudicots differ in the arrangemen by each leaf and the st, which can poten the vascular tissue of leaves.
• A thorn or flower can be found in some monocots.

• Some plants have stems that can be used for other purposes, such as Eudicots general, which has a branched network of veins.

• Genetic programs are often used to modify the appearance of leaves.

• An example of a rhizome is a horizontal shoot that grows to determine the leaf size in red maple trees.

• Most leaves are used for photosynthesis.

• The strawberry plant contains the roots, stems, and leaves of all the plant's organs.
• The tissue systems are continuous throughout shoots that grow the plant.

• The plant's outer protective cover reproduces asexually.
• It forms the first line of defense when plantlets form at physical damage.
• It is along each runner in nonwoody plants.

• A waxy coating on the surface of leaves and stems helps prevent water loss.
• In older regions of stems and roots, protective tissues calle replace the skin.
• Tubers, such as these potatoes, are protecting the plant from water loss and disease.
• A stolons root hair is an extension of an epidermal cel near the tip of a specialized for storing food.
• There are clusters of mis and hairlike outgrowths of the shoot Epider potato.
• In some desert species, axillary buds that reflect excess light are the most common function of trichomes.

• The pea plant clings to a support by the tendrils.
• A tendril forms after a support is "lassoed".
• Some tendrils are modified stems, like grapevines.

• The leaves of cacti are actually leaves, and the green stems carry out the photosynthesis.

• The onion has a short underground stem and modified leaves that hold food.

• The blue system protects the entire body from falling off the leaf and taking the plant.
• The vascular tissue system transports root in the soil.

• The transport of materials through the plant is one of the chief functions.
• The major types of plant cells are paren sugars, col enchyma, sclerenchyma, and the water.
• The cells that make up the veins of a stem are called cal ed cells.

How might our ground tissue system be affected by the capture of light energy for photosynthesis?

• For suggested answers and other functions may be included.

• Parenchyma cells have a large central vacuole when they are mature.
• Most of the plant's functions are performed by Parenchyma cells.
• The leaf contains the paren chyma cells.
• Parenchyma cells in stems and roots have amyloplasts that store starch.
• Parenchyma cells make up the majority of the fruit's tissue.
• During wound repair, parenchyma cells can divide and differentiate into other types of plant cells.
• It is possible to grow an entire plant from a single parenchyma cell.

• parenchyma cells have thicker primary walls than cienchyma cells, but the walls are not uniformly thick.
• There are strands of collenchyma cells just below the young stems and petioles.
• Without restraining growth, conochyma cells provide flexible support.
• These cells are living and flexible at maturity, unlike sclerenchyma cells, which we discuss next.

• Lignin is present in some plants but not in others.
• There are regions of the plant that have stopped growing that have mature sclerenchyma cells.
• Sclerenchyma cells are so spe 25mm cialized for support that many are dead at functional maturity, but they produce secondary walls before the liv ing part of the cell dies.
• The rigidity of the walls supports the plant for hundreds of years.

• Sclereids, which are boxier than fibers and irregular in shape, have thick secondary walls.
• The pear fruits have a hard texture and a seed coat.
• The fibers are usually grouped in strands.
• Some are used for making rope and linen.

• Tracheids are found in the xylem of all plants.
• Most angiosperms, as well as a few gymnosperms and a few seedless plants, have vessel elements.
• When the living cellular contents of a tra Cheid or vessel element are destroyed, the cell's thickened walls remain behind, forming a non living conduit through which water can flow.
• Water can move through pits.

• Tracheids are thin and long.

• They are aligned end to end and form long pipes that can be seen with the naked eye.
• The end walls of the vessels have plates that allow water to flow through them.

• Pits are hardened.
• Under the tension of water transport, this hardening provides support.

• In seedless plants and gymnosperms, sugars and other organic nutrients are transported through sieve cells.

• The adjacent sieve-tube element should be Sieve 30mm.

• In some plants, the companion cells in leaves help load sugars into the sieve-tube elements, which then transport the sugars to other parts of the plant.

• The "teeth" along the margins of leaves grow in different sizes and periods.
• Growth occurs throughout the number compared with their southern counterparts.

• Most plants grow from four distinct sites in Canada.
• The leaves, thorns, and flowers collected from the four locations were then grown in a northern and southern location.
• They stop growing after a few years.

• There are two main types of meristems, apical and growing.
• The average area of single teeth and the average number of teeth per leaf area were determined.

• Along the length of the roots and stems, there is a dividing line.

• A bar graph for tooth size and a bar graph for number can be used.

• According to the data above, leaf tooth cal ed initials are mostly determined by genetic heritage and the capacity for responding to environmental factors.

• In answering the question, make sure to reference the data.

• The leaf fossils of known age have become specialized in mature tissues because of their toothiness.

• There is a version of the Scientific Skills Exercise that can be assigned.

• A axil ary bud is above the leaf scar.
• There are scars from the whorls of scales that enclosed the apical bud during the winter.

• The buds formed in previous years.

• Even though they share a common genome, derivatives can differ in structure and function.

• The near shoot tip production of specific proteins is caused by the regulation of transcription and translation.

• The fate of a two year old plant is determined by its final position in the developing organ, and last year's growth depends on the control of gene expression.

• Stem genes are involved in cell communication.

• There is a differential expression of a gene called GLABRA-2.

• There is a single cortical C O N C E P T C H E C K 2 8.

• The leaves do not grow in a straight line.

• A gardener says the carrots are too small after growing them for a season.
• The gardener leaves the crop in the ground for a second year since carrots are biennials.

• root hairs emerge after the apical is sloughed off.

• Control of root hair is entirely by primary growth in herbaceous plants, whereas in woody plants only a master regulatory gene is needed.

• The normal expression of the GLABRA-2 gene protects the delicate apical meristem from root hairs.

• Their shoot apical meristems undergo a transition from vegetative growth to reproductive growth, the production of flowers, fruits, and seeds.
• The transi tion is triggered by a combination of environmental and internal signals.
• The production of a flower by a shoot apical meristem stops the primary growth of that shoot.
• Plants that are incapable of reproductive growth may go through a juvenile phase.

• In a single year or less, annuals root apical meristem complete their life cycle.

• Two growing seasons are required to complete the life root apical meristem.

• The zone of elongation is where most lengthening of the root occurs.
• There are trees, shrubs, and some grasses in the micrograph.

• The root pushes through the abrasive soil during primary.
• They can make up 70% of the growth.
• The root cap has a polysaccharide total root surface area.
• A 4-month-old plant has an esti slime that lubricates the soil around the root.
• There were 14 bil ion root hairs.
• They would cover just behind the tip in three zones of 10,000 km, one quarter the length of the equator.

• Cortical cells transport and their derivatives.
• Water and salts from the root hairs to the center of the root are produced in this region.
• The cells of the root cap are included.
• The cortex has large intercel ular spaces and is located in the zone of elongation, where most of the extracel ular diffusion of water, minerals, and oxygen occurs.
• The cortex's innermost layer is ten times its original length.
• The cylinder that forms the zone pushes the tip farther into the soil.
• The younger end of the tive barrier regulates the passage of substances from the soil into the zone of elongation.
• In angiosperm roots, the ing, many begin specializing in structure and function; for ex stele is a vascular cylinder, consisting of a solid core of xylem and ample, roots hairs start to form.
• The xylem has a starlike or zone of maturation, the s have a cross section, and the phloem occupies the inden.

• The central tissue and the vascular tissue are found in many monocot roots.
• One of the more prominent features of alternating xylem and phloem tissues is the root hairs.

• A root begins in the pericycle, the outermost layer of the vascular cylinder of a root, and grows out through the cortex and epidermis.
• The view of the original root is a cross section in this series of light micrographs.

• The leaf primordia is the outermost cell layer in the cylin der.

• A shoot apical meristem is a dome-shaped mass of dividing cells.

• Young leaves are close together because the internodes are short.
• The internode cells below the shoot tip are shortening.

• Each of the meristems has its own shoot apical meristem, which arises from the activation of axil ary buds.
• The closer an axil ary bud is to an active apical bud, the more inhibited it is.
• The flanks of the apical meristem have leaf primordia.

• The axil ary buds break and start to grow.

• An axil ary bud is formed at the bases of stems and leaves when meristematic activ is released from dormancy.
• These areas have apical buds, leaves, and intercalary meristems.
• Gardeners reduce the number of apical buds a mowing by pinching back shrubs that account for the ability of lawns to grow.
• The ability of grasses to regrowth leaves by intercalary plants allows the plant to recover more effectively from a bushier appearance.

• An overview of leaf structure is provided in Figure 28.17 O2 is released from the outside air.

• The CO cular tissue of the stem is exchanged with the vas of the leaf.
• The Veins divide between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells.
• The network brings xylem and side the leaf.
• In addition to regulating CO phloem into close contact with the photosynthetic tissue, which 2 uptake for photo synthesis, stomata are major avenues for the evaporative loss obtains water and minerals from the xylem and loads its sugars of water.
• Transporting organic products into the phloem can be referred to as a "soma", which means the whole of the plant's stomatal complex.
• The framework of the leaf is reinforced by two specialized epidermal cells calle.
• The opening and closing of the pore are enclosed by veins.

• There are two plant species that carry out C4 photosynthesis in the leaves of Greek mesos.

• The parenchyma is specialized for photosynthesis.
• The tissue system is called Palisade mesophyl.
• The upper part of the cular bundles are covered in parenchyma, which runs the length of a stem.
• The roots arise from the leaf.
• The palisade is below the Spongy mesophyl.

• In such an arrangement, ground tissue is inside, and ground tissue toward the outside is not partitioned into pith and cortex.

• Many land plants show secondary growth, the growth in monocot stems, and the vascular bundles are scattered throughout thickness.
• The ground tissue was 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609-

• Secondary growth is rare in monocots, but all gymnosperm species and many eudicot spe cels just beneath the epidermis strengthen many stems during cies.
• In the stems and roots of plants, sclerenchyma is found, but rarely, and provides support in parts of the stems that are no longer only to a limited extent in leaves.

• The tissues produced by the vas cular cambium and cork cambium are secondary growth.
• The secondary xylem and secondary phloem are added by the cambium.

• You would expect the growth of the plant to be divided into two parts: primary and secondary.

• Shoots and roots have the same pro cess.

• The cambium has formed.

• The rise of the vascular rays can be attributed to the rise of the cardiovascular system.

• The secondary phloem and other tissues outside of the cambium can't keep up with the increased diameter of the cambium.

• The outer tissues of the cork cambium are torn off as the stem's diameter increases.

• A layer of periderm is created by secondary phloem.

• Bark is made up of all tissues outside of the cambium.

• X X C P P is from the secondary xylem.

• The cambium is increasing in size.

• It has thick-wal ed cel s that don't transport as much water.

• There is a marked contrast between the large cell thick and the small cell thick, which is responsible for the production of the new early wood and the late wood ondary tissue.
• A year's growth appears as a cambium is located outside the pith and primary xylem and to a distinct growth ring in the cross sections of most tree trunks.
• Researchers can estimate a tree's age by looking at its growth rings.

• The cambium appears to be a ring tree growth pattern.
• Depending on seasonal growth.
• In cold or dry years, trees grow in wet and increase the cambium's circumference and add second warm years.

• A thin ring indi indicates a warm year.
• Scientists can use ring patterns to study the diameter of roots and stems if they are cold or dry.

• As a tree or shrub ages, the older layers are no longer able to transport water and minerals because of their long axis paral el to the ary xylem.
• The tra is called xylem sap.
• These layers are called heartwood because they are closer to the center of a stem or root.

• The initials are shorter and have a different orientation to the stem or root.

• They produce rays that connect the xylem and phloem.

• Most gymnosperms have barkwood, whereas the vessel elements are found in most angiosperms.
• The wal s of Sec Vascular cambium ondary xylem cells are heavily lignified and account for the strength of wood.

• The wood that develops early in the Layers of periderm spring is known as early (or spring) wood.
• This structure maximizes delivery of water.

• The outer layers of secondary xylem still carry cambium.
• The main components are the secondary phloem xylem.

• Each new layer of secondary xylem has a figure.

• How can living cells in the interior tissues of the organs transport more oxygen and respire if they are surrounded by leaves?
• The raised areas of the periderm are due to the compounds in the resins that help protect the core of the tree from fungi.

• In examining the parts of plants in a dissected fashion, the older secondary phloem is important not to lose sight, which is one reason secondary phloem does not of the fact that the whole plant functions as.

• During the early stages of secondary growth, the skin is thinking about plants and how they change over time.
• The first cork photoautotrophic existence on land replaced it with tissues.

• The cork cambium gives rise to cork.

• A sign is hammered into a tree.
• The tree is 10 m tal and 1 m each year if it matures, and the high cal ed suberin causes it to die.

• If a complete ring of bark is removed around a tree trunk, the tree would die slowly from water loss, physical damage, and pathogens.

• See Appendix A for suggested answers.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• The wal s that help support the flowers are thick.
• At functional maturity, the are dead.

• The stems have bundles.

• Older layers of secondary xylem become inactive, whereas younger layers still conduct water.

• Most of the growth of a plant is the result of A cell differentiation.

• The A core is thenermost layer of the root cortex.

• There is a cross section through the pericycle.

• This organ might be adapted to dry xylem.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• Populus benefits from leaf quaking.
• Old ideas that the aspen forest helps replace the CO with a clear day have not been supported.

• This peculiar ada Uliar ad p ap must be transported to where they are needed.

• The needs favored branching roots.

• The evolution of xylem and where roots get water and minerals.
• Plants were unable to shoot systems that carry out long-distance transport without adaptation phloem.

• The products of photosyn CO2 are transported directly from the water in which they lived.
• Transport from where they are made or stored to where they are needed was simple because every cell was close to the source.
• The earliest land plants were non-vascular tion and transport.

• Plants success is related to the amount of CO2 and O2 in the air.
• The anchoring and absorbing ral selection resulted in many structural changes in the shoots of the early plants, which were assumed by the base of the that al ow for the more efficient acquisition of light from the sun stem or threadlike rhizoids.

• The evolution of shoot architecture has been affected by the competition driving factor.

• Broad, flat appendages have an advantage in absorbing light.

• CO2 is taken up and O2 is released through the leaves and stems.

• The phloem can flow between shoots and roots.
• Water and minerals are transported upward from the sites of sugar to the shoots of xylem.

• Buds support their stems.

• Plants only have a finite amount of energy.
• Figure 29.3 Emerging phyllotaxy of Norway spruce shows how much energy goes into branching.
• The pattern of emergence tal er plants increases when this is less available and the risk of being shaded bySEM is taken from above a shoot tip.
• If most of the energy goes into leaves.
• 1 is the youngest of the leaves.

• Paral el is promoted to the leaf surfaces, so no leaf gets too much light or water.

• The arrangement of leaves on a stem is known as the soil's root system.
• Plants are important in light capture.
• Each species has specific roots.
• A species may have many plants, for example, that respond to pockets of low nitrate by extending two leaves straight through the soil pockets.

• Most angiosperms have alternate phyl otaxy, with leaves that are rich in nitrate, and a root that is often branched in an ascending spiral around the stem.
• The leaf emerging from the site of the previous one responds to high soil nitrate levels.
• One hypothesis is that this angle reduces shading.
• The plant devotes more mass to the lower leaves.
• The cells absorb nitrate more efficiently in environments with intense sunlight.

• The leaves are arranged in a way that maximizes the absorption of limited nutrients.

• Each plant's productivity is affected by the total area of the leafy portions of the plants.
• The shading of the lower leaves is better when there are fewer and shorter roots in the presence of layers of vegetation.
• There are buffalo grass plants.
• Researchers are trying to figure out how the plant distinguishes itself from nonself.

• Light capture is affected by leaf orientation.

• Some plants have horizontal y oriented leaves.
• The evolution of mutualistic associations grasses have leaves that are vertically oriented.
• In low-light between roots and mycorrhizae, horizontal leaves capture sunlight much more effec in the successful colonization of land by plants.
• Concept 29.4 looks at corrhizae in plant nutrition.

• Light rays move water, minerals, and sugars throughout the plant if a plant's leaves are nearly vertical.

• Plants can detect light reflected from leaves of encroaching neighbors.
• The short-distance movement of elicits stem elongation, production of erect leaves, and less substances into and out of cel s is controlled by this detection plasma membrane.

• Plants of Na+ have a variety of substances moving through them.
• It is not surprising that plants in animals are transported with H+ and Na+, both of which have a great range of distances and barriers.
• Let's first consider the two major path transport of many different solutes.
• The apoplast and the symplast are examples of cotransport ways of transport.

• Everything outside of the apoplast facilitates the movement of ion across the plant cells.

• The channels are gated, opening or closing in response to stimuli consisting of the entire mass of the living cells.
• The plasmodesmata will be discussed later in this chapter, as wel as the cytoplasmic channels.

• The apoplastic, animals, are analogous to the action potentials of for transport within a plant tissue or organ, because of the compartmental structure of plants.
• The phloem conducts symplastic and transmembrane routes.
• Water and solutes move tion in the nerve-like electrical signals that help integrate whole-plant func apoplastic route.
• The signals are 1000 times slower than in ani.
• Water and solutes move along the con instead of the sodium ion channels used by animal cells.

• When they first enter the plant, the cell wall was broken.

• The route is aplastic and goes from the west to the east.

• In the same way, the transmembrane route passes them to the next cel.
• The route requires plasmodesmata.

• There are more than one route.

• The major de property that predicts the direction in which water will flow is the terminants of water potential in hydrated plants, as expressed cal ed, a quantity that includes the effects of in the water potential equation: solute concentration and physical pressure.

• There is no barrier to its flow.
• If a plant with ps is the water potential, psS is the solute potential and psP is the pressure potential.
• A solution that causes it to expand is directly proportional to the potential of the water moving into the seed.
• The expansion of the plant leads to its molarity.
• solutes affect the direction of osmosis and can be a powerful force.
• The swel ing of wet grain within the holds in plants is typically ion and sugars.
• Pure water is 0 if the psS of damaged ships leads to complete hul failure.
• solutes bind watermol sinking of the ships.
• It is in ecules because of the strong forces generated.
• The capacity of the water to move and do work is being affected by the fact that there are fewer free water molecule.
• An increase in solute concentration has a negative effect on the process which is explored in the Scientific Skills Exercise.

• A 0.1 M solution is "sigh".
• Plant biologists measure ps in a unit of pressure of a sugar.
• Pure water's ps increases, psS becomes more negative.

• The percent increases are shown in the table.

• The dataological process under investigation may have 10 values used to make inferences.

• There is a change in the water's viscosity.

• The slight temperature dependence of weighed and placed in water at four different temperatures is 10 for the change in the viscosity of how the experiment was done.
• After 30 minutes, the seeds were removed, dried, and weighed again.

What other variables could you water for each sample?

• There is a version of the Scientific Skills Exercise that can be assigned.

• The physical pressure on a solution is called Pressure Potential.
• Positive or negative psP can be found relative to atmospheric pressure.

• When it is being withdrawn from a needle, it is under negative pressure, and when it is being expelled from a needle, it is under positive pressure.

• The water in living is under positive pressure due to the osmotic release of water.

• This pushing effect of internal pressure, like the air in an inflated tire, is critical for plant function because it helps maintain the rigidity of plant tissues.
• The turgor was watered.

• The partial y elastic wal, exert turgor pres as you learn to apply the water potential equation.
• Water moving from regions of higher water is enough to offset the tendency for water to enter because of potential to regions of lower water potential.

• There is no further net movement of water as a result of a dynamic equilibrium.

• A flaccid cel has a greater sol flaccid as a result of losing water.
• The cell has a very firm concentration of ute.

• The tissue stiffens when turgid cells push against each other.

• The effects of turgor loss can be seen when leaves is itself.
• The stems droop as a result of cells losing water.

• The cell plasmolyzes when there is a water loss.
• The water potentials of the cell turgid are complete after the cell becomes plasmolysis.
• This tendency for water to enter is offset by its surroundings.

• In these experiments, flaccid cells are placed in two different environments.
• The blue arrows show the initial net water movement.

• The explanation of URRY2751_02_C29_FINAL.indd 598 was given by the untrained eye.
• Transport elements are found in dried plants.

• The bulk is only considered if the flow of material always occurs from higher to lower pressure.

• Bulk flow is independent of solute concentra to determine which chemical elements are essential.
• The long-distance bulk flow occurs in which plants are vessel elements of the xylem and within the sieve-tube elements grown in mineral solutions instead of soil.
• 17 essential elements needed by bulk flow have been identified by the structures of these conducting cel s. All plants are dead because of mature tracheids and vessel elements.

• If you've ever dealt with a partially blocked drain, you know that plants need them in large quantities.

• The structure of a plant's carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and riences help us understand it.
• The other three macronutrients fit their function.
• The absence or reduction of cytoplasm in a plant's nitrogen contributes the most to plant growth and crop yields.

• bulk flow through the xylem and phloem is aided by plumbing.

• Nitrogen plays a part in the transport of resources throughout the plant.

• Plants are grown in mineral C O N C E P T C H E C K 2 9.

• Plants with a psS of -0.7MPa essential elements have been immersed in water.

• Plant roots are bathed in aerated solutions of known open beaker of solution that has a ps of -0.4 MPa.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Water, air, and soil minerals all contribute to plant growth.

• Plants' water content can be measured by comparing mass before and after drying.
• Mineral deficiency fresh mass is water if the omitted mineral is essential.
• THe majority of the dry mass symptoms occur, such as discolored leaves and stunted growth.

• The plant wouldn't be able to complete its life cycle.

• Deficiencies of different elements can aid in detecting mineral deficiencies in soil.

• Table 29.1 summarizes the functions of the macronutrients.

• The cal ed leaves are the most essential elements.
• Plants only need the mineral in tiny quantities.
• The requirements of a plant change with the plant's age.

• Plants use the C4 pathway of photosynthesis to get their mineral needs met, which is whysodium is a ninth essential micronutrient.

• The symptoms of a mineral deficiency in a given plant species are caused by a deficiency in the minerals in the plant.
• Iron can aid in diagnosis.

• Micronutrient shortages are not as common aschondria.
• Local differences in soil composition are reflected by micronutrients general y.
• Plants only need a small amount of roles.
• There is usually only one small requirement for a micronutrient to correct a deficiency.
• For every 60 million atoms of hydro Gen in dried plant material, there is usually a zinc deficiency in fruit trees.

• Mineral deficiency symptoms are dependent on both the role of the nutrient and its mobility within the plant.

• The most common mineral deficiencies are mobile and are preferential to young leaves.
• It is seen in maize leaves.
• A plant deficient in magnesium may show signs of chlorosis.
• Nitrogen deficiency can be seen in maize's older leaves.
• Young parts of the plant are affected first by a deficiency of a mineral that starts at the tip and moves along the center of the plant.

• Young leaves of maize plants have reddish purple margins.
• maize plants may have adequate amounts that they retain during "firing," or drying, along tips and margins of older leaves.

• cured by hammering a few zinc nails into each tree trunk The mod plant can't absorb.
• Plants prefer slightly acidic soil because high H+ concentrations can negatively charged or toxic to plants.
• Excess vine growth in tomato plants can be caused by too much nitrogen, minerals from soil particles, or both.
• It is difficult to adjust soil pH for optimal crop growth.

• Farmers recognized that yields on a particular plot should be matched to the crop's mineral needs.
• Land decreased if the soil was too wet.
• Adding sulfate will lower the pH.
• The same pattern of reduced yields can be observed if the soil is too acidic.

• When the soil pH dips to 5 or lower, the aluminum ion renewable resource that enabled crops to be cultivated season (Al3+) become moresoluble and are absorbed by roots, stunt after season at a fixed location.
• This is agriculture that is sedentary.
• A new way of life is what some plants cope with.
• The first vil ages saw people build permanent secreting organic anions that bind Al3+ and harm dwellings.
• They had less food for use.
• In tropical regions, where the pressure of non farming occupations is high, low soil pH and Al3+ toxicity pose a problem.
• The early discovery of food for a growing population is the most acute.

• The world has a major problem with soil mismanagement.

• Mineral deficiencies, acidity, salinity, and poor by the excretion of animal waste are some of the things that are found in the natural environment.
• Demand for food increases as the world's population continues to grow.
• The quality of the soil is important.
• A major cause of global soil degradation is the need to manage the soil resources that are left over from harvests.

• Plants do not need soil to complete by energy-intensive processes, which is demonstrated by the successful cultivation of plants in soil-free hydroponic izers containing minerals that are either mined or prepared systems.
• These are usually their life cycles.
• Most plants grow in soil and are enriched in nitrogen, P, and K from the top of the hill.

• An understanding of the properties of soil is important for the sake of plants and their growth.
• The N-P-K ratio is discussed.
• The texture and composition of the soil are the basic physical properties of the soil.

• Coarse sand and organic material can be found in the soil.
• Plants can use organic material if it is silted to clay particles that are less than 2mm in diameter.
• The different-sized particles absorb.
• Water freezing in the crevices of minerals is the same as a plant extract.
• Weak acids in the soil release them gradually, whereas minerals in commercial break rocks down.
• The breakdown by chemical and mechanical soil occurs when organisms penetrate thefertilizer, but they may not be retained by rock.
• Means are a drawbacks of modern fertilization practices.
• Roots excrete acids that destroy the rock, that minerals not absorbed by roots are often taken from the ground, and that growth in fissures leads to mechanical fracturing.

• Mineral particles released by weathering become mixed with lake water and may lead to explosions of living organisms and humus.

• Air pockets can be found in the pores.
• Mineral availability is influenced by soil pH after a heavy rain.

• Depending on the soil's pH, a mineral may be bound spaces that retain water because water is attracted to too tightly to soil particles, or it may be in a chemical form that the negatively charged surfaces of clay and other soil particles.

• The release of mineral cations into the soil solution can be caused by the neutralizing of the negative charge of soil by loamy soils.

• Too much water is retained in K+ soils.

• Adding soil amendments can change the physical properties of soils.

• Figure 29.9 Cation exchange in soil shows the surface charges of soil particles.

• Negatively clumping the soil particles will allow for better gaseous charged ion, such as nitrate, to not bind to and retain water.
• The position of the roots affects the texture of the soil.
• They reduce erosion by binding the soil.

• Roots absorb mineral cations from the soil solution.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Plants have been portrayed as exploiters of the soil as the soil's organisms break down the organic matter.

• Plants and soil have a relationship.
• The variety of plants in Dead Topsoil provides a lot of the energy needed by soil organisms.
• 5 billion isms and sugar-rich secretions from living roots support a wide variety of soil microbes in the near- root environment.

• Plants' associations with many of these organisms affect the soil's physical and chemical composition.
• Earthworms, for example, consume organic matter and ships across kingdoms are not rare in nature, they derive their nutrition from the bacteria and fungi growing on ticular importance to plants.
• We'll look at some important mutualisms between plants and material on the soil surface.
• They move organic soil organisms as well as some unusual, nonmutualistic forms matter into deeper layers of the soil.
• Earthworms mix with plant nutrition.

• The ants don't eat the leaves that they carry back to their nest.

• Some fish make their own poison.
• Some ants don't eat leaves.

• Some amazing mutualisms, relationships between different species in which each species provides a substance or service that benefits the other, are the answers.
• Many mutualisms involve species from different kingdoms.

• The ants are tending a garden.
• The species of cyanobacterium is found in the lichen Peltigera.

• The mycelium of the fungus increases the surface area for water and minerals to be taken by the roots.

• Fugu is the Japanese name for a fish and some species of plants can be deadly.

• The ants that live within the plant's hollow thorns are lethal.

• The plant provides food for the ants in their organs.
• The poisonous parts must be removed by a specially trained chef.

• Some soilbacteria engage in beneficial chemical activities.
• Some produce chemicals that help plants grow.
• Others help the plant grow.
• Antibiotics that protect the roots of organic materials are produced by others.
• Other people absorb toxic metals or even live inside roots and convert nitrogen from the air.

• There are mutualisticbacteria that play roles in plant nutrition.

• The soil closely sur ria and the rhizosphere associated with each plant's roots are nonpathogenic and contain a unique and complex cocktail of root secretions andbacteria.
• A recent metagenomics study has shown that the com change their appearance.
• The rhizosphere and the endophyte positions ofbacterial communities are not the same.
• Up to 20% of a plant's production could be attributed to rhizosphere, which is a better un organic acids that are produced by the plant.

• Outside the rhizosphere soilbacteria are 34% similar.

• There is a need for a soilbacteria approach.

• The root system they were associated with was older.

• The 16S ribosomal RNA subunits were amplified with the help of the polymerase chain reaction from each sample.
• There were many variations in the sample.

• A tree diagram showing the percent ofbacterial "spe" that were found in each community was constructed using three variables.

No mineral nutrient is more limiting to plant into the atmosphere when denitrifyingbacteria convert NO3 to N2

• There is a triple form of nitrogen that plants can use.
• The molecule rives from the weathering of rocks when soil nitrogen bonds between the two nitrogen atoms.
• It produces almost nothing.
• Reducing small amounts of NO - 3 that get carried to the soil in rain is necessary for N2 to be of use to plants.

• The nitrogen available to plants comes from fixing organisms.

• Nitrogen is described as being endophytic.

• The organic form of nitrogen can be found when an animal expels waste or when an organisms dies.
• The structure of the hosts' roots is altered by the organic altering, as nitrogen is returned to Ammonium.

The multistep conversion of N2 to NH3 by nitrogen fixation are nitrogen-fixingbacteria that convert gaseous nitrogen (N2), which then picks up another H+ in the soil solution, forming NH + N2 + 8 e- +

• The complex nitrogenase is the driver of the reaction.

• In the case of the Rhizobiumbacteria, different types of nitrify cretions are involved.
• The NO - 3 is absorbed by the tissue of the roots.

• Ammonium is made available to plants by two different types of soilbacteria.
• Plants absorb most of the nitrate produced by the weathering of rocks and nitrifyingbacteria from the soil.
• Inside the plant, nitrate is reduced before being converted into organic compounds.

• The most important relationships are the intimate mutualistic associations of roots and fungi.
• The host plant has a steady supply of sugar.

• Minerals were absorbed from the soil.
• The growth factors and antibiotics produced by mycorrhizae help protect the plant from soil diseases.

• Most plants form mycorrhizae.
• Fossil evidence shows that mycorrhizae were an early adaptation that helped plants colonize the land.
• Figure 29.13 is about the earliest plants.
• The soil lacks organic matter and the rain probably washed away by the plant.

• Alone, neither the early land plants nor early land fungi were fully colonized by Rhizobium.
• The Rhizobiumbacteria assume that plants lack the ability to extract essential nutrients from a form cal ed, which are contained within vesicles the soil, while the fungi are unable to manufacture carbo formed in the root.
• Both groups erate more usable nitrogen for plants than industrial fertil of organisms were able to do.

• There is one type of mycorrhiza.
• The mass of branching hy nodules limit gas exchange.
• There are some root nodules over the root.
• A molecule cal ed leghemoglobin (leg- for hyphae extend from the mantle into the soil, greatly increas "legume"), an iron-ContainingProtein that bind reversibly to ing the surface area for water and mineral absorption is the reason for the

• The oxygen buffer is an oxygen "buffer" that reduces the concentration network within the extracellular spaces that facilitates nutriment of free oxygen.
• The majority of plant families have species ment for N2 fixation while regulating the oxygen supply for the that form ectomycorrhizae.

• Over 85% of plant species are associated with a particular strain of tomycorrhizae, and the Arbuscular mycorrhizae are more common than ec.
• The relationship between a crop and a legume.
• Unlike ectomycorrhizae, the nitrogen-fixing bacteria form a dense mantle ensheathing the root.

• Arbuscular mycorrhizal associations begin when the bacterium with the organic compounds is Microbial.

• A hypha grows certain species of soil fungi that form mutualistic relation into a tube formed by invagination of the root.

• The mycelium protects the root.

• Cortical cell forms around the root.

• The native plants have been penetrated in this way.
• Recent evidence suggests that the ability to slow the growth of little trees may be related to its ability to prevent the growth of arbuscular fer.
• Mustards are unusual in that they may serve as food forming mycorrhizal associations.

• Most plant species haveycorrhizal relationships with soil fungi or both.

• If you expose the roots to an overview of three unusual adaptations, they can formycorrhizal symbioses.

• The study of the rhizosphere is critical to understanding from the absence of fungal partners.

How do mycorrhizae and soilbacteria contribute to crop yield?

• A farmer finds that the leaves of his plant are turning due to a long period of wet ing ecological relationships.
• Exotic plants can weather.
• Give a reason why.

• phytes do not tap into their hosts for sustenance.
• Epiphytes absorb water and minerals from rain through leaves rather than roots.
• There are many orchids, including the vanilla plant.

• haustoria are projections that tap into the host plant and are found in many species.
• Some parasites, such as orange-colored, spaghetti-like dodder (genus Cuscuta), lack chlorophyll completely, whereas others, such as mistletoe (genus Phoradendron), are photosynthetic.

• Indian pipe (Monotropa uniflora) is one of the plants that absorb the mycorrhizae associated with other plants.

• Plants are able to supplement their mineral diet by capturing insects and small animals.
• soils are poor in nitrogen and other minerals where they live.
• Pitcher plants such as Nepenthes and Sarracenia have water-filled funnels that allow prey to slip and drown.
• Sundews have sticky fluid on their leaves.
• There is sweet mucilage that attracts and traps insects, and it is also released into the air.
• Smaller insects can escape, but larger insects are trapped.
• The trap narrows when the prey is in it.

• An average-sized tree, despite having no heart or muscle.
• On a warm, sunny day, the soil solution usually transports 800 L of water.
• We will accumulate essential minerals to concentrations hundreds of times greater than in the soil to answer this question.

• Although all living plant cells absorb water and minerals from the soil, they can't be moved to the rest of the plant until most of the water is absorbed.
• There are minerals there.
• In this region, the cortex's innermost layer is permeable to water and many are differentiated into root a last checkpoint for the passage of minerals into hairs.
• Water and minerals are transported from root hairs to the xylem through V Figure 29.16

• Access to the apoplast is provided by the uptake of soil solution by the root hairs.

• The hairs can enter the body.

• The cylinder moves inward via the symplast.

• The vascular cylinder is controlled by the endodermis.

• There is a belt of waxy material that blocks the passage of water living cells within the cylinder discharge water and dissolved minerals.
• Only the minerals that are already in the symplast and in the walls.
• The xylem pathway can take water and minerals by bulk around the Casparian strip and into the stele.

• Those minerals that reach the en xylem do not need to live in the skin.
• Researchers showed that leafy dodermis have a dead end that blocks stems with their lower end immersed in toxic solutions of copd.
• If the stem is cut below the surface of the liquid, this barrier will draw these poisons up.

• The water and minerals that are pas theless, the absorption of the toxic solutions and the loss of water that is moving through the apoplast can continue for weeks.

• It's almost universally cylinder.
• The mechanism that no minerals can reach the veins of the root with ascent of xylem is ensured by the endodermis, which has a Casparian strip.
• According to this hypothesis, transpira is crossing a barrier.
• The pull for the ascent of xylem is provided by the tion and the codermis prevents the solutes that have accumulated in the hesion of water from leaking back into the soil solution.

• The pas is normally under negative pressure in the last segment of the soil-to-xylem pathway.
• Our exploration of the rise of xylem elements can be traced back to the time when transpira had water and minerals in it.
• These water-conducting cel s lack pro sap by the cohesion-tension mechanism begins with the toplasts when they are mature and are part of the apoplast.

• There is a maze of internal air spaces that expose the mesophyll s to in this transfer of solutes from symplast to apoplast.
• Water and minerals are now free to enter the spaces because of the saturated air.
• The air outside the sel elements has a lower water potential than the air inside the shoot system.

• The loss of water and minerals from the soil is referred to as transpiration.

• The veins that branch throughout each leaf are affected by the negative pressure potential.
• As the xylem develops at the surface of the mesophyll cell, bulk flow is much faster than active wal s in the leaf.
• The cell wal is very thin.
• The transport of xylem can capil ary networks.
• Water can be found in the range of 15 to 45 m/hr for trees with wide vessel elements.

• Stems and leaves rely on this efficient delivery system for their water and minerals.
• The air-water interface retreats farther into the tallest trees, largely due to being pulled cell wal.

• The loss of potential in the water is involved in the process of transporting xylem.
• As the amount of water in the cell increases, so does the amount of water in the air-water interface.

• A single maize plant has 60 liters of water per day, which is equivalent to 170 12-ounce bottles during a growing season.

• A maize crop growing at a density of 60,000 plants ferred to the xylem has almost 4 million liters of water perhectare bound to the next by hydrogen bonds.
• Every growing season, about 400,000 gallons of water per acre pull depends on several of the properties of water discussed in per growing season.
• Unless the transpired water is replaced by Chapter 2.

• Plants may eventually die due to negative pressure potential.

• The water that was lost was replaced by a step.

• The air-water interface retreats farther into the cell wall when the water film is evaporates.
• The surface tension and transpiration are increased.

• Transpirational pull is caused by negative pressure at the air-water interface in the leaf.

• The mpa eventually diffuses out through the stomata.

• The transport of water by bulk tial gradient within the xylem is essentially a pressure gradient.

• The flow does not occur across the liv same substance because of the attractive force of cohesion.
• Water has a high cohesive force because it is within hollow, dead cells.

• The plant doesn't use any energy to lift xylem by bulk flow.

• The absorption of sunlight causes most transpiration to pull a column of xylem from above without causing water to evaporate from the moist wal s of the water molecule.
• Water molecule exiting the s and by lowering the water potential in the air spaces xylem in the leaf tug on adjacent water molecule, and this pull within a leaf.
• The solar powered ascent of xylem is like the process of is relayed, molecule by molecule, down the entire column of photosynthesis.

• A scientist adds a water-soluble inhibitor of photosynthesis to the roots of a transpiring plant.

• The chain is broken by the formation of a water vapor pocket.

• Large surface areas and high surface to common in wide vessel elements are what leaves general y have.

• Transport by cavitation is not always permanent.
• The leaf's internal surface area is shown in Figure 28.9.
• A layer of new may be 30 times greater than the external surface area.

• Large surface areas and high surface-to-volume xylem layers transport water.
• Final y, an active though minor ratios increase the rate of photosynthesis, they also increase force cal ed root pressure, which allows some small plants to re filtrate water loss.
• A plant has tremendous blocked vessel elements.

• In the long-distance transport of water from roots to leaves by balance the plant's requirement to conserve water with its re bulk flow, the movement of fluid is driven by a water potential quirement for photosynthesis.

• The bulk flow in the xylem is limited by the waxy cuticle.
• There are two ways behind each stoma.

• Stomatal density is a plastic feature of plants.
• Many species have increased density due to high light exposure and low CO2 lev els.

• Scientists have gained insight into the levels of atmospheric CO2 in the past.

• The turgid and flaccid states of guard cells of a angiosperm are illustrated.
• A similar survey was made in 1927.
• The observation orientation of the cell walls causes the guard, which is consistent with other findings that atmospheric CO cells increase in length when turgor increases.

• The 2 levels increased in the late 20th century.

• When turgid, the guard cells bow outward, causing the stomatal pore to open.

• The red dots represent the transport of K+.
• The turgor changes of K+ from neighboring cells are caused by the stomach open.
• The swelling of the guard cell is caused by the malate and chloride ion flow of K+ across the plasma membrane.

• The K+ is driven into the cell through the specific pumps in the guard cell's vacumm, in turn pro channels.
• The water potential is caused by the absorption of K+.

• As a result of a loss of K+, CO2 concentrations decrease during the day, which leads to an osmotic loss of water.
• If enough water is supplied to the leaf, aquaporins help open it.

• The guard's internal clock ensures that the daily rhythm of opening and closing continues.
• Most closed eukaryotic organisms have internal clocks that regulate night and day cycles, preventing the plant from losing water under certain conditions.
• When photosynthesis can't occur, there are cycles with intervals of 24 hours.
• Concept 31.2 shows at least three cues cal ed.

• The light stimulates guard s to accumulate K+ and the light signals guard s to close.
• This response was triggered by illumination.
• This response restricts the CO2 blue-light receptors in the guard ceo's body.

• Many desert plants take up more CO2 by keeping their stomata open.

• transpiration is the greatest conditions return if most stomata remain open.
• Longer-lived species have unusual physi on days that are sunny, warm, dry, and windy because of the ological or morphological changes that allow them to increase evaporation.
• If transpiration can survive the harsh desert conditions.
• Plants adapted to arid can't pull enough water to the leaves, and environments are cal ed from the Greek xero.
• Many xerophytes respond to mild drought stress by rapidly closing their stos and have highly reduced leaves that resist excessive mata, some of the water loss still occurs through the water loss, but they carry out photosynthesis mainly in their stems.

• Many xerophytes store irreversibly injured stems.

• The cooling prevents the leaf from reaching certain places in the family.

• The leaves have multiple layers of epidermal tissue that reduces water loss.
• The stonata of the United States are called "crypts" and are found in northern Mexico.
• It protects the stomata from leafless wind and reduces transpiration.
• The chamber of the crypt can have a higher water loss than the surrounding atmosphere if the year is broken by Trichomes.

• The upper epidermal tissue is visible.

• When the sieve tube is open, the stomata can remain closed.
• The solution that flows through sieve evaporative stresses is greater.

• The concentration of sugar may be as high as 30% by weight and can be syrupy.
• Water loss may be caused by the presence of pumps of plant cells.

• The transport of xylem sap pumps could lead to severe wilting.

• See Appendix A for suggested answers.

• If illuminated, mature leaves are sugar sources.
• In the summer, it is a sugar sink.

• Sugar is usually received from the nearest sugar sources when the water and minerals flow from the soil to the Sinks.

• The sugar source and sugar sink that are connected in the opposite direction are often used in the movement of photosynthates.
• The leaves may be carried to lower parts of the plant if they originate and end in different large amounts of sugars for energy and growth.

• Sieve-tube elements are found in angiosperms and move by symplastic and apoplastic pathways.
• sieve plates are structures that allow the flow of sap along thecel s elements, either directly or through the companioncel s.

• The blue arrows are caused by a chemiosmotic mechanism.
• In active transport of sucrose, it exits the symplast near sieve sieve-tube elements.
• The H+ tubes are generated by the pumps and travel through the apoplast.
• It's called gradient because it drives the accumulation of sucrose from the apoplast with the help of a cotransport protein.

• There are many ingrowths that enhance solute transfer between apoplast and symplast.

• Sucrose is unloaded from a sieve tube.

• The pressure is relieved and sugar diffuses from the phloem into the sink tissues.

• The phloem is moved through sieve tubes by bulk flow.

• Sinks have different energy demands and capacities C O N C E P T C H E C K 2 9.

• Plants have sugar sources and organs that are supported by sources.
• Sugar sinks and organs might be aborted by a plant.

• Water and minerals can be transported using dead cells.

• Apple growers in Japan sometimes make a nonle thal spiral slash around the bark of trees that will be removed better price than smal ones.
• The apples are sweeter.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• Plants that are smilng absorb nutrients from their host plants.
• Mineral movement of substances into and out of cells is supplemented by conjugate plants.
• Both active and nutrition by animals.

• The bulk flow oc of the roots crosses the root cortex and goes into the vessels of the xylem and the phloem.

• Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the most common deficiency.

• When transpiration is not replaced by oxygen and minerals in the soil, the soil particle size affects the availability of water.

• The major pathway for water loss from plants is the stonata.

• Topsoil is a complex system of cells and organisms.
• Guard cells take plants, animals, and protists.

• Plants support the rhizosphere's energy needs.

• Plants provide most of the organs' needs.

• The loading of phloem depends on active transport.

• Sucrose is cotransported with H+, which diffuses down a gradient that plants can absorb as a nitrogen source for organic synthesis.

• The plant is supplied with sugar and nitrogen by the bacteria.

• The hydrogen ion is part of the structure.

• The interior of a sieve tube is affected by acid precipitation.

• The gardener suspected that the soil near the walkway may be contaminated from the salt added to the walkway in winter.
• The composition of the soil near the walkway is the same as the one farther away except that it contains an additional 50 mM NaCl.
• The solute potential of the soil is affected by how much xylem is moved from roots to leaves.

• The pumping of water through aquaporins is dependent on S.

• Explain how the loss of solutes from the cell affects the movement of water in or out of the roots.

• A plant cell with a psS of -0.65MPa has a holdfast anchored to the ocean floor, blades that volume when bathed in a solution that has a psS of -0.30MPa float at the surface and collect light.

• There is a suggestion of a ps of -0.65 MPa.

• Every lower water potential has organisms in the soil.

• Two groups of tomatoes were grown in the laboratory, one with examples of how the mutualistic interactions of plants with bac humus added to the soil and the other a control without humus.

• You can enrich the soil by SYNTHESIZE it.
• The healthiest plants use the decomposing leaves of the humus for energy to make chlorophyll.

• Follow a symplastic route and an apoplastic route to get to the root.

• Explain the pathways and forces that would be needed to get you to the leaves of the trees.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• A denizen of the plants with water and mineral nutrients and vigorously the rain forests of southeast Asia, the large flesh of the animal protects them from encroaching competitors and diseases.
• Its energy predator is derived from it.
• The typical animal gets from tapping into a species of tropical vine that it parasitizes.

• Its mode of pol ination is also thieving.
• The plants are cal ed opening and the animals are humans.

• Plant breeders have genetically manipulated the genes of their eggs on the flower since the origins of crop domestication over 10,000 years ago.
• There are a few hundred wild angiosperm species that are surrounded by sticky pol en grains on the blowfly's bodies.
• We transform them into the crops we grow today.
• From the plant's gineering, genetic en pol en-coated blowflies fly away, hopeful, and increased the variety of ways and perspective to another Rhizanthes flower.

• In Chapter 26, we don't profit from interacting with the flower when we approach plant reproduction from an insect.
• There is an evolutionary perspective to tracing the descent of land plants to the flowers of Rhizanthes.
• angiosperms are the most carrion to die from.
• In this chapter, we'll explore the reproductive biology of the plants that are portant in agriculture and in most terrestrial, but with rewards of energy-rich nectar or pol.
• After talking about sexual and asexual issues.
• Both plant and pol inator benefit.
• We examine the role that people have with other organisms in domesticating crop species, as well as the role that people have with other organisms in the plant kingdom.
• In the last few years, in the area of modern plant biotechnology.

• There are two generations that produce each other in the life cycles of plants.
• The diploid plant produces haploid spores.

• The sporophyte is the dominant generation in angiosperms.
• Figure 30.2 shows the structure of an idealized flower over the course of seed plant evolution.

• The angosperm gametophytes have the most petals, stamens, or carpels.
• The key flowers lack petals.
• Some incomplete flowers are sterile, others are unisexual, and some have "three Fs"--f lowers, double fertilization, and fruits.

• The size, shape, color, odor, and time of opening of flowers vary.

• A daisy is composed of four types of floral organs, rescence consisting of a central disk composed of hundreds of petals.
• These organs look like incomplete whorls when viewed from tiny complete flowers.
• The ers look like white petals.
• The first and second whorls of the flower represent the first and second petals.

• The flowers of a plant species cease to grow after the flower and fruit are formed.

• The main advantage of sexual reproduction is the ability to outbreed.
• The flower is sterile.
• There is a switch in the shoot apical neck called t, which is at the base of the carpel.

• The number depends on the species and the transition into a floral meristem is triggered by a mor.
• Once the transition to flowering structure is complete, an ovary with two or more chambers, each has begun, the order of each organ's emergence from the flo containing one or more ovules.
• The term ral meristem can be used to refer to a single carpel or two or more fused petals.
• A compound pistil has been found in several organ identity genes.
• A stamen consists of a terminal structure called the within development of this floral organization and transcription factors that regulate the filament.
• The chambers cal ed microsporangia have genes that can cause abnormal floral development, such as produce pol en.
• The petals are more brightly colored than the stamens.

• Researchers have developed a Sepals, which protects the buds from the elements, to explain how three floral leaves look different than the other floral organs.

• There are four basic floral organs in complete flowers.
• The slightly simplified version of Figure 30.

• Pe the flowers.

• In the two middle whorls, C genes are switched on in the two inner whorls.

• The stamens and carpels have B and C genes active.

• The other takes its stamens and carpels if either A or C is missing.

• Several genes that cause abnormal flowers have been identified by researchers.

• Normal plants have carpels.

• The angiosperm life cycle is shown in Figure 30.5 The spore wal tophyte development, pol ination, double fertilization, and the twocels together constitute a.
• Seed development is a part of the spore wal.
• The development material produced by the microspore and the anther is examined.

• The pol en grain may be transferred to a receptive surface by protective tissues after the microsporangium breaks open.

• We will look at how pol en grain delivers sperm after pol ination.

• One or more ovules form deep within an anther to a stigma as a carpel develops.

• The pollen grain develops inside each ovule at the time of pollination.

• There are two long cellular protuberance that deliver sperm to the female integuments.
• A pollen tube can grow very quickly and surround each megaspo of 1 cm/hr or more.
• The pollen tube goes through the rangium, except at a gap cal ed micropyle.

• The len tube grows toward the micropyle as the megasporangium of each ovule leads the two sperm.
• The synergids produced only one megaspore cal attractants.
• The others are dead.

• The embryo sac can be accessed through the nucleus of the megaspore.
• Two sperm are dis eight haploid because of the three times without cytokinesis.

• The female gametophyte reaches the opposite end of sperm.
• The embryo sac has three antipods that are unknown function.

• The other sperm combine with the cal ed polar nuclei, which form a triploid nucleus in the center of the large central cell of the female gametophyte.
• The mature embryo sac contains a food-storing tissue of the eight nuclei.
• The embryo sac of the female gametophyte is cal ed if the sperm union with different nu is fertilized.

• Endosperm only develops in two surrounding integuments if there is double fertilization.

• Each ovule develops into a seed after fertilization.

• The seeds help in their dispersal by wind or animals.

• The swel ing cotyledons of the embryo are pending on the species.
• This is the reason why seeds are a major.
• The embryo develops into a new plant.
• The mature sporo stored in the seed's endosperm produces its own flowers and fruits.

• The pollen tube will be produced by anther.

• There is one detail that is not discussed in the preceding discussion.
• The question of how pol ination, on insects, birds, or other animal pol inators to transfer pol en, is accomplished is what most angiosperm species depend on.
• The answer is by the wind.

• A living pollinating agent can move pollen from the anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on another plant.
• 80% of all angiosperm pollination is biotic.
• 98% of pollinated species rely on wind and 2% on water.

• Since the reproductive success of wind-pollinated angiosperms does not depend on attracting pollinators, there has been no pressure to favor colorful or scented flowers.

• The flowers of wind-pollinated species are often small, green, and discreet.
• Most trees and grasses are pollinated.
• The flowers of hazel and many other trees appear in early spring when leaves are not present.

• The production of enormous numbers of pollen grains compensates for the inefficiency of wind pollination.

• More than half of flowering plants need insects for pol ination.
• There are bees, butterflies, flies, and beetles.
• There is concern that honeybee populations are in decline and that bees are the most important.
• The bees rely on the solution cal ed for food.
• The main function of the flower is to reward the pol inator.
• The bee-pol inated flowers have a sweet scent.
• The bees are attracted to bright colors.
• They can see ultraviolet radiation, but red appears dull to them.
• Human eyes can only see dandelions under ultraviolet light.

• Bat-pollinated flowers are light-colored and aromatic, Bird-pol inated flowers are usually attracting their nocturnal pollinators.
• The lesser long-nosed bat has a bright red or yellow color, but it doesn't have a smell.
• The high energy demands of pol inating birds are met by the help of necdotes.

• Mexico feeds the hummingbird with food and water.

• There are many species of flowering plants.
• The evolution of two interacting species in response to selection is cal ed.

• The failure of these plants to fertilize would render them less fit.
• Natural selection favors flowers with longer tubes.

• A zygote insect with a short procis would be at a disadvantage.

• Basal cell gins are formed after fertilization and pol ination.
• A mature embryo is surrounded by food and protective layers.

• The embryo usually develops before endosperm.

• The endosperm becomes solid when these "naked" cel s produce cell wals.

• The ovule becomes a mature seed and integuments by that time.
• The white fluffy part of popcorn is called endosperm.

• The embryo is pushed deeper into the nutri the food reserves of the endosperm are completely exported.
• The terminal cell divides to the cotyledons before the seed completes its development; several times and forms a spherical proembryo.

• The cotyledons form as bumps on the proembryo.
• Only one cotyledon develops.

• The embryo is split into two cells after the rudimentary cotyledons appear.
• The termi is long.
• The em nal cell is cradled between the two cotyledons.
• At the opposite end of the embryo's axis, the cell continues to divide, producing a thread of cells.

• The apical meristems at the apices of shoots and roots help in transferring nutrition to the embryo from the parent plant.

• The water content of the scutellum is only 5 to 15% of its weight.
• The scutellum, embryo, which is surrounded by a food supply, is pressed against the endosperm, which is the sperm, to stop it from growing.

• The embryo of a grass seed is enclosed in two protective supplies, one covering the young shoot and the other covering the integuments of the ovule.
• dormancy coleorhiza covers the young root in some species.
• Both structures aid are imposed by the presence of an intact seed coat.

• If you split 20 kilo for coco-de-Mer palms, you can see one type of eudicot seed.
• Orchid seeds don't open the seed of a garden bean.
• The embryo has food reserves and must bond with mycorrhizae before it can grow.
• The large endosperm-rich palm seeds are cotyledons.
• The embryo is cal ed from the beaches below where the two cotyledons are attached.

• The hypocotyl ends in the radicle.
• As soon as possible, seeds of some species.
• Young leaves and apical meristem should be in a suitable environment.
• Others are inactive and cal ed the plumule.

• The bean's cotyledons are packed and cause them to break down.

• The chance that a seed will be germinating at a time is increased by the requirement for specific cues.
• In desert plants, seeds of many castor beans can only be sown after a substantial endosperm and very thin cotyledons.
• If they were to grow after a light sprinkle, the soil would absorb some of the endosperm's nutrition and transfer it to the seedlings.

• The vegetation has been cleared after the fire.

• Cotyledons grow a long growth season before winter.

• The only way to break dormancy is if the cotyledons store food from the endosperm before burying it shallow.

• They are usually carried a long distance before Endospermminating from feces because they are fused by chemical attack.

• Depending on the plant species and the environment.
• A 2,000-year-old date palm seed recov cotyledon is the only viable plant in maize.
• The scutellum is a large cotyledon in maize and other grasses.
• The shoot is sheathed in a structure from Herod's palace in Israel.
• The coleoptile and coleorhiza cover the young root.

• Figure 30.8 Seed structure shows a bank of unger in the soil.

• When the environment is ripe for growth, the first true leaves are broken and seed is not dormancy.
• The leaves begin to grow and become green.

• Due to the low water potential of the dry seed, some monocots, such as maize and other grasses, use a water.
• Imbibi different method for breaking ground when they start to grow.
• The soil changes in the embryo allow the coleoptile to push up.
• The shoot tip grows through the tunnel lowing hydration, the storage materials provided by the coleoptile are broken through the coleop endosperm or cotyledons, and the nutrients are transferred to tile's tip.

• Most of the plant's resources are devoted to vegetative growth once a seed has started to photosynthesize.

• The emergence of the shoot tip growth is a precondition for the next step and arises from the activity of meristematic cells.
• The best way to grow beans is to grow as much as possible before the re and growth pushes the hook above ground.
• In the productive phase.

• The flowers of a given plant species appear at a specific time of the year.

• In Concept 31.2 you'll learn about hypocotyl day length and internal signals.

• The cotyledons are pulled from the soil before a seed can grow into a mature plant.

• Fruits are a key part of the process.
• A flower's mature ovary is called A.

• Foliage leaves help in the dispersal of seeds.

• Coleoptile to start its transformation into a fruit.

• Coleoptile pol inated fruit does not develop and the flower usu ally withers.
• The pericarp is the thickened wal of the fruit.

• The outer parts of the coleoptile stay straight up through the pit in maize and other grasses.

• An aggregate fruit develops from a single carpel and from many accessory fruit develops from many separate carpels of the same flower.

• A flower that has more than one carpel, or overt color, can change from green to red, orange, or yellow.
• As a small fruit, the fruit becomes sweeter.
• Fruitlets are clusters of organic acids and sugars that are converted to sugar on a single receptacle.
• A 20% concentration in a ripe fruit is possible.
• When the wal s of the many ovaries start to show more detail.

• You have learned about the key features of a pineapple in this section.

• We'll look at asexual reproduction.

• The recep C O N C E P T C H E C K 3 0 is in apple flowers.

• If flowers had shorter styles, pol en tubes would come from the enlarged receptacle.
• The straw is an example of why very long styles have evolved in most flowering berry, an aggregate fruit consisting of an enlarged receptacle plants.

• Sepals look like petals in some species.

• The ABC hypothesis states that a fruit's seeds can account for the origin of complete development if they are present at the right time.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Finding fertile ground is important to a plant's life.
• The seeds must be spread widely.

• Plants and abiotic agents can survive months or years at sea.

• In coconut, the seed embryo and white "meat" are within a hard layer of the endocarp.

• The fruit was carried farther by the winds.

• Some seeds and fruits are attached to an umbrella ground and fall like parachutes across the terrain, made of intricately scattering their hairs and often branched seeds.

• The dandelion seeds are carried aloft by the wind.

• The seeds are in the underground when thetacks are removed.
• The animal could have dispersed.

• The black ground nest where the food body is shown is where the seed is dispersed in ants.

• dispersal may be removed and fed to larvae.

• In dandelions and other plants there is a different mechanism of reproduction.

• This is asexual production of seeds from an exact copy of you.
• It would be Greek words meaning "away from the act of mixing" if this could happen.

• The result would be a clone, asexually produced and genetically identical to the dandelion, which matures into seeds.
• Sexual reproduction is common in angio.
• The advantage of seed dis is the main mode of reproduction for some plant species, and these plants clone them sperms, as well as in other plants.

• If lost parts are regenerated, this may be beneficial.
• Some plants of the same species can develop into whole offspring if pieces of them are visited by the same pol inator.
• Asexual reproduction of a potato with an "eye" allows the plant to pass on all of its genetic legacy intact to its whole plant.
• When a plant reproduces sexually, it passes plant parts that become whole plants, which is one of the only half of its alleles.
• The most common modes of asexual reproduction are if a plant is superbly suited.
• Asexual reproduction can be good.
• If the root environmental circumstances remain stable, the offspring system of a single parent, such as an aspen tree, can give rise to multiple shoots that are genetically well adapted to the same environment.

• 47,000 stems of genetically identical trees make up the progeny of one aspen clone in Utah.

• Asexual reproduction in plants is also known as offspring arise from mature vegetative fragments from the parent plant.
• In con trast, a plant's life is at risk.

• The tough seed can give rise to a fragile seedling that may be exposed to danger.
• Only a small percentage of the plants survive in the wild.
• Natural selection gives plenty of genetic variations to screen and the production of enormous numbers of seeds compensates for the odds against individual survival.
• This is an expensive way of reproduction because of the re sources consumed in flowering and fruiting.

• Sexual reproduction can be good in unstable environments because of the variation in off spring and populations.
• Survival and reproductive success can be affected by some conditions.
• Thousands of trees contrast, the genotypic uniformity of asexually produced that are the result of asexual reproduction, are found in aspen groves.
• Each grove of trees derives plants are at risk of extinction if there is a root system from one parent.
• The grove is a clone.
• Genetic differences between groves descended from different catastrophic environmental change result in different timing for the development of fall color.

• The dispersal of offspring to more distant lo cations is aided by the URRY2751_02_C30_FINAL.indd 630.
• When environmental conditions become more favorable, seed dormancy allows growth to be suspended.

• Data can be used to determine which species of monkey flower are mostly sexual reproducers.

• Sexual reproduction involving two genetically dif ferent plants has the benefit of producing the most genetically diverse offspring, but some plants, such as garden peas, self-fertilize.

• There is a pin flower in Figure 30.13a.
• An animal pol inator could transfer pol en from one part of its body to another, and vice versa.

• The most common anti-selfing mechanism in flowering is some floral adaptations that prevent self-fertilization.

• If a pol en grain lands on a stigma of a flower of the same or a that adhere to the pol en grain wal.
• An S1 closely related individual can't fertilise an egg because of a biochemical block, while an S2 closely related individual can.

• The tissue is attached to the pol en wal.
• Incompatibility was volved in self-incompatibility.
• The recognition of "self" involves a signal pathway that is based on genes for self-incompatibility.
• The stigma prevents the pol en grain from germinating.

• If a pol en grain has an allele that matches an al a crop plant to combine the best traits of the varieties and lele of the stigma on which it lands, either the pol en fails to counter the loss of vigor that can often result from excessive germinate or it germinates but Plant breeders don't allow the style to the ovary to obtain hybrid seeds.

• There are two types of self-incompatibility--gametophytic from the parent plants.
• Developing male-sterile plants is a gametophytic self-incompatibility.
• The blocking of fertiliza is more common with the latter option.
• It may be possible in the future.
• An S1 pol en grain from an S1S2 parent can impose self-incompatibility on crop species that can't fertilize eggs of an S1S2 flower.
• An S2 pol en grain can't fertilize either self-incompatibility.

• In a multicellular organisms, any cell that can divide can destroy its RNA.

• In sporophytic self-incompatibility, fertilization is blocked and can be found to a high degree in many plants.

• A correlation is a way to describe the relationship between two life spans, a plant captures only a finite amount of resources and variables.
• In a positive correlation, the values of one of the energy, which must be allocated to best meet the plant's individual variables increase, the values of the second variable also increase.

• The researchers looked at how five species of monkey flower increase and decrease the values of the second variable.

• Researchers can make a prediction about Done After growing specimen one variable based on what they know about the other variable.

• There is a version of the Scientific Skills Exercise that can be assigned.

• The quality of the fruit is determined by the genes of the scion.

• Natural reproduction occurs in many plants, but completes the functional unification of the grafted individuals.

• Whole plants can be obtained.
• At the end of the shoot, a mass of smal pieces of tissue from the parent plant are culturing on an artificial medium.
• The roots come from the cal us.
• adventitious roots form without a callus stage if the shoot fragment includes tissues from any part of a plant.

• A twig or bud from a plant is joined to a medium.
• It is possible to combine the best concentrations of hormones and nutrients by manipulating ties of different species into a single plant.
• The twig differentiated cells are the root system of the plant and can be seen in Figure 30.14b and c. The stock is referred to as the if desired.
• Let's can be transferred to soil, where they continue their scions from French vines that produce superior growth.
• A single plant can be cloned into thousands of geneti wine grapes, which can be grown on American rootstocks.

• Since the dawn of agriculture, people have been involved in the reproduction and genetic makeup of plants.
• The existence of maize is due to humans.
• The simple rea son that maize cannot spread will soon make it extinct.

• The attributes arose from a laboratory cloning of a garlic plant.

• Despite not knowing what undifferentiated cells are.
• The early plantlet of most of our crop species is dependent on the levels of hormones in the artificial medium, as well as the levels of vitamins and minerals, and can be seen in the cultures grown for farmers.

• Plants tissue culture is important in eliminating weakly lection.
• We rely on the wheat species for a lot of the viruses.

• Plants yield or quality may be substantially reduced as a result of hybridization and has long been exploited by breeders to introduce genetic infections.
• Artificial selection and crop improvement can affect strawberry plants.

• The distribution of viruses in a plant is not uniform, and the art and science of changing the cal meristems' characteristics are sometimes virus-free.
• In order to produce desired characteristics, apical plants are used.
• It is possible to excise meristems and use them to travel far and wide for tissue culture.

• Most techniques for the introduction of foreign genes are too slow and un plants require small pieces of plant tissue or single plant cells reliable to produce all the changes that the breeders want.
• It is possible to study with test-tube culture.
• Some people treat to regenerate GM plants from a single large batches of seeds or seedlings with radiation or chemicals.

• In the next section, we'll take a closer look at some of the promises and chal enges surrounding the use of GM plants in agriculture.

• The world's most popular fruit, the seedless banana, is losing its fight against two epidemics.

• Self-fertilization, or selfing, seems to have obvious disadvan tages as a reproductive strategy in nature.

• Modern maize was derived from teosinte.
• About 20% of angiosperm species rely on self kernels, and each row has a husk that must be removed to get at the kernels.
• At maturity, the seeds are loose.
• Suggesting a reason why selfing might be beneficial made harvesting difficult for early farmers.
• Farmers are an evolutionary dead end.

• A desirable trait in traditional plant breeding is hunger.
• The dire poor cannot afford a domesticated variety and food shortages arise from the fact that the wild species is crossed with in distribution.
• Those offspring have food.
• Food shortages are seen as evidence that the world's population has exceeded the capacity of the planet to grow food.
• The social and demographic causes of malnutrition are expressed by the offspring of members of the domesticated food production.
• Land and species were examined for their desired trait.
• The best option is to process until the progeny with the desired wild increase yields on already existing farmland.
• There is a trait similar to the original domesticated parent in their other little "extra" land that can be farmed.

• While most breeders cross-pol inate plants of a single conservative estimate of population growth, some breeding methods rely on hybridization between two to produce 40% more grain perhectare to feed the human distant species of the same genera.
• Population can sometimes result from such crosses.
• These can be made in the abortion of the hybrid seed.

• Commercial use of genetically modified crops has not been done well.
• The most dramatic examples of rapid technology adoption in culturing hybrid embryos are when they are removed from the ovule.

• There are two meanings to these "transgenes".
• It is toxic to insect pests.
• The use of such plant refers to innovations in the use of plants.
• Bt toxin is produced in the plant as a harmless that began in prehistory.
• The use of GM organisms in agriculture and industry is referred to as biotechnology protoxin that only becomes toxic if activated by alkaline condi.

• The term genetic engineering and bio farm animals is rendered harmless by denaturation because they have become highly acidic stomachs.

• Modern plant biotechnolo crops are tolerant of certain herbicides.
• The transfer of genes between closely related species or Gen farmers can be done using techniques of genetic engineering, which may reduce production costs.
• Traditional breeding techniques could not be done with the use of daffodil because it can cause soil erosion.
• Researchers are engineering plants with enhanced resistance to disease.
• There is a case where a common ancestor is extinct.
• If the papaya that is resistant to a ring spot virus was introduced into intermediate species, it would save the industry.

• The quality of plants is being improved.

• It is possible to transfer genes to children who go blind because of deficiency of vitamins A and C. Within a year of becoming blind, children die.
• Genetic engineers created "Golden Rice" to express a gene from another species in order to describe organisms that have been this crisis.

• In the remainder of the chapter, we will look at the prospects of producing grain with increased levels of beta-carotene, as well as the controversy surrounding the use of GM crops.
• This genetically modified rice, named advocates of plant biotechnology contend that the genetic en for its yellow color from the beta-carotene is still undergoing gineering of crop plants is the key to overcoming some of the testing.
• One of the most pressing problems of the 21st century is world ing, and one of the targets for improvement is the staple food of 800 million people on hunger and fossil fuel dependency.

• Half of the fossil fuels that are inexpensive are quickly being used up, with 40,000 dying each day of malnutrition.
• Climatologists attribute children.

• For 800 million of the world's poor, root crop is the primary food, but it does not provide a balanced diet because of the use of agricultural technology.

• The trial is to remove chemicals that release cyanide, a toxin, if it must be processed drug trial.
• The transgenic stopped.
• We may not be able to stop the trial of plants with novel organisms.
• We looked at increased levels of iron in the proposed negative consequences of using GM.
• The potential for transgene escape is one of the effects researchers have on crops.

• Opponents of genetically modified organisms worry that genetic engineering may inadvertently transfer allergens, molecule to which some people are al ergic, from a species that produces an allergy to coal and oil, and the resulting release of the green plant used for food.
• Gas CO2 is already en house.
• There is no evidence that GM plants specifically designed for human consumption are viable, but alternative energy sources are not likely to have adverse effects on human health.
• Some GM foods don't fil the global energy demands at all.
• Scientists are more likely to be healthier than non- GM foods.
• The Bt maize variety with the Bt toxin could produce a sizable fraction of the world's energy needs if it were not for cancer and birth defects.
• Cal ed fumonisin is a toxin that can be found in a group of organisms.
• The use of sistant to degradation would reduce the net emission concentrations in some batches of maize products.
• Burning fossil fuels increases the atmosphere.
• Fumonisin is produced by a CO2 concentration and can be used as a fuel.
• A cycle Bt maize general y suffers less insect damage than non- GM that is carbon neutral because of the CO2 emitted when fuels are burned.

• Because of health concerns, scientists are focusing their domestication efforts on fast lobbying for the clear labeling of all foods containing products of growing plants, such as switchgrass.
• Some argue for strict regulations against the mix poplar (Populus trichocarpa) that can grow on soil that is too ing of GM foods with non- GM foods during food transport.
• Scientists don't think about the storage and processing of plants.
• The advocates ofbiomass being burned directly.
• When the most abundant organic compounds on Earth were put on the market, similar demands were not made.
• Some commercial y can be broken down into sugars.
• These sug grown varieties of wheat derived by traditional plant-breeding ars would be fermented into alcohol, which would be techniques that contain entire chromosomes.
• Increasing plant poly of genes is also done from rye.

• Ecologists are concerned about the growing of GM crops.

• There is a lot of debate about GM organisms in agri milkweed leaves that is political, social, economic, or ethical.
• This study is not included in the scope of the book.
• The discredited bio is an example of self-correcting logical concerns about GM crops.

• The microspo event in the laboratory appears to be minor, but that may not be the case with rangia, and other floral parts also rained onto.

• It is not possible to prevent transgene escape.
• If male steril were to be engineered into plants, the floral parts would not be carried by the wind by way of neighboring milkweed plants.
• Only one Bt maize line, accounting for less than 2% plants, would produce no viable pol en.
• A second approach to Bt maize production involves genetically engineering apo mixis into pol en with high Bt toxin concentrations.

• Bt pol en has negative effects on monarch embryo and endosperm.
• The butterflies have to consider the effects of an alternative to transfer of this trait to crops that are not Bt maize.
• Plants could be male-sterile without compromising seed or spraying, which is more harmful to nearby monarch fruit production.
• Bt maize production is one approach to engineer the transgene populations.
• The controversy centered on the need for accurate genes in the chloroplast to not be transferred by pol en because Chloroplast DNA in Bt maize appears to be many plant species is inherited strictly from the egg.
• A field testing of all GM crops and the importance of targeting the fourth approach for preventing transgene escape is necessary to improve safety.

• Modifications to flower design is the most serious concern about GM crops.
• Several floral genes have the chance of escaping from a trans and being manipulated to do so.

• One of the recurring ideas in the textbook is the relationship between a crop engineered for resistance and a wild relative of science and technology to society.
• There is a chance that technological advances will lead to a "superweed" that is almost always involve some risk.
• In advantage over other weeds in the wild, zero risk is probably impossible.
• The field is more difficult to control.
• The public and scientists must assess on a case-by-case basis the likelihood of transgene escape depending on the ability of the product to be hybridized and the risks to society.
• The best scenario would affect the fitness of the hybrid.
• A desirable crop trait is discussions and decisions to be based on sound scientific a dwarf phenotype, for example, rather than on reflexive fear to a weed growing in the wild.
• There is no optimism in other instances.

• C O N C E P T C H E C K 3 0 are some of the crops that can be hybridized.

• In 2003 there was a variety of creeping bentgrass.

• In a few species, genes from sperm are the only ones that can be passed on.
• This could affect efforts to prevent a windstorm.

• For suggested answers, see Appendix A.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area with activities.

• Sexual reproduction can be accomplished by flowers, produced by hybridization of different varieties and even species of plants.

• Corporated into plants.

• Give three examples of genetic engineering to improve food quality.

• The carpel broke often.

• That changes when there is double fertilization.

• Evolutionary adaptation is possible because most of the genetic varia has a modified genome.

• Some dioecious species have the XY genotype for males and the XX for females.

• Some plant species are bird-pollinated.

• The implications for evolution of smaller reproductive strategies differ between wind-pollinated and animal-pollinated plants.

• In a short essay, talk about how they don't have to attract animal pollinators.

• Draw a flower and label it.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• Critics of GM foods argue that foreign genes can cause harmful substances to appear inside cells.
• New substances may appear or toxic substances may arise in larger amounts.
• Substances that help maintain normal metabolism may be lost due to the disrup tion.

• Plants emit volatile emissions from their leaves.

• While the other photo tion and signal transduction are not as impressive as those of a plant, the similarities far outweigh the differences.
• As an animal, your responses to creeping stimuli are quite different from those of plants.

• If Boquila happens, plants respond by changing hosts in the altering of their growth and development.

• Plants vines do not differ from vines climbing on leafless when it comes to adjusting to changes in time.
• Boquila might sense the leaves of a temporal variable that plants need to measure the host plant and modify its appearance accordingly, according to the passage of seasons.
• The to win.
• The apparent advantage of this behavior is that leaves that have internal chemicals that regulate plant growth and mimic their hosts are less susceptible to damage development; then we'll explore how plants perceive and re by feeding animals.

• The cells on the darker side are longer than the cells on the brighter side.

• A grass seed that was bound to a specificreceptor and triggered responses in the target Figure 30.9b could only bend toward light if the tip of the cocel was turned.
• hormones and transported leoptile are normal in animals.
• The coleoptile did through the circulatory system if the tip was removed.
• If the definitions of the term were correct, the seedling failed to grow.
• The hormone tip was covered with an opaque cap, but neither a transparent concept, which originated from studies of animals, is too lim cap over the tip.
• The optile tip prevented the phototropic response.
• It was the tip of plants that did not have circulating blood that was responsible for signaling.
• There are some signaling molecule that sense light.
• The differential growth are considered plant hormones.
• There was a response that led to the curve of the coleoptile.
• Some concentrations hundreds of thousands of times greater than signal were transmitted downward from the tip to the elongat.
• They are transported to the coleoptile.
• A few decades later, Peter Boysen-Jensen demonstrated that the signal from the Danes could change the functioning of plants in a way similar to a mobile chemical substance.
• The tip was separated from the hormone.
• Many plant biologists prefer the broader mainder of the coleoptile, which prevented term plant growth regulators from describing organic compounds.
• These whether natural or synthetic, that modify or control one or seedlings, bent toward the light.
• If the tip was separated from the lower coleop, the terms plant hormone and plant growth regulator are used tile by an impermeable barrier, but for historical continuity we will use the term phototropic response occurred.

• A cube of agar can have a profound effect on a small amount of hormone, which was removed from the coleoptile tip.
• The agar block should be able to sub degree because it should diffuse growth and development into the agar.
• Depending on the stitute for the coleoptile tip, each hormone has different effects.
• The agar blocks were placed on the site of action and the developmental stage was kept in the dark.
• The stem to grow single process was caused by multiple hormones being centered on top of the coleoptile.
• It's not always straight up when it comes to response to a hormone.
• The coleoptile began to bend away from the side with the centration compared with other hormones when the block was placed offcen much on the amount of that hormone as on its relative con ter.
• It is often the in agar block that is growing.
• The agar block contained a chemical that control growth and development, not hormones.

• The interactions become apparent when the coleoptile curves toward a light survey of hormone function.

• Greek auxein, to increase.

• The chemical structure of the chemical messengers in plants was determined after a series of experiments on how stems respond to light.

• These experiments support the shoots of the plant.
• Any growth response idea that an asymmetric distribution of auxin moving down that results in plant organs curving toward or away from the coleoptile tip is calle.

• Frits Went's experiment identified how a covered part of grass coleoptiles can sense a growth-promoting chemical and grow toward light.
• In 1913, Peter Boysen-Jensen separated coleoptiles.
• He put coleoptiles in the dark and put ferent materials on agar cubes to see how the signal for phototropism would affect them.

• He placed a cube on a coleoptile that lacked the chemical.

• If the chemical was distributed evenly, the coleoptile grew straight.
• Even though it was grown in the dark, the coleoptile curved away from the side with the cube if the chemical was distributed differently.

• He named the chemical auxin because of the phototropic bending.

• The performance of phototropic stimuli on masteringBiology was discussed by P. Boysen-Jensen.

• Triiodobenzoic acid has an effect on auxin transport.

• The search for other out of the cell was stimulated by the discovery of auxin.
• The auxin can enter the plant hormones.
• Table 31.1 shows some major classes of neighboring cell.
• The effects of auxin include stimulating cell elongation and regulating plant steroids.

• The major natural is binding to a receptor.

• It only moves from tip to base.

• The acid growth hypothesis is supported by a model.
• Experiments show that auxin travels upward when a stem or cole is used to transport it.
• The optile segment is placed upside down in a shoot.
• The pumping of auxin movement is caused by the polar distribution of H+.

• Shoot apical meristems and young leaves are the primary Stimulates stem elongation sites.
• Although the root depends on the shoot for much of the development of fruit, it enhances apical dominance.
• Developing seeds and fruits have high levels of functions in phototropism and gravitropism, but it is unclear whether it is newly synthesized or cular differentiation.

• Regulate cell division in shoots and roots, modify apical other organs, and promote move duction as well as being created primarily in roots.

• The primary sites of production are the stems of apical buds and roots.

• Promote cell expansion and cell division in shoots and different intermediates in different organs are present in all plant tissues.

• The brassinosteroids act near the site of high concentrations and promote xylem differentiation.

• The Promotes ripening of many types of fruit can be done by most parts of the plant.
• It's produced in high concentrations during se and the triple response in seedlings, which include the inhibition of stem nescence, leaf Abscission, and the ripening of some types of elongation.
• Synthesis is stimulated by wounding and stress.

• Increasing the voltage experiment was designed to investigate how auxin is transported across the membranes and how it affects ion absorption into the tionally.
• They used a tool.
• The greenish yellow fluorescent molecule is able to be labeled because of increased turgor and increased wal plasticity.

• The light micrograph on the left shows that auxin transport proteins are only found in the xylem minutes.
• There are some short-lived transcription parenchyma.
• The light micrograph on the right shows a higher magnifi factors that regulate the expression of genes.
• Cells must make more cytoplasm and ends of the cells for sustained growth cation.

• This sustained growth response is stimulated by Auxin.

• Cell 2 of auxin is a central element that controls the spatial formation of the developing plant.

• There are new branches that are needed.

• The branch begins to grow after being released from dormancy.

• A leading model suggests that auxin is transported in the polar transport of auxin.

• Cell wall-loosening enzymes are activated by low pH and allow separate cellulose microfibrils to slide.
• The cell wall's cross-linking extensibility is increased.

• The cell expands when the Turgor is present.

• The cell can be loosened.

• The primary source buds grow from the apical bud.
• If auxin levels increase, the inhibition of axil ary buds is removed.

• Many commercial applications can be found if leaves are dipped in a cytoki.
• One example is spraying nin solution, they stay green for a long time.

• Farmers in Asia noticed rice seeds in the early 1900s.
• Tomatoes grown in the greenhouse have fewer lings in their paddies and therefore are often malformed unless more auxin is added before they could mature.
• By the 1930s, it was found that the fungus causes gation of plants.
• The name was given to a chemical used to treat rice stems that cause adventitious roots.
• Researchers formed near the cut surface.
• The use of determined that plants also produce gibberel ins is another example.
• Scientists have identified more than 100 different types of herbicide since the synthetic auxin 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was created.
• It eliminates weeds.

• The major sites of gibberel were discovered.
• Young roots and leaves were found.
• It is known that gibberel ins can induce cultured tobacco to divide by stimulating stem and leaf growth.
• The active ingredients turned out.
• One hypothesis suggests that they are modified forms of adenine, a component of nucleic acids.

• gibberel ins act in concert with auxin to cause cell division.

• The effects of gibberel on stem elongation in maize.
• When dwarf varieties of plants are apical dominance, and aging, the influence of cytokinins can be seen.

• Some dwarf pea plants can grow tal if treated with gibberel ins.
• If the gibberel ins are applied to wild-type plants, there is a chance of cykinins.
• Ap are produced in actively growing tissues, particularly in roots, parently, these plants already produce an optimal dose of the embryo and fruits.
• The hormones produced in roots reach their hormones.
• The most dramatic example of gibberel inducing target tissues is moving up the plant.
• Act stem growth is bolting, rapid growth of the floral stalks in concert with auxin and cytokinins.

• Both auxin and gibberel ins can function in an intact plant.
• When there is fruit to develop.
• The most important piece of parenchyma tissue from a stem is cultured in the application of gibberel ins and grows very large but does not divide.

• Adding auxin along with cytokinins will result in a divide.

• The gibberel Cytokinins have no effect.
• The internodes of the grape bunch are made longer by the ratio of cytokinins to lin sprays.
• When there is more space for the individual grapes.
• The increase in space between the grapes makes it harder for yeasts and other organisms to get to the fruit.

• Light-grown plants can be grown in the dark.

• The researchers discovered that the normal y codes for an enzyme that is involved in steroid synthesis in mammals.
• They were able to restore the wild type phenotype by applying brassinosteroids.

• The chemical vine was studied in the 1960s.

• During fruit development, some plants develop.

• As the plant switches to reproductive growth, a surge stimulates hormones that cause bolting: gibberellins, gibberel ins, and brassinosteroids.
• The actions of growth hor elevating floral buds that develop at stem tips are antagonized by ABA.

The effects of gibberellins on fruit and stem growth are shown in Figure 31.6

• The embryo of a seed is a rich source of gibber seeds.
• The release of gibberel ins from light, temperature, and humidity signals the seed to break dormancy and grow.

• The gibberellin stimulates the synthesis and absorption of GA by the growth embryo, which in turn causes the scutell to hydrolyze.
• cotyledon are consumed a-amylase which hydrolyzes during growth.

• Steroids of the radicle were not auxins.

• Early questions are called ABA.
• The levels of ABA may increase.

• When the radicle of the dart-like seedling is released, it causes the production of soft muds in which the teins that help the seeds survive the extreme dehydration of the mangroves.

• There are many types of seeds that grow when ABA is re moved.
• The seeds of some desert plants break when ABA is washed out.

• Light or cold exposure to other seeds can inactivate ABA.
• Adding ABA to seeds that are primed to grow makes them dormant again.
• There is a chance that low levels of ABA or ABA sensitiv ity can lead to early germination.

• The young mangrove seeds are able to grow like darts in the soft mud below the parent tree due to the precocious germination of red mangrove seeds.

• ABA is involved in drought sig naling.
• Precocious growth in this maize is caused by lack of leaves, which causes the stomata to close rapidly, reducing transpira of a functional transcription tion and preventing further water loss.
• The second factor is required for ABA action.

• Imagine a pea water shortage that causes the root system to be stressed before the shoot sys seedling pushes upward through the soil, and ABA is transported from roots to leaves.

• During the 1800s, when coal gas was used as fuel for the street, there were three parts of the response.
• The stem was caused by demon curvature in 1901.
• It was the active factor in coal gas.
• The idea that the effects of the initial ethylene pulse diminish was not widely accepted until the vertical growth of the plant.
• If it contacts a barrier again, another burst of advent of a technique called cal ed gas chromatography simplified its ethylene, and horizontal growth will resume.

• The stem infections are caused by ethylene.
• During fruit ripening and to grow horizontal rather than the physical obstruction, ethylene is also produced and programmed to die when high concentrations are applied to normal seedlings.
• Many effects that used to be physical impediments now undergo the triple response.

• The response to mechanical transduction pathway is an example of how biologists identify a signal on four of ethylene's many effects.
• The scientists isolated stress, leaf, and fruit ripening.

• The programmed death cal ed apoptosis is a busy time in a cell's life, requiring new genes.
• Newly formedidases break down many chemical components during the process of apoptosis.
• Many of the breakdown products are salvaged by the plant.
• A burst of ethylene is associated with a decrease in the number of cells in the body.

• Desiccation can be prevented when the availability of water to the roots is limited.
• Stem parenchyma cells are used to store essential elements salvaged from dying leaves.
• The leaf color is due to the triple response in the triple response as well as yellow and orange carotenoids and the presence of ethylene.

• The leaf detaches from the stem at the base of the petiole exposure to ethylene.
• The smal parenchyma cel s of this layer have tants that are sensitive to ethylene because they lack a functional very thin wal s. When there are no hydrolyze polysaccharides in the air, the abscission layer is weakened.
• The wind helps to cause a separation within the defect that causes them to produce 20 times the amount of ethylene as the abscission layer.
• Pre (eto) mutants can be restored to wild-type by treating the pathogens that cause the protective scar on the twig side of the abscission layer.

• The triple response in air does not correspond to the triple response in synthesis.
• Even though ethylene is not present, the signal transduction is turned on.

• The normal kinase product of the wild-type al Ele is thought to be a negative regulator of ethylene signal transduction.
• The binding of the hormone ethylene to the normal y leads to the inactivation of the kinase, and the inactivation of the negative regulator, which is required for the triple response.

• An annual dies after flowering.
• Consider the Abscission of a maple leaf.
• Abscission is the final step in the process of differentiating a vessel element.
• In this longitudinal section, a vertical band at the base of contents is destroyed, leaving a hol ow tube behind.
• After the leaf falls, a protective layer of cork becomes the events that involve the programmed death of certain leaf scar that helps prevent pathogens from invading the plant.

• Consider a sprout that is more sensitive to ethylene as an example of photomorphogenesis.
• The altered underground stem has an influence on the abscission layer and has sprouted shoots from its "eyes".

• Immature fruit are hard and short.
• The features that help protect the developing seeds in darkness make sense from herbivores.
• Many counter darkness underground.

• Expanding leaves would be a ripening process.
• As the shoots of the fruit and the conversion of starches push through the soil, the breakdown of the enzymatic breakdown would be damaged.
• The fruit is sweet because the leaves are unexpanded.
• The production of new and underground, there is little loss of water and smells and colors, which helps advertise ripeness to animals, and little requirement for an extensive root system to replace the eat the fruits and distribute the seeds.

• When ripening, green chlorophyl would be wasted because there would be more ethylene production.
• There is no light for photosynthesis.
• A potato plant growing result is a huge burst in production.
• The signal to ripen spreads from fruit to fruit when ethylene is in the dark.
• If you pick its stems.
• You may be able to speed up ripening by storing the tuber before it runs out of food.

• When a shoot reaches light, the plant undergoes profound mercial scale, many kinds of fruits are ripened in huge storage changes.
• In other cases.
• Fruit producers take measures to slow ripening caused by natu and the shoot produces chlorophyll.
• It begins to re ral.
• Apples are stored in bins with semble a typical plant.
• Light signals initi carbon dioxide.
• As in signal transduction mulating and carbon dioxide blocking the synthesis of new ethylene.

• Light signals can be detected by plants in grocery stores.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The reception of need for water absorption light by a specific pigment of plants is an important environmental factor in the lives roots are short.
• Light is needed because little water is lost.

• Plants can measure the passage of days and seasons through light reception.

• There are two major classes of photoreceptors in tra that are useful in studying any process that depends on light and plants.
• By looking at action toreceptors that absorb red light.

• The blue light causes a variety of responses in plants, with a close correspondence for a given pig ing phototropism.
• When a seedling breaks ground, action elongation occurs.

• From the Greek kryptos, hidden and chrom, pigment, is a .

• Plants use different types of pigments to detect blue light.
• When a seedling first emerges from the soil, the blue-light fectiveness 0.6 is caused by the inhibition of stem elongation by the cytochromes.

• The Darwins studied phototropic curvatures.

• Plants respond to light in many ways, including seed germination and shade avoidance.

• The action spectrum shows that only blue and violet light causes curvature.

• There were studies of seed ger mination.
• Many types of seeds, including small ones, only grow when the light environment and other conditions are optimal.
• Light conditions can cause such seeds to remain inactive for a long time.

• A shaded tree or field plowing may create a light environment.

• The researchers counted the number of seeds that had sprouted under each light regimen.

• When coleoptiles are exposed to light.
• A flash of red light followed by a flash of blue light causes the most curvature when violet light causes slight curvature toward the lettuce seeds.

• The action spectrum for blue-light-stimulated effects of red and far-red light are reversed after the last flash of light.

• The effects of violet and blue light are different.

• Enzymatic control seeds were not exposed to light.

• The absorption of red light causes the change.

• Groups of seeds that were exposed to far-red light were the last to be destroyed.

• When red- illuminated seeds are exposed to red light, Pfr is reversed back to its original position.

• The conversion to Pfr takes less time than the conversion toPr.
• The production and accumulate of Pfr will cause seeds to grow.

• The plant is provided with information about the quality of light.
• The forms show the relative amounts of red and far-red light.

• Plants are able to adapt to changes in red light conditions.
• Consider the "shade avoidance" as an example.
• The final light exposure is the most important part of the tree's response to light.

• The effects of red and far-red light are not permanent.

• The leaves of the canopy absorb red light and allow far red light.
• If the seeds had been placed in white light instead of the dark after the red and far-red light treatments, the red light would pass through.

• Direct sunlight increases the proportion of Pfr, which stimulates branching.

• Helping plants detect light is one of the things that phytochrome does.
• Plants keep track of the days and seasons.
• The nature of the plant's internal clock must be looked at first before we can decide between two forms.

• A daily oscil ation is required for thisPr - Pfr interconversion.
• Changes in light levels of the plant are some of the mechanisms that control light-induced events in the life cycle.
• Pfr is the form of phytochrome that causes many and temperature changes in a plant.

• The underlying clockwork continues to tick even though we can interfere with it.

• The transcription of certain genes is one of the main mechanisms underlying the rhythms.
• After a time delay, some clock genes may code transcription factors that suppress the expression of the transcription factor itself.

• There is enough time to produce oscillations at 10:00 PM.

• The free-running period of the bean leaf movements is 26 hours.
• Consider placing a bean plant in a dark cabinet for 72 hours.
• Even under artificial y constant, plants would not rise again until 4 hours after natural dawn on the third day, and the production of photo would not start until 2 hours after natural dawn on the second day.
• Shut off from the environment, the plant becomes synthetic and continues to eat.
• It happens to humans in about 24 hours.
• When we fly across time zones, we lower our leaves in the evening and raise them in the morning.

• Even if the plant has a clock, it continues to sleep.
• Most organisms are prone to jet lag.

• The biological clock is conditioned to respond to sunrise and sunset.
• It is light to have a cycle with a 24 hours a day.
• Our understanding of how phytochromes and blue-light frequencies can affect the rhythms of plants is more com (from the Latin circa).

• The idea of the "gears" and off by means of the Pfr switch is supported by recent research.

• Organisms continue their rhythms even after being pool because of the turnover in the overal plant and people.
• The Pfr is destroyed more by the Pfr than it is by the Pfr.
• Daily sundown gradually converts to pr.
• The Pfr level clock can be set to a period of 24 hours in darkness.

• The biological clock can be reset by keeping the organisms in a constant environment, as long as they stay in Pfr each day at dawn.

• Plants can measure the passage of night and the particular rhythm of the day with the help of the logical clock.
• The bean plants have a period of 26 hours when the year is over, except at the equator.
• The plants are kept in the free-running condition of constant change to adjust their activities in line with the seasons.

• 24 hours doesn't mean biological clocks drift.

• If a plant is not synchronized with the outside world, it will produce flowers.
• We need to remove leaves in the middle of winter to understand if the pol inators were present or not.
• The life cycles of most plants are dependent on seasonal events between the clock and the rhythm of the process.
• The leaves of the bean plant in Figure 31.15 are the clock's "hands" but are not the essence of the clock's stages that occur at specific times of the year.

• 24 hours flowering is a response to photoperiod.

• An early clue to how plants detect seasons came from a mu, a dark tant variety of tobacco.
• The dark period was interrupted by a flash of light.
• It bloomed in a prevent.

• The shortening days of winter stimulated this variety to grow.

• If the night is shorter than a critical dark period, flowers will only be available.
• It apparently required a light period that was shorter than the flash of light.
• Some soybean varieties are also short-day plants and can cause flowering if they interrupt a long dark night.

• In the 1940s, researchers discovered that by a flash of far-red light, the plant does not bloom and other responses to photoperiod are actual.
• The night plant that flowers only when days are 16 hours or shorter is a hallmark of the scientists' work.

• If the light portion of the photoperiod is broken by a brief ex day plant will not flower if night is even 1 minute shorter.
• Part of the photoperiod is interrupted by a few minutes on the same day each year.
• It appears that plants use their dim light, cocklebur not flower, and this turned out to be a biological clock, entrained by night length with the help of other short-day plants.

• The flower-growing industry needs at least 8 hours of knowledge to produce continuous darkness to flower.
• Short-day plants are flowers that are out of season.
• The older term is embedded firmly in the short-day plants that bloom in fall, but their bloom con of plant physiology.
• Long-day plants can be stopped until Mother's Day in May by punctuating short-night plants.
• A long-day plant grown on photoperiods each night with a flash of light will turn one long night into two short nights.

• Plants bloom after a single exposure to the photope.
• There is a requirement for flowering.
• Other species need more than one day from short-day plants.
• If the critical night length sets a maximum to a photoperiod only if they have been exposed to long-day plants or a period of cold before, then others will respond.

• Unless the number of hours in the critical night length is specified, the Winter wheat won't flower.

• Both will flower if they are exposed to short days.
• This result shows that the effects of red and far-red light on a flower-inducing substance is transmitted.
• A flash of red light shortens the flowering time of plants.

• A photoperiod with long days after winter wheat is vernalized.

If a plant flowers in a control ed chamber with leaves that detect changes in photoperiod and produce sig daily cycle of 10 hours of light and 14 hours of darkness, is it naling molecules that cue buds to develop as flowers?

• Plants use blue-light photoreceptors and red-light propriate photoperiod to induce flowering by exposing just one leaf to the ap environment.
• It's absorbing phytochromes.
• Suggest a reason why plants are sensitive to certain colors of light.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Plants are immobile, but they have evolved to adapt to a wide range of envi hormone-like molecules as scientists focused on small selection that allow them to adjust to a wide range of envi hormone-like molecules.
• Large macromolecules can move via means.
• Light is important in the development of a plant.
• The entire previous section was voted on by ap to show that florigen is aprotein.
• In this section, we examine responses to some of the other environmental stimuli that favor flowering, and the LOCUS T (FT) is activated in the leaf.

• It is not surprising that plants are photo autotrophs.
• The mechanisms for growing toward sunlight have evolved.
• But tobacco that lack statoliths but are capable of gravitropism, what environmental cue does the shoot of a young seedling though the response is slower than in wild-type plants.
• The stretching of the proteins on the "up" side and the compression of the swer to the questions is gravity.

• They are pul ed by gravity.
• The positive gra that roots display because of their density may enhance the ability to sense gravity.

• Plants can detect gravity by means of dense cy trunks, whereas trees of the same species grow in more shel toplasmic components that settle under the influence of grav tered locations.
• The plant can resist strong gusts of wind thanks to the statoliths of vascular.
• The plants are made of specialized plastids containing dense starch grains.
• The changes in form that result from mechanical per of the root cap are referred to as statoliths.
• The aggregation turbation is one hypothesis.
• The act of measuring the length of a leaf with a ruler changes the amount of calcium in it.
• The stems of the plant are being rubbed.
• Plants that are shorter than the root's zone are caused by the calcium and auxin accumulating on the lower side.

• The root grows straight downward because of acute responsiveness to me.

• The grasping organs grow straight until they touch something, and the contact stimulates a coiling response caused by differential growth of cells on opposite sides of the tendril.

• Within minutes after a horizontally oriented root is placed, the primary root of maize plastids called statoliths bends gravitropically until it settles to the low side of the root cap cells.

• The settling may lead to the redistribution of auxin and differing rates of elongation by cells on opposite sides of the root.

• The statolith shorter plant on the left was rubbed twice a day.

• The growth in response to touch is cal ed and it takes advantage of whatever mechanical supports it comes across as it climbs up ward toward a forest canopy.

• Plants that have rapid leaf movements are examples of touch specialists.

• When the compound leaf of the sensitive plant is gently touched, its leaflets fold together.

• The motor s become flaccid after being stimulated.
• In the last part of the chapter, they lose potassium ion, which causes water to leave the s by os examine the defensive responses of plants.
• It takes about 10 minutes for the cells to get back to normal.

• On a dry, sunny day, a plant's water loss makes it less appetizing to herbivores.

• Plants have control over the transmission of the stimuli through the plant, which is a remarkable feature of rapid leaf movements.
• They can cope with less extreme water deficits with one leaflet.

• An electrical impulse traveling at the same rate can cause an increase in synthesis and release of ABA.
• The leaves and roots have a hormone that helps keep the stomata closed.
• Plants have thousands of action potentials, but they are thousands of deficit in several other ways.
• The action potentials found in the grasses may be used as a form of spiration by exposing less leaf surface to dry air and wind.

• There is more vi in the case of Mimosa pudica.

• Plants can even take advantage of "early warnings" in the leaves and leaflets of a plant to droop, but this whole form of chemical signals from neighbors and prime plant response involves the spread of signaling molecule re themselves to respond more readily and intensely to the injured area.

• The soil can have spaces that provide oxygen for the roots if there is flooding or extreme temperatures.

• Plants are adapted to wet habitats.
• The submerged roots of mangroves will either succumb or be outcompeted by other plants if they cannot tolerate an environmental example.

• Less specialized plants determine the geographic ranges of plants.

• The root systems of plants 1-6 were not connected after 6 minutes.

• Give a reason why.

• The air tubes that function as "snorkels" are created by the destruction of the negative than the soil solution.
• Plants can't survive salt oxygen to the submerged roots.

• Plants are threatened by an excess of salts in the soil.
• The water made its enzymes.
• The water po cooling helps cool leaves by transpiration.
• Reducing leaf may be 3 to 10 degrees below the ambient air temperature if the temperature of the tential gradient from soil to roots is lowered on a warm day.
• When the weather is dry, plants are dehydrate due to the high levels of sodium and other ion in the soil.
• Plants sacrifice cooling.
• The dilemma can be responded to by producing solutes, because very hot, dry days take a toll on plants.
• Plants that are tolerant of high concentrations mostly have a backup response that allows them to survive heat.

• Air tubes and many species of plants help the organisms escape freezing damage by blocking the growth of ice crystals.

• The Epidermis is able to survive at temperatures below 0degC.

• There are five major classes of antifreeze proteins.
• A control root is grown in an aerated medium.

• A root is grown in a medium.
• The air tubes are created by a three-dimensional struc.

• Plant cells begin to synthesise freezing tolerance of crop plants by genetical engineering and h help protect other genes from being put into their genomes.

• Plants have a problem with the envi object's temperature.
• Researchers have isolated the plants that produce the overproduction of abscisic acid.
• There is a change in the fluidity of the cells.

• Under normal conditions, a membranes cools below a critical point.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Another type of cold stress is freezing.

• Natural selection lowers the water potential of plants, which in turn causes water to leave the cytoplasm.
• There was an increase in the concentra munities.
• Some interspecific interactions are harmful and can lead to cell damage, such as the associations of plants with mycorrhizal death.

• Plants are adapted to cope with freezing stress.
• Not benefit the plant.
• As primary producers, plants are at the before the start of winter and are subject to attack by a wide variety of animals.
• The sugars in a plant are well-tolerated at high concentrations and can be used to help reduce the loss of water from the plant.

• A defense system that deters herbivores or protects to produce volatile chemicals that attract predatory pathogens is called a defense system.

• Plants face stress from herbivory in any environment.
• The epidermis and periderm of the plant divert some of their energy to defend against herbivores, which can restrict growth.

• This line of defense is not a good one.
• Plants prevent excessive herbivory through vores.

• When the plant tissues are intact, viruses,bacteria, and the as thorns, trichomes, and spines can enter the plant through defenses such as the production of distasteful or toxic com natural openings in the epidermis.
• The next lines of recruitment of predatory animals that help defend the plant defense are two types of immune responses.

• Once invaded by a pathogen, the plant releases a cocktail of volatile chemicals first of two lines of immune defense, which results in a chemical that signals "news" of the attack to neighboring, noninfested lima attack that isolates the pathogen and prevents its spread.
• This first line of immune defense, cal ed bors, starts with biochemical changes that make themselves less PAMP-triggered immunity, depending on the plant's ability to rec susceptible, including the release of volatile chemicals that attract ogni, another predatory mite species that feeds on spider mites There are certain genes that are specific to certain diseases.
• The PAMP is a majorprotein found in bacte rial flagel a.

• Chemicals were splashed onto the shoots of plants.
• If thesebacteria include bristles on the defenses, they should be able to penetrate the plant with a specific amino acid sequence within the fla of some cacti, which narcotics in have fearsome barbs that fruits of the gel in is detected by a TOL-like receptor.

• There are events that lead to the local production of broad-spectrum anti cactus spines chemicals, which are compounds having fungicidal and bactericidal properties.

• The sec being eaten by a caterpillar starts stronger defenses.

• Over the course of evolution, plants and patho hatch, and the larvae eat their way through the caterpillar.
• The evolution of pathogens that evade detection by the plant can be overcome.

• The pathogen's integrity, metabolism, and tabolism are affected by these effectors.

• The suppression of PAMP-triggered immunity by pathogen formation of lignin and the cross-linking of molecules within the effectors led to the evolution of effector-triggered immunity.

• The plant defense is to other parts of the plant because there are thousands of effectors.
• There are hundreds of disease resistance (R) genes shown in the upper right.

• As "sick" as the leaf appears, it will survive and have an effector.
• The defensive response will help protect the rest of the leaf.

• The response is hypersensitive.
• Local and systemic responses are different.
• As noted previously, pathogen to pathogens require extensive genetic re-programming and invasions can also produce signaling molecules that sound the commitment of the resources.
• There is an alarm for the whole plant.
• After detecting an invading pathogen, the re these defenses.

• The local tissue death that occurs at and near the infec ecule cal ed is referred to as a signaling mol.
• In many cases, the hypersensitive response restricts the tion site, which is carried by the phloem throughout the plant.
• The hyper converted to in areas remote from the sites of sensitive response is initiated as part of effector-triggered im infection.
• There is a signal transduction pathway munity.

• Before they die, cells release a signaling molecule.

• The signal transduction pathway is turned into a leaf.

• Plants can help prevent the spread of infections.
• The response helps isolated the pathogen by producing "rings of death" around the sites of the infections.

• The potato Late Blight is a plant disease epidemic.

• There are drawbacks to spraying fields.

• The community surface area of leaves can be dramatically altered by chewing insects.
• Plants are more vulnerable to pathogen attack when they are bitten by insects.
• Give a reason why.

• As global commerce increases, plants are more prone to herbiv and epidemics are more common.
• The seeds of wild relatives of the same species are stored in a sheltered area to be prepared for an insect outbreak.
• There are special storage facilities for crop plants.
• Scientists hope that there is no observation.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• The responses of plants to the environment are influenced by hor mones.

• Stimulates cell growth and regulates it for 24 hours, but are trained to bend by dawn and dusk.

• Plants respond to a wide variety of stimuli.

• Roots and stems show different types of gravitropism.

• Plants are sensitive to environmental stresses and are affected by rapid leaf movements.

• It is possible to avoid osmotic water loss.

• Drawing a straight seedling or one that is undergoing the water loss can be used to avoid osmotic tion.

• Plants that have acclimatized to stress are more resistant to freezing.
• Give a reason why.

• There are certain triples that are specific to certain pathogens.

• A field Biologist says that a caterpillar stops feeding on its defense response in distant organs.

What are three ways herbivory hurts the plant?

• Take a test of this hypothesis.

• In a short essay, summarize the role of bicscisic acid.

• SYNTHESIZE YOUR KNOWLEDGE increased the amount of solutes taken up.

• This mule deer has acid-induced denaturation.

• The red light is the most effective in shoot phototropism.

• The signaling molecule for flowering might be released earlier than usual in a long-day plant exposed to flashes of red light during the night.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• The internal activities of the cells, as well as the external activities of the cells, affect self.

• Sexual reproduction involves the fertilization of an egg.

• Sensory receptors are specialized to chemicals, light, and other stimuli.

• Animals respond to their surroundings.

• The correlation of form and function is what gives clues to biological function.

• In the case of the desert ant, the long-legged insects that have succumbed to the daytime heat of the legs are elevating the rest of the ant.
• The ant is above the sand.
• At this height, the ant's body must be exposed to the sun's heat in order to survive.
• The thermal limit for virtual y long legs is 140degF and the ant's exceed 60degC.

• The relationship top speed is recorded for a running arthropod.

• The long legs of the desert ant allow it to be active in the heat of the day, even though it faces the same fundamen as any other animal.
• Al animals have the lowest risk of being eaten.

• Natural selection favors body parts and the general means by which animals control those variations in a population that increase relative fitness their internal environment is the answer.
• We apply the ideas to two.
• Maintaining proper balance of body and body temperature is one of the evolutionary adaptations that enable desert animals to survive.

• Each organ of the human digestive system has a specific role.

• As for other multicel ular organisms, having many role is to initiate protein breakdown.
• This process requires specialization.
• A hard outer cover motion powered by stomach muscles helps protect against predators and large muscles facilitate gestive juices from the stomach lining.
• Producing rapid escape.
• The internal body fluid is one of the most specialized types of fluids in a multicellular body.
• Control systems are able to maintain a stable internal environment even if mucus protects the stomach lining by releasing a second generation that regulates the composition of this solution.

• The control systems of animals are specialized and complex, and we need to explore the layers of built from a limited set of tissue types.
• Organization that characterizes animal bodies is another example.

• Some animal tissues are grouped.
• There are four main types of cells, each with a similar appearance and a common function.

• Plants have a hierarchy of animals, such as sponges, lack or organization.

• The skin protects against infections and helps regulate body temperature.

• Many organs have more than one function.

• We consider the organ to belong to to affect most of the body's organs if we suggest why a disease that damages connective tissue is likely roles are distinct.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The receipt, processing, and transmis cover the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities.

• The Epithelial tissue is a barrier against mechanical injury and the nervous system.
• Nerve impulses and fluid loss are received by a neuron.
• It forms active interface with other neurons through its cell body and multiple extensions.
• Theplural, epithelia are the things that dendrites.
• The brain sends impulses to other parts of the body.

• All epithelia are tense.

• There are different types of glia help.

• The apical surface faces late neuron function.

• Skeletal, cardiac, and solid foundation are the three types of trenbrates.
• The matrix has cells called and smooth.
• The fibroblasts and actin and myosin in the muscle cells allow them to con macrophages, which excrete foreign particles and cell debris.

• The muscles in the body are responsible for voluntary movements.
• The arrangement loose connective tissue, which holds skin and other organs in of contractile units along the cells gives them a striped place and appearance.
• The con adipose tissue, which stores fat and blood, is formed by the striated cardiac muscle.
• Smooth muscle, which lacks striations and cell fragments suspended in a liquid called plasma, is found in the walls of many internal organs, which provides flexible support in the spine and elsewhere.
• Smooth muscles are responsible for a number of bodily functions, including bone, calcium, magnesium, andphosphate ion, and constriction of arteries.

• There are a lot of challenges faced by multicellular organisms.
• The solutions that have evolved in plants and animals reveal both unity and diversity.

• All living things need energy and carbon from the environment to grow and reproduce.
• Plants and animals both get their energy and carbon from food.

• Plants and animals have evolved to support different modes of nutrition.
• Light capture is enhanced by the broad surface of leaves.
• When hunting, a Bobcat uses stealth, speed, and sharp claws.

• Plants and animals are regulated by hormones.
• hormones can act in a local area or in the body in plants.
• Growth patterns, flowering, fruit development, and more are controlled by them.

• All forms of life must respond appropriately to developmental events.

• A flower's floral head and an insect's eyes both contain light-sensitive cells.

• signal transduction pathways are initiated by chemical and electrical communication when environmental signals are activated.

• Sexual reproduction involves the production and exchange of gametes.

• Milk provides sustenance for juvenile mammals while seeds have multicellular organisms stored food reserves that supply energy to the young seedling.

• Plants use solar energy to transport water, minerals, and sugars.
• Animals have a pump that moves fluid through vessels.

• Life is dependent on the exchange of gases with the environment.

• Oxygen and carbon dioxide are taken up by plants and animals.
• Plants and animals have evolved surfaces that increase the area available for gas exchange, such as the mesophyll of leaves and the alveoli of lungs.

• Organisms need to take in vitamins and minerals.
• Concepts 31.3 and 32.3.

• The ner vous system is one of the major systems for coordinating and controllingling responses to stimuli.

• There is blood in the body.

• The signaling molecule broadcast throughout the body is cal ed from the Greek horman.
• The hormone may have an effect in a single location or throughout the body, depending on which parts of the body have the hormone'sreceptors.
• Cells are carried throughout the body.
• It's limited to cells that connect by specialized long-lived cells, because hormones can stay in the cells for a long time.

• The body has two major communication systems.
• The nervous system conveys information by the par differences.
• The signal goes through the ticular pathway.
• For example, a person can adapt their system for coordinating distinguish different musical notes because each gradual change in the ear affects the entire body, such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism.

• Communication in the nervous system involves rapid responses to the environment, such as reflexes and other more than one type of signal.
• Nerve impulses travel.

• As we will explore shortly, passing information from one neuron to another work in close coordination.

• In Chapters 37 and 38, we investigate nervous system organization and func transmission in the nervous system.
• The impulses take only a fraction of a second to reach the target components of the endocrine system and the organization takes only a fraction of a second.

• Most of the signaling in the organs mam calle is controlled by the endocrine cells within the body.
• The major hormones.
• Some hormones are produced in response to other humans and some are produced in response to illus hormones.
• You can find sential roles in growth, metabolism, and reproduction in some of the endocrine cells.

• Regulation of a signaling process involves not only its initiation digestion by secreting the hormone gastrin in response to but also its end.

• The control process involves hormones and a control circuit that reduces the surrounding fluid.
• The hormones enter the "damps" from there.
• In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary secreted hormone, cause a reduction in blood sugar levels by triggering a reduction in the amount of food in the body.

• This type of control circuit is common in the endocrine pathways because negative feedback prevents excessive pathway activity.

• The stimuli that cause the hormones to change are a control mechanism.
• In some cases, ion or organic molecule in force leads to an even greater response.

• A positive feedback loop helps drive a process that causes a decrease in the level ofglucose in the blood.
• Positive feedback plays a central role in several other cases, the nervous system provides the stimulation for horendocrine signaling, a type of control called neuroendocrine signaling.

• The human endocrine system has a major role in one sex.

• There is a response within target cells.

• There can be further steps of digestion.

• Negative feedback comes from the stomach.
• The hormone secretin is hidden into the bloodstream.

• There are cells behind the stomach.
• The cells ducts lead to the duodenum.
• The acidic contents are raised by the neu tralization of the bicarbonate.

• The secretin signal ing results in a pH increase that shuts off the endocrine pathway.
• Secretin signaling is an example of a pathway.

• When the nervous feedback is triggered, the hormones are released.

• The hypothalamus and its base are involved in such signaling.
• One of the two pituitary hormones is Oxytocin.

• The other is an extension of the hypothalamus.
• Later in the chapter, the posterior pituitary will be discussed.

• Function from reproduction and growth to metabolism and the regulation of milk release in mammals are examples of a neuroendocrine pathway.

• Growth hor, when an infant suckles, stimulates sensory neurons in the mone and regulates the outside of the endocrine system.
• Nerve impulses reach the hypothalamus.

• Anterior pituitary hormones target lates the mammary glands, which respond by secreting milk.

• When the nervous system conveys ling and therefore more stimulation, milk released in response leads to more suck.
• Until the baby stops eating, the hypo- continues.
• Positive feedback control is a factor that regulates the release of milk.
• Positive feedback can come from this hormone in functions of oxytocin, such as stimulating contraction of the turn, which stimulates the release of another uterus during birthing.

• Sensory neurons send nerve impulses to a neuro secretory cell, which in turn causes hormones to be released.

• The hormone cascade pathway is outlined in Figure 32.8.

• It is also known as TSH.

• There are multiple levels of feedback regulation in hor body target cells via blood mone cascade pathways.

• TRH release functions are blocked by many hormones, including secretin, ADH, and oxytocin.

• They are not from the hypothalamus and are not able to pass through the target cells.

• The Figure 32.8 A hormone cascade pathway is converted by a series of changes in cel ular proteins.

• Over the course of evolution, the functions have a number of steps, each involving a specific hormone.
• Concept 5.6 has an tions.

• The stimulation of steroid hormones is located in the cytosol rather than on the cell surface, which is what the major receptors for 4) does.
• A steroid hormone binding to its body.

• The prolactin stimulates mammary gland growth and alters milk synthesis in mammals and regulates fat metabolism.

• Many hormones elicit more than one response, and prolactin is an ancient hor.
• Consider, if you will, functions that have diversified during the evolu.
• It is also called adrenaline.

• Increasing blood flow to muscles and decreasing blood flow to the diges tive system is achieved by different levels of receptors.

• The release of glucose into the blood stream is caused by the regu lates of the enzymes of glycogen metabolism.

• A muscle-specificidase is activated when the same kinase is activated by the same receptor.

• Blood vessels have an a-type epinephrine increases.

• Epinephrine is the primary "fight-or-flight" drug.
• Different responses are produced in different target cells by the result hormone.
• There are two types of differences between cells that can affect the response to a hormone.

• An animal is an environmental variable if it uses internal mechanisms to control internal change.
• An animal is an environmental vari able if it can change in accordance with external changes.

• An animal can regulate internal conditions while allowing others to conform to the environment.
• Even though the bass does not conform to the temperature of the surrounding water, it regulates the solute concentration in its bloohe fluid that surrounds body cells.

• The tadpole's tail is resorptioned as the frog develops into its adult form, thanks to the hormone thyroxine, which is responsible for the concentration of solutes in a freshwater bass.

• C O N C E P T C H E C K 3 2 is achieved in achieving homeostasis.

If the external environment changes significantly, can they differ in their response to a hormone?

• Transient re cal and chemical properties are provided by a hormone pathway.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The regulation of room temperature is an example of a non living example.
• Your nervous system knows this.
• Let's assume you want to keep a room at a certain temperature.
• The temperature as you sweat is comfortable for normal activity.
• You set your skin's humidity to help cool your body.

• The thermostat responds by turning on the internal environment if the temper Homeostasis moderates but doesn't eliminate changes in ature.
• Fluctuation is greater if there is a variable.
• When the room tempera has a normal range--an upper and lower limit--rather than ture reaches 20degC, the thermostat switches off the heater.
• This is similar to a heating system that begins temperature then goes below 20degC, the thermostat goes off and there is another heating cycle.

• An animal can achieve homeo by maintaining a variable, such as body temperature or normal range, but certain regulated changes in the internal en solute concentration are possible.

• When a Upon receiving mone balance is received during puberty, the radical shift in hor serves as a signal of a change in the variable above or below the set point.

• We examine the process by which animals maintain their body temperature.

• The Thermostat turned with fatal results.

• The heat for thermoregulation can come from either internal metabolism or the external environment.

• In contrast, many fishes and nonavian reptiles gain most of their heat from outside sources.
• Both thermy and ectothermy are not exclusive.

• The Thermostat turns the mic into a lizard.

• Even in the face of large fluctuations in the environment, a stable body temperature can be maintained.
• In a cold environment, an endotherm can generate enough heat to keep its body warm.
• The mechanisms for cooling the bodies of regulating room tebrates depend on a control center that can detect heat loads that are intolerable for most temperature change.

• Evaporation heat from the distant of water from a lizard's moist sun and a strong surrounding air causes smaller surfaces to be exposed to a lot of energy to the environment.

• The interior and exterior of the body can be seen as a major route for heat flow in most environments.

• Many animals alter the amount of blood any object, exchanging heat by radiation, evaporation, and convec between their body core and tion.
• The heat is always on the surface.
• A widening of superficial lower temperature is caused by nerve signals that relax the muscles of the vessel.

• Blood flow in the outer layer of the body increases when thermoregulation is enhanced.

• In endotherms, vasodilation warms the skin and insulation that reduces the flow of heat between an animal's increases the transfer of body heat to the environment.

• The reverse process reduces blood feathers as wel as layers of fat formed by a whale's blubber by decreasing the diameter of the whale's thick blubber.

• Reducing heat loss from the antifreeze proteins that prevent ice formation is done in many birds and mammals.

• These compounds allow certain fishes to survive in the cold waters of the polar region.

• The arteries and veins are located next to each other in a countercurrent heat exchanger.

• Humans and mammals have different feedback mechanisms for regulating body temperature.
• Blood flows through the arteries and thermoregulation is concentrated in the re veins in opposite directions.
• The exchanger in the hypothalamus has a group of nerve endings that maximize the rate of heat in the exchanger.

• The Acclimatization contributes to thermoregulation in many animal ing mechanisms that save heat, including the vasocon species.
• In birds and mammals, acclimatization to seasonal striction of vessels in the skin, or generate heat, can include adjusting insulation.
• In response to elevated body temperature, growing a thicker coat of fur in the winter and removing it in the summer shuts down heat retention mechanisms.
• Sweat keeps a constant body temperature year-round, and these changes help endotherms by cooling them.

• The same function but different optimal tempera perature can be found in mammals and birds.
• Experiments have shown that there is a correlation between the temperature and the tures.
• In the biological thermostat's set point, the proportions of saturated and unsaturated lipids increase.
• Some ec infections are beneficial, but how it works remains a subject of debate.

• Arteries carrying warm blood to the animal's reduce heat loss from the extremities and are in close contact with veins when they are immersed in cold.
• The heat in the blood coming out of the arteries is transferred directly to the entire length of the blood vessels through this arrangement.

• In the cold water, the heat transfer takes place.

Blood vessels in skin are shown in Figure 32.16

• Skeletal muscles contract quickly, causing cold.

• The blood vessels in the skin hypothalamus dilate.

Is it correct to say that homeostasis is a constant internal row limits?

• There are no drinks left in the cooler at the end of a hard run on a hot day.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Now that we've considered thermoregulation as an example, we'll look at another example, the mainte waste they produce, which needs to balance water and loss.

• See Figure 5.11 for details.
• Like many freshwater animals, the perch solve occurs when two solutions separated by a mem are different in osmotic pressur.
• moles of solute diffusion and in the urine are regenerated by eating salts that have been lost by concentration.

• Two solutions are separated by a mem.

• There are two solutions to the regulatory problem.
• The more solutes an animal has, the more water it loses, and body coverings that help prevent dehydration.
• Water flows through a number of routes, including through urine and feces, across their skin, and from a hypoosmotic solution to a hyperosmotic one.

• Water balance can be maintained by an animal.
• To be isoosmotic with its surround in one species of desert-dwelling mammal, you can examine water balance.

• The osmoconformers are marine animals.

• A wide range of environments, the type and quantity of an animal's, and uninhab waste products may have an impact on osmoregulation.

• Nitrogen is removed in the form of NH3).

• They make NH when ridding themselves of salts.
• In the gil s, specialized animals excrete ammonia directly, and many species use chloride cells to transport chloride ion out and energy to convert it to a less toxic compound.

• Animals that excrete ammonia need a small amount of water.

• ammonia excretion has a very low osmolarity.
• It is most common in aquatic species.

• In Part A of the study, the mice had unlimited access to tap water for drinking, while in Part B the mice were not given any additional water for 35 days.
• The researchers measured the osmolarity and urea concentration of the urine and blood of each mouse.
• The mice were weighed three times a week.

• The mice drank about 1/3 of their body weight each day.
• The nitrogenous wast was negligible for all mice in the study.

• The primary nitrogenous waste of insects, land snails, and birds is ex INTERPRET THE DATA.

• It is possible to excrete it as a semisolid paste with very little urine osmolarity, blood osmolarity, and urea concen water loss.
• Uric acid is more energetic than urea in urine and blood.

• Transport epithelia are explained.

• There is a version of the Scientific Skills Exercise that can be assigned in MasteringBiology.

• Animals produce fluid waste by each branch.
• Blood, coelomic flame bulb has a tuft of cilia.
• When hemolymph is brought in contact with a transport filtration, the beating cilia draw the interstitial fluid through the epithelium.
• Blood pressure the flame bulb releases filtrate into the tubule network.
• The filtrate is emptied as urine and then into the body fluid.
• The urine produced by freshwater small solutes, such as salts, sugars, amino acids, and nitrog flatworms, has a low solute concentration and helps to balance the osmotic absorption of water from the water body.

• Natural selection has made different and water from the filtrate.
• In the freshwater flatworms, osmoregulation is the main function of protonsephridia.
• The main function of transport is that non essential solutes and waste are left in the parasites, which are isoosmotic to the sur filtrate.
• Nitrogenous waste is the disposal of the processed filtrate.

• The basic excretory functions are performed by different systems.

• The excretory systems of the body are eliminated as nearly dry matter along with the feces.
• External openings conserve water.
• This excretory system was all over the body.

• The functions of water and solutes are forced by blood pressure.

• The body wall is an overview of the key steps of excretory system function.
• Most excretory systems modify the filtrate's contents by using body fluids.
• The diagram is based on the excretory system.

• There are two ureters that drain into the functional units of a common sac called the vertebrate kidneys.

• The urethra and bladder regulate urination.

• Filtrate is formed when blood pressure causes fluid in the glomerulus to enter the Bow man's capsule.

• Descending leaves the glomerulus and forms an arteriole.
• The vessels surround the tubules.

• The kidneys consist of tubules.
• The processing of transport epithelia can be seen in the tubules of the organs circled number, which are arranged in a highly organized manner.

• The critical part of reabsorption in the tubule is urine from the tubules out of the kidneys.
• Familiarizing yourself with the diagrams and terms from the huge amount of initial filtrate.

• Figure 32.21 gives you a solid foundation for learning of water and salt reabsorption, the filtrate's volume decreases about filtrate processing in the kidneys, but its osmolarity remains about the same.

• C O N C E P T C H E C K 3 2 is the filtrate that enters the cells of the transport.

What is the function of the excretory port's filtration step?

• A camel in the sun requires a lot more from the fluid in the peritubular capil aries than it does.
• What do you think about the figure?

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Some toxic materials, such as drugs and toxins that have been processed in the liver, are active in filtrate.

• The loop of Henle has a descending limb.
• The role of the solutes resulted in very low permeability for these substances.

• The tubule must be hyperosmotic to the tissue of the nephron function in order for water to move out.

• filtrate occurs when the osmolarity of the fluid in the bloodstream increases from the cortex to the inner medul a of the nephron.
• The glomerular capil aries retain blood.
• The filtrate loses water and increases large molecules, but they are still able to move down the de water and smal solutes.
• The filtrate contains a limb.
• The highest osmolarity can be found at the elbow of the loop of Henle.

• The loop of Henle has an Ascending limb.
• When the concentrations of these substances in the initial filtrate reach the tip of the loop of Henle, they return to the cortex like those in blood.

• The ascending limb has a transport epithelium that travels through a pair of human kidneys each day, but lacks water channels.
• 99% of the water is impermeable to water.

• filtrate is processed into urine by the movement of NaCl out of the tubule.

• The numbers circled in the text are the numbered regions in this diagram.

• aquaporin chan NaCl out of the filtrate continues when the kidneys conserve water.
• The duct al ow water molecule crosses the tively to reach the interstitial fluid.
• As a result of the loss of the epithelium.
• The filtrate becomes more concentrated as it loses more and more water by osmosis to the hyperosmotic it moves up to the cortex in the ascending limb of the loop.

• The duct becomes per meable to urea in the inner medulla.
• The K+ and NaCl concentrations of body fluids are regu lating by the tubule.
• Some urea diffuses out of the duct and regulation involves variation in the amount of K+ that enters the fluid.
• The urine that is hyperos the filtrate as wel as the amount of NaCl reabsorbed from the motic to the general body fluids is what the net result is.

• Duct is being collected.
• The surrounding medul a is processed by the collecting duct.
• Aquaporin channels filtrate into urine, which it carries to the renal pelvis.
• Water can't follow salts by Osmosis as filtrate passes along the transport epithelium.

• The ability of the mammal to conserve water is an excretory challenge.

• The osmolarity of blood is 300 mOsm/L, but the kidneys can excrete up to four times as much urine.

• There is passive movement in that system.
• If fluid intake is high and salt is hard to come by, the kidneys will use up energy.
• The filtrate in the upper part of the ascending limb can be used to get rid of the excess water with little salt loss.
• The urine can be as much as 70 mOsm/L if loop maintains a high salt concentration.

• The blood of large birds and mammals is calle by this species.

• The osmolarity of 1,200 mOsm/L is reached when the teeth make a smal incision in the prey's skin and then laps up urine.
• The blood from the wound is typical of the prey animal.
• Anticoagulants in the bat's saliva prevent the blood from clotting in dry desert regions.
• A vampire bat may fly long distances to an osmolarity of 9,300 mOsm/L, 25 times as concentrated as locate a suitable victim, and it benefits from the animal's blood.

• This blood intake would make the bat too heavy to fly.
• The bat can fly if it has lost enough weight to take off.

• The vampire bat faces a different regulatory to the waters of high mountain lakes.
• Most of the nutrition it derives from blood comes from the structure and function of the kidneys.
• Large vertebrates are generated for osmoregulation in their various habitats.
• The quantities of urea that roosting bats don't have access to is made apparent by comparing species that need to drink water to get rid of it.
• Instead, their kidneys shift to habit a range of environments or by comparing the responses produced with similar conditions.

• The mammals excrete the most hyperosmotic urine, so they conserve as much water as possible.
• The bat's ability as hopping mice, kangaroo rats, and other desert mammals, to alternate rapidly between large amounts of urine and loops of Henle that extend deep into the medul a.
• Long smal amounts of very hyperosmotic urine is an essential part of loops that maintain steep osmotic gradients.

• The medul a is regulated by a combination of nervous and hormonal inputs.
• Through concentrate urine to the high osmolarities achieved by mam their effect on the amount and osmolarity of urine.
• Although birds can produce hyperosmotic puts, their main water conserver is excreting blood volume.

• One key hormone in the regulatory circuitry of the kidneys is antidiuretic hormone, which can excrete smal volumes of hyperosmotic urine with minimal.

• The antidi Hypothalamus is in the hypothalamus and causes thirst.

• The RAAS responds to the drop in blood volume and pressure by increasing water and Na+ reabsorp.
• The water goes into or out of the cells.
• When blood osmolarity increases, signals from the osmoreceptors cause a release of ADH from the anterior pituitary and thirst.
• The partners are drinking.

• A pep is one of the products of the RAAS.

• Angiotensin II is a hormone that regulates blood pressure and blood flow to the brain.
• The ADH binding to the receptor molecule on the epithe kidneys.
• Angiotensin II causes events in the col ecting duct that cause a temporary increase in Na+ and water reabsorption.

• The net effect is that sin II increases blood pressure and drugs that block angiotensin II increase the permeability of the epithelium to water.

• Let's look at what happens when angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) rises after eating salty food or after the steps in the production of utes to osmoregulation.

• In animals, some of the intricate machines set point 300 mOsm/L, ADH release into the bloodstream, we cal organs work continuously in maintaining solute and is increased.
• Water balance and excreting nitrogenous waste are caused by the col ecting duct's permeability to water.
• The details resulting in water reabsorption, which concentrates urine, that we have reviewed in this chapter only hint at the great reduces urine volume, and lowers blood osmolarity back to complexity of the neural and hormonal mechanisms involved ward the set point.

Why is it dangerous to drink a large amount of water?

• The reduc duct is less porous to water.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• Explain why your skin is cooler than your core.

• Negative feedback may damp the stimulation and composition of the hormone pathways within the nephron.
• The h drives a descending limb of termeable to water.

• If NaCl levels are high in body fluids, the water-soluble hormone wouldn't have an effect.

• The urine can be concentrated in the duct.

• Animals regulate certain internal variables while allowing other in ample, desert mammals, which excrete the most hyperosmotic ternal variables to conform to external changes, to have loops of Henle that extend deep into the maintenance of a steady state despite internal and external changes.

• The renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system regulates blood pressure and is related to the ADH.

• An animal's internal temperature is kept within a range by rewarming mostly by A epithelial tissue.

• There is a larger point to be made about the routes of water gain and loss.

• FOCUS ON EVOLUTION can decrease but not increase a variable.

• If natural selection has resulted in a different result, the regulators and the conformers are different.

• African lungfish produce urea as a nitrogenous waste when they are found in small, stagnant pools of fresh water.

• A model of the control circuit required for driving an automobile at a fairly constant speed over a hilly road is needed.
• There are features that represent a sensor, stimulus, or response.

• The macaques are partially immersed in a hot spring in a snowy region of Japan.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• The crab's muscles and other tissues are used for food.
• It's important to remember that most animals are opportunist feeders, eating food out of the otter's stomach, and then absorbing it as small mol side their standard diet when their usual foods aren't available.

Deer are an example of a deer that are an example of a deer that are an example of a deer that are an example of a deer that are an example of a deer that are an example of a deer that are an example of a deer that are an example of a deer that are

• It is possible to "supplement" every animal's diet by eating fish, crabs, urchins, and abalone.

• Animals must balance dead or alive in order to survive and reproduce.
• Sea otter's metabolism is supported by eating up to 25% of the molecule used to assemble new molecule, cells, and tis of their body mass each day.
• Eating too little food can lead to eating too much.
• Animals have a variety of diet.

• In this chapter, we'll look at the nutrition of plants and algae.
• Sea otter, ments of animals, explore diverse evolutionary adaptations for hawks, and spiders, mostly eat other animals.
• Other omnivores don't eat of energy intake and expenditure because they don't obtain and process food.

• The diet has sources of chemical energy.
• Plants and energy can produce 20.
• Most animal species are used to produce a type of energy called ATP, which powers processes ranging from have the enzymes to synthesise about half of the genes needed for cell division to vision and flight, as long as their diet includes sulfur and organic nitrogen.

• The rest of the amino acids must be obtained from food in digest nutrition and are therefore called for use in energy storage and respiration.

• In addition to fuel, an animal needs 20 amino acids in its diet.

• Fatiguing acids are used to produce the components of the animal's body.
• An animal needs two storage fats to build the complex molecule it needs to grow and reproduce.
• The animal can get a lot of essential fatty acids from these materials.

Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, the discoverer of vitamin C, once said, "If you don't eat it, it will make you il."

• There are 13 known human vitamins.
• Some of them are water and have key functions in cells, including serving as a source of water, as well as the eight B vitamins, which act as enzymes and cofactors in biosynthetic reactions.

• It is also water-soluble.

• The Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble.
• It's important to have a good supply of vitamin K in your body.
• It is possible to prevent an unusual source with the help of vitamins E and C. This behavior is common among DTrademarkiaTrademarkiaTrademarkiaTrademarkias, unlike other vitamins, turns out to be variable.
• When our skin is exposed to sunlight, our bodies plants provide insufficient synthesis of vitamins D and E.

• Taking supplements for people with an unbalanced diet.

• It's not clear if massive doses of vitamins give any essential amino acids.
• It is possible for children to have health benefits or even be safe.
• Excess fat can be deposited in the body if the diet shifts from breast milk to foods with vitamins.
• Children who survive may accumulate to toxic levels.

• Scientists have fur from less than engineered "Golden Rice", a strain of rice that can synthesise 1 to 2,500 grams of rice per day.
• Minerals have a variety of colors, which the body uses in animal physiology.
• Some are put into the struc verts.
• Golden Rice, which is undergoing field test ture of proteins; iron, for example, is incorporated into the ing, is just one example of efforts to use plant biology to address malnutrition.

• The minerals incorpo provide adequate sources of chemical energy.
• This oc regulates metabolism.

• Large quantities of calcium begin breaking down its own proteins for fuel, while muscles and phosphorus begin to build and maintain bone.

• The health is affected if energy intake is less than expenditures.
• Excess salt can cause an animal to die.
• Some of the damage may be irreversible in an animal.

• In the United States, where the typical person consumes enough salt, inadequate nutrition is the most common cause of death.

• 200 million children and adults can't get enough food if a diet lacks one or more essential vitamins.

• Malnutri populations are a result of eating disorders.
• One out of four children worldwide are affected by people tion and one out of four children have an eating disorder.

• An animal needs 20 amino acids.

• Considering how soil has no phosphorus.
• Concept 6.4 explains why vitamins are required in very animals by consuming concentrated small amounts.

• There are signs that a zoo animal is eating a lot of food.
• How might a researcher determine which birds supplement their diet with snail shells?

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• In this section, we look at the link between the mechanisms by which animals process food to make a fat or macromolecule.
• By removing a molecule of water food processing in four stages, we can consider smal er components.

• The splitting process iscatalyzed feeding.
• Animals can be divided into four major by the way they digest food.
• Blue whales, Flamingos, and other suspension feeders split their charides and disaccharides into simple sugars and then break them down into smal peptides and amino acids.
• Substrate feeders, such as caterpil ars, live in or on nucleic acids.

• Other feeders suck fluid from a living host.
• Many animals are bulk feeders because they eat large amounts of food.

• We are bulk feeders.

• The second stage of food processing takes place.
• In the third stage of absorption, the animal's food is broken down into smal enough for the body to absorb it.
• Both mechanical and chemical processes require undigested material to pass.
• The mechanical breakdown of food out of the smal er completes the process.

• A rock python is starting to eat a gazelle it has killed.
• The python will take two weeks to digest its meal.

• After the hydra has eaten it's undigested ma terials are eliminated through the food vacuoles.

• Organel es are more common with newly formed food vacuoles.
• Because of the hydrolytic enzymes.
• This fusion of organel es food moves along the alimentary canal in a single direction, the brings food in contact with these enzymes, al owing digestion tube can be organized into specialized compartments that carry to occur safely within a compartment enclosed by a protective out digestion and nutrient absorption in a

• An animal can eat much larger pieces of food than can be eaten by the immune system.

• The alimentary canal of an earthworm has a gestive compartment.
• The pharynx sucks food from the mouth.
• Food pouch is used in digestion and is stored and moistened in the crop.
• The muscular gizzard is where mechanical digestion occurs, where small bits of sand and gravel are used to break down food.

• prey was captured through its mouth.

• The soft tissues of the prey are broken into tiny pieces by the nans tissue layer.

• Most of the digestion of food occurs in the midgut.

• Theizzard was released from a cell.

• Many birds have a crop for storing food and a stomach that is engulfed and gizzard.
• Digestion and absorption of vitamins and minerals occur in the gut.

• Digestion begins in the canals.
• These examples show the structure of the compartments that carry particles and how they are engulfed by specialized cells of the gastrodermis.

• It's likely that an animal with a stomach will not be able to digest earlier meals.

• The overal structure of alimentary canal is different from the overal structure of a gastrovascular cavity.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• It takes 5 to 10 seconds for food to pass down the mentary canal after it is cessing.
• There are three pairs of salivary glands and the stomach is where it is partially eaten.
• The ac undigested material passes through the large intestine and the steps in expelling it through the anus are explored.

• The tongue is involved in food processing.

• A doorman screens and helps people enter a mash, breaking the food into pieces.
• This fancy hotel aids digestion by increasing the surface area of ingested material, distinguishing which foods should be used for chemical breakdown, and then enabling their further passage.
• The saliva is released by the.

• A vis ing shape it into a ball.
• During swal owing, the cous mixture of water, salts, and slippery glycoproteins tongue provides further assistance.
• The lubricates food into the throat and back of the mouth.

• The taste and smel of the food is received by the pharynx.
• The esophagus and antimicro the trachea lead to two passageways, one of which helps prevent tooth decay by acid.

• Scientists have been puzzled by the fact that saliva keeps food and liquids out of the airway.
• Each time there is a large amount of the enzyme, which breaks you swal ow, and a flap of the cartilage between your vocal cords.
• The voice box is guided by a substance from animals.
• The movements of chemical digestion go into the esophagus.
• Failure is not in the mouth but in the smal intestine, where amylase of this swal can cause choking.

• The food is pushed along by the lar activity of the stomach and the breakdown is enhanced by gastric juices.
• The coordinated series of muscle alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction and relaxation mixes the ation.
• The stomach contents are constant at the end of the esophagus.
• The sphinx regulates passage of the food into the stomach and allows it to pass into the next compartment.

• The, which is located just below the diaphragm, is a rich source of nutrition and plays a major role in digestion.
• Storage is the first thing.

• The major function is to process food.

• The stomach wall is made of folded and dotted pits with a mixture of food and juice.

• Two components of gastric juice help liquefy food.
• The extracel ular components of the gastric juice are disrupted by hydrochloric acid.

• The cells lining the stomach are made of low pH unfolds.

• The stomach hydrochloric acid is destroyed by gastric juice.

• The ingredients of gastric juice are kept inactive until they are released into the stomach.
• The components of gastric juice can be found in the stom ach.

• It is possible to convert tects against self-digestion.

• They were thought to have been caused by reaction.

• Australian researchers Barry Marshall and Robin Warren discovered that the bacterium Helicobacter pylori causes ulcers.
• They showed that antibiotics could cure most gastric ulcers.
• They were awarded the prize for their work.

• The passage through the alimentary canal is promoted by muscular activity of the stomach.
• It is here that chyme from the stomach is used to move the contents of the stomach into the smal intestine after a meal.
• The sphincter is located in the middle of the wal itself.

• One squirt of chyme at a time is all it takes to release the smal intestine.

• Bicarbonate acts as a buffer for chemical digestion from the stomach into the lower end of the esophagus.

• The proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin are inactive forms.

• There is a safe location for chemical digestion in the duodenum.

• Ad from food comes from the lining of the duodenum.
• The name refers to the small surface of the epithelial cells.
• The duodenum is where most of the digestion takes place.

• There is a special chal enge for fat digestion.
• They are insoluble in evolutionary adaptation that increases the rate of nutri water.

• The production of bile salts, which can be active or passive, is a function of the transport across the epithelial.
• The as emulsifiers that break apart fat and other sugar cane moves through the air.
• A major componen is a secretion down its concentration from the smal of t that is stored and concentrated in t.

• The destruction of red blood cells that are no longer sels, or capil aries, at the core of each is one of the vital functions of the basal surface.
• The red blood cells that make up the bile are by-products of red blood cell destruction.

• The bile pigments are eliminated from the body with the help of the villus.

• The capil aries and veins that carry blood from the skin to the hepatic portal vein are associated with some blood disorders.

• Two major functions are served by this arrangement.

• The remains of the body remain because the contents of the duode the liver to regulate the distribution of nutrition to the rest of the body are largely complete.
• The smal intestine has many different regions.
• The blood that leaves the liver is folded across the highly folded surface.
• Large may have a different balance of vitamins and minerals than the blood that folds in the lining.
• Each epithelial cell has many toxic substances before the blood circulates broadly.
• The primary site for the removal of organic mol is the liver croscopic projections.
• The microvil is used to remove foreign objects from the body, including drugs.

• The smal intestine is left through the name brush border.
• The folds, vil i, and microvil i of the bloodstream and the smal gut have a surface area of 200-300 m2, roughly some products of fat (triglyceride) digestion take a different size than a tennis court.
• This is a path.

• Water-soluble vitamins, such as ANIMATION, enter the bloodstream in the form of sugars and amino acids.

• Lacteals are part of the lymphatic system, which is a salts bile salts break up a network of vessels filled with a clear fluid.

• In addition to absorbing vitamins and minerals, the small gut re.

• We consume about 2 L of water a day.

• The smal intestine is where the recovery occurs.

• There are Triglycerides in the small intestine.

• The figure shows how the diffusing process works.
• The rectum and anus can be found in one arm of the T. The other arm is a pouch.
• Animals that eat a lot of plant triglycerides need the cecum to make material from their ingested fat.

• Humans have a small cecum compared to other mammals.
• T has a small and dispensable role in immunity.

• The colon completes the recovery of water that started in the small intestine.

• The triglycerides are incorporated into the colon by peristalsis as they become solid.

• There are particles called chylomicrons.

• It takes 12 to 24 hours for material to travel the length of the colon.

• The lining of the colon is irritated by a viral orbacterial infec tion on the surface tion, which can make chylomicrons water-soluble.

• The feces move along the colon too slowly.
• There is too much water in the feces.

• The undigested material is carried away by fiber.

• Lacteal pass into large veins that humans, it helps move food of colon lead directly to the heart.

• The chylomicrons are carried by unabsorbed organic the lymph to large veins leading to the heart.

• Appendix fatty acids and a monoglyceride join to a third of the dry weight acid.
• These products are absorbed by cells.

• The water-soluble colonbacteria are formed when they are coated with phos of their metabolism, many pholipids, cholesterol, and proteins.

• The latter has an offensive odor.

• There are gases and air in the anus.

• The large intestine has a terminal portion.
• The rectum and the anus are two sphincters, the inner one is slightly rounded, and the outer one is voluntary.
• There is an urge to defecate when there is a contraction of the colon.
• fil are interesting exceptions.
• Venomous snakes, such as rattle ing of the stomach, have fangs, modified teeth, and inject venom into prey.

• Some fangs are like needles, others are like drips, and still others are like a meal from one opening in the mouth.

• Sometimes evolutionary adaptation to differences in diet is possible.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The length of the digestive system in different animals is adapted.

• The koala's intes tebrates are different from a common plan, but there are many tines that are longer.

• To show how form fits function, we examine a few of them.

• 10 to 100 trillionbacteria live in the human diges of structural variation reflecting diet.

• Humans and cats are adapted to eating both plants and meat.
• Adults have pointed incisors and canines that are ridged.
• It used to be from front to back that prey and pieces were killed.
• There are four bladelike incisors on the side of the mouth.
• A pair of pointed canines for crush and shred food is what the jagged premolars and molars are modified for.

• Dogs tearing canines, four premolars for grinding, and six are absent in some herbivores.

• Uninsured individuals had a more diverse bicyle.

• The koala's alimentary canal is used for digestion.
• The leaves are chewed into tiny pieces.
• They found increased exposure to juices.
• In the long cecum and the upper portion of the colon, the symbioticbacteria digest the shredded tissue, releasing vitamins and minerals that the koala can absorb.

• The presence of differences in the human gut's microbiome that are associated with certain diseases is a good indicator of the quality of the lakes and streams.

• Some of the chemical energy in the diet comes from animals, but they don't produce as many vitamins and minerals as we do.
• Many animals sorbed into the blood.
• Host mutualisticbacteria and protists in the innate immune system are regulated by intestinalbacteria.
• The chambers in the alimentary canals are obtained by the bacteria.

• In the human, the microorganisms use sugars from the digestion system.
• Scientists are using a DNA-sequencing approach to identify the beneficial and harmful types ofbacteria.

• A large cecum has been found to hold more than 400 bacterial species in the human.
• In rabbits and some rodents, there is a far greater number ofbacteria in the large intestine as wel as the cecum.

• Most of the vitamins and minerals are absorbed in the small intestine.

• A recent study gave an important clue about the state of the gut.
• Rabbits and rodents talk about why the bacterium H. pylori can disrupt stomach health.
• Researchers identified passing the food through the alimentary canal a second time after collecting stomach tissue and feeding on some of their feces.

• A cow has four chambers in her stomach.

• The rumen and reticulum is where mutualistic microorganisms digest the plant material.
• The cow regurgitates and chews "cud" from the reticulum in order to break down fibers.

• The cow's enzymes are used to digest it.

• There are gaps between meals for many animals.

• In the animals calle, processing has evolved.
• The next stage of the process involves chewing animals that include deer, sheep, and cattle, as food reaches each new compartment.

• Muscular contractions begin that move and have been examined to see how animals extract contents farther along the canal.
• For example, if you learned ear nutrients from food, we'll look at how nervous reflexes affect the release of saliva when you use them.

• There are two advantages of a longer alimentary canal.

• What features of a mammal's smal and large intestines make it an event.

• People with a shortage of digestion are "lactose-in tolerant".
• When the stomach and duodenum are released, they can help ensure that result, but they can also cause some symptoms.
• After consuming dairy products.
• Suppose a person ate yogurt that contained lactase.
• The hormones are transported through the bloodstream.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• In completing our consideration of animal nutrition, we'll look at what is needed for body growth and repair, for energy storage, and for reproduction.

• The amount of energy must be ex 3.

• Monitoring an animal's rate of heat loss is possible because chemical energy appears to be heat.
• If the chyme has high levels of secretin and CCK researchers use a calorimeter, which is a recording device in a released act on the stomach, to slow down digestion.

• Hormonal control of digestion is recorded to calculate the rate of food consumption.

• Animals need a minimum metabolism rate to store large amounts of energy.

• Endotherms can be used without food for several weeks.

• The minimum metabolic rate of a nongrowing endotherm to energy storage but also to maintaining metabolic balance that is at rest has an empty stomach.
• The normal range for stress in humans is called the BMR.

• Because of the major fuel for respiration and a key range that requires no generation or shed of heat above source of carbon skeletons, blood is the minimum.
• The minimum rate of metabolism is critical.

• The environmental temperature is changed by the hormones and the metabolism is regulated by them.
• The cal ed hormones are a key site of action for both stressed and rested.

• There are differences in energy costs between the hepatic portal endothermy and the ectothermy.

• Between meals, when blood in the hepatic portal vein has BMR per day for adult humans averages 1,600-1,800 kcal for a much lower glucose concentration, glucagon stimulates the males and 1,300-1,500 kcal for females.
• The rate of energy use by a 75- watt lightbulb is equivalent to the rate of BMRs.
• In to the blood.
• The SMR of an American al igator is about 60 kcal per opposing effects of insulin and glucagon, less than 120 the energy used by a comparison.

• The activity of Glucagon andinsulin are produced in the pancreas.
• A person reading quietly at a desk of the pancreas is dedicated to producing and secreting bi or an insect twitching its wings, consuming energy beyond the carbonate ion and the digestive enzymes active in the small BMR or SMR.
• The highest rates of metabolism.
• Lifting heavy islets are scattered throughout this organ during peak activity.
• Alpha cells, which make glucagon, and beta cells, which make insulin, are the most important cells in an animal's body.
• All hormones are related to the duration of activity.

• Diabetes can be disrupted with a number of disorders.

• A disease caused by a defi needs for metabolism and activity stores excess energy when an animal takes in more energy-rich molecule than it prevalen.

• The first sites used for energy storage are the liver and muscle.
• Instead, the fat in the body becomes the main source of energy for the body.
• Excess energy is usually stored in fat when the glycogen depots are empty.

• Less calories are taken in than are spent.

• In people with diabetes, the level of blood sugar in the human body can be much higher than the capacity of the kidneys to excrete it.
• Fats are rich in vitamins.
• It is possible to oxidize a gram of fats about twice the amount that leaves the body.

• If you consume more calories than you put in, the body needs more blood.

• Figure 33.19 Homeostatic regulation of ANIMATION is related to ghrelin, a hormone that stimulates feelings of cellular fuel.
• The human body regulates the Homeostasis by regulating the hormone PYY, which is a major cellular fuel.

• In the Scientific Skills Exercise, you'll read data from an experiment that studied leptin production and function in mice.

• The test for this disorder is obtaining food, absorbing and storing it.
• The larger story of how animals fuel their more water is excreted along with it, resulting in excessive activities, can be found in the concentration of glucose in the urine.
• Distribution of urine is a part of providing the body.
• Derived from the Greek diabainein, Diabetes refers to this excess urination and the need to exchange respiratory gases with the environment.

• There are two main types of diabetes.

• The amount of energy required to maintain a gram of body mass is dependent on whether or not the target cells respond to normal blood sugar levels.

• Excess body weight can be a symptom of type 2 diabetes because it does not respond to feedback mechanisms.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• To study the role of specific genes in regulating appetite, researchers used laboratory animals with known defects in those genes.

• The obese mouse on the left has a remeasured after less than eight weeks, whereas the mouse on the right has a pronounced weight loss.

• Researchers explored a hypothesis about the potential hormone.

• The researchers measured the terms of the experiment.
• If the results were the same for the mass of young subject mice, what would that mean for the linked circulatory system of each one to that of another mouse?

• The results of the pairs would be transferred to the other in the pair.
• After the pair (b).
• They measured the mass of each mouse again after eight weeks.

• First, read the data to understand the difference.
• The table could be used to test your hypothesis.

• The Experimental Inquiry Tutorial can be assigned.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination.

• Carbon mals arating large pieces of food are provided by many ani t Food.
• The andutrients gies include filter feeding, suspension feeding, and fluid feeding.

• Compartmentalization is needed to avoid self-digestion.
• Food particles are engulfed by endocytosis, not organic molecule, and are digested within food vacuoles that have fused with lyso.

• Malnutrition can be caused by an inadequate intake of essential nu enzymatic hydrolysis or a deficiency in sources of chemical energy.
• Studies of genetic defects and disease at the population level help determine human requirements.

• An artificial diet would eliminate the need for one of the first three steps in food processing.

• Most animals have both digestion processes inside.

• A low pH is required from HCl production.

• Take a look at the events that occur in the tion chambers.

• The longer time needed to digest vegetation is reflected in the longer alimentary canals that herbivores have.

• You can indicate the compartment involved next to each term.

• Taking into account the nervous and hormonal responses that cause a menstrual cycle in humans, come up with a hypothesis to explain the difference.

• The human stomach and trachea share a passage that leads from ing glucose availability.

• Animals get chemical energy from food.
• Concept 21.4 explains how used in a unit of time defines an animal's metabolism.
• This "imperfect" anatomy is explained by an ai descent.

• The hair is made of a substance called keratin.
• In a short essay, Vertebrates explain why they store excess calories in glycogen in the body and why they store excess calories in fat in the body.
• The energy stores can't replace the damaged hair.

• Hummingbirds are well adapted to be overweight.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• The axo salamander is native to shallow ponds in central Mexico.

• The appendages jutting out from the head are red.
• Blood vessels are close to the gills of an Albino adult.
• In the gil s, there is a net adult animals that help the axolotl carry out a process of exchange of O2 from the surrounding water into the blood mon to al organisms.

• There, more short-range exchange occurs, other animal and its surroundings as well as CO2 and other waste.

• The function of internal transport and gas exchange is related to the function of the cytoplasm.
• In exiting the cel, cross the same membrane as by dioxide (CO2).

• Exchange occurs directly with the we'l explore the common elements as wel as the remarkable external environment in unicel ular organisms.
• The roles of the circulatory and respiratory systems in maintaining environment is not possible because of the ever, direct transfer of materials between every cel.
• These organisms rely on their environment.

• The fluid that bathes the body is also a part of the trade that an animal carries out.
• Contraction of the waste products.
• The hemolymph through the circulatory vessels into intercon 2 and CO2 undergoes random thermal motion--diffusion.
• The spaces surrounding the organs are shown in Figure 34.3a.

• The chemical exchange between the hemolymph and its surroundings can result in net and body movements.
• The movement is very slow for distances of in through pores, which have valves that close when the heart is more than a few mil imeters.
• The time it takes for a substance to diffuse from one place to another is propor tional to the square of the distance.
• A quantity ofglucose that takes 1 second to diffuse 100mm will take 100 seconds.

• Two basic adapta Heart tions allow effective exchange for all of an animal's cells.

• A body that is only one or two cells thick is an adaptation for efficient exchange.
• Each cell can exchange gases with the surrounding medium.
• The surrounding organs of certain invertebrates are characteristic of such an arrangement.
• The central function of these animals is to distribute the nutrition released from food by digestion.

• An alternative adaptation for efficient exchange is the circulatory system, which moves fluid between the body tissues.
• Exchange with the environment and ex Tubular heart change occur over short distances.

• Gas exchange occurs across the entire body surface with the planarian's flat shape.
• The Ventral vessels food that enters the mouth is taken in by the body's gastrovascular cavity.

• Blood leaves the heart toward capil aries and veins come back to help circulate the hemolymph.

• The hearts of al vertebrates have two or more muscular blood that is confined to vessels.
• Blood enters the heart fluid in the chambers.
• The atria is a type of circulatory system.
• The chambers that are used to pump blood out of the heart are cal ed.

• In closed circulatory systems, one or more hearts number of chambers and the extent to which they are pump blood into large vessels that branch into smal er ones rated from one another differ, as that infiltrates the tissues and organs.
• The fit of form to function that arises from natural selection is reflected in the important differences between the blood and the interstitial fluid.

• The lower hydrostatic pressures return to their starting point in a single circuit, which makes them less arrangement calle.
• Animals have a heart that has two chambers, one of which has an open circulatory system.
• There is blood entering the heart.
• Spiders use the pressure of the water to get to the heart.
• Their open circulatory system extends their legs.

• The benefits of closed circulatory systems include blood circulation and CO2 excretion.
• As pressure high enough to enable the effective delivery of O2 blood leaves the gil s, the capil aries converge into a vessel that and nutrients to the larger and more active animals.

• The closed circulatory systems body is among the molluscs.
• The blood goes to the heart.

• Blood leaves the heart in a single circulation.
• Closed systems can be used to regulate the distribution of blood to different organs, as body, before returning to the heart.
• You will learn later in this chapter when blood flows through you.
• In examining a closed capillary bed, blood pressure drops for a variety of reasons.
• The vertebrates have a drop in blood pressure in their gills.

• The term refers to the heart and blood vessels of humans.

• The total length of blood vessels in an aver is shown in Figure 34.4b and c.

• There are two pumps within a single heart blood vessels.

• Arteries carry blood from the heart to other parts of the body.
• arterioles are branches of arteries within organs.
• The beds of the gas exchange tissues have small vessels that carry blood and CO2 out of the blood.

• This part of the circulation is cal ed a pulmocutaneous circuit if cal ed capil ary beds, infiltrate tissues, passing within a few cell it includes capil aries in both the lungs and the skin.
• It is called a pulmonary circuit if the capil ary beds capil aries, chemicals, and dissolved gases are all in the lungs.

• The tissues are exchanged after the blood leaves the heart.

• The direction in which arteries and veins carry blood, not by the O2 content, is what distinguishes them from waste products.
• Arteries have a systemic circuit.

• In the three-chambered heart of turtles, snakes, and lizards, brain, muscles, and other organs, the heart divides into two chambers because of double circulation.
• Two major arteries are called the capil ary beds.
• The gas circulatory system is able to control the relative amount of exchange circuit compared to the systemic circuit.
• In single circulation, the blood goes to the lungs and the rest of the body.

• When the animal termittent breathers, some animals with double circulation are in away from the lungs temporarily.
• The Amphibians and many rep are underwater.

• A variety of adaptation found most part breathe continuously, differs from double circula among intermittent breathers.

• The mammals can't vary blood flow to the lungs without varying oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium into the systemic blood flow throughout the body.

• As endotherms, they use about ten times the incomplete division of the ventricle to adjust as much energy as equal-sized ectotherms.

• Ten ineffective lungs need to be delivered by their circulatory systems.
• Blood flow continues to the skin, which acts as much fuel and O2 to their tissues and remove ten as the sole site of gas exchange while the frog is submerged.

• The heart is the capillaries latory organ.

• A normal human fetus has a hole between the left and right atria.

• The hole does not close completely before birth.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The systemic circuit has more volume than the pulmonary circuit.

• If the O2 supply is interrupted, some arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle brain cells will die.
• The cardiovas arms of the mammal.
• To answer this question, we need to consider the beds in the abdominal organs and legs.
• There is a net flow of O2 from the blood to the parts of the system.

• Oxygen-poor blood from the cardiovascular system goes into a large vein as it moves back toward the heart.

• The human heart is located behind the breastbone and is the size of a clenched fist.

• During a relaxation phase, blood from the large veins flows into the atria and into the ventricles.

• Backflow of blood within the heart is prevented by the locations of the valves.
• The atria and left and right ventricles have different thicknesses of their muscular walls.

• The remainder is transferred by contraction of the atria.

• Compared to the atria, the ventricles have thicker wal s and the cycle, the left ventricle pumps blood into the large which pumps blood throughout the body via the systemic arteries through the semilunar.

• The left ventricle pumps the same volume of blood as the right one.

• When the blood returns through the veins.

• There is one complete sequence of pumping and fil ing.
• The contraction of the ventricles keeps blood from flowing during the relaxation phase of the cycle and back into the atria.

• The volume of blood is divided into two parts, the left and right ventricles.
• Cardiac output is determined by two factors: the rate of contraction and the traction of the ventricles.
• The amount of blood pumped by a pressure built up in the pulmonary arteries and aorta closes the ventricle in a single contraction when the ventricles relax.

• You can close the heart valves with a resting heart rate of 72 beats per minute or by pressing your ear against the diac output of 5 L/min, which is equal to the total volume of the chest.
• There is blood in the human body.
• Cardiac output increases as much as the recoil of blood against the closed AV valves if the first heart sound is demand.

• The heart has four valves that prevent backflow.

• If blood squirts backward through a faulty valve, it may be made of flaps of tissue that are connected to the heart.
• Some pushed from one side to the other.

• The left and right atria are spread by signals.
• The impulses from the SA node spread here.

• The signals are sent to the heart apex and the ventricular walls.

• Your activity is powered by electrical signals.
• If you can establish the heart rhythm.
• The diagrams at the top show the movement of electrical and the signals from the nervous system, which are yellow, during the cardiac cycle.
• The electrocardiogram is highlighted in yellow under each step.
• The portion of the ECG to the right of the Spike represents decreasing your heart rate and electrical activity that reprimes the ventricles for the next round of contraction.

• The "fight-or flight" hormone is produced by the adrenalitis.
• When a valve defect causes the heart rate to increase, as well as an increase in enough to endanger health, surgeons may implant a mechani body temperature.

• Most valve defects do not reduce the turn in the next section to the forces and structures that influence the efficiency of blood flow enough to warrant surgery.

• The heartbeat starts in the heart.

• The venae cavae and the cardiac muscle are both autorhythmic.

• The electrical from the nervous system needs to be delayed.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The atria contract in unison due to the ability of blood to deliver wal s of the atria.
• Remove waste from the body.

• The blood vessels located in the wal between exhibit a close match of structure and function, which is why the circulatory system relies on them.

• Red blood cells are resistant to fluid flow.

• Capil aries have a very thin wal s, which consist of just an endothelium and a surrounding extracel ular layer.

• The red blood cells in the capillary allow the vessel to stretch and recoil.

• The arteries are strong and thick.
• They can accommodate blood pumped at high pressure by the heart, bulging outward as blood enters and recoiling when the heart relaxes between contractions.

• Water flows help regulate blood flow when the faucet is turned on.
• Blood flow to different parts of the body is affected by the volume of water because of the constriction of these vessels.

• As the volume moves through the rest of the hose, the veins send blood back to the heart.
• They do not need thick walls.
• For a given blood sectional area of the nozzle, a vein is only about a third as thick as the water goes up, leaving the nozzle at high speed.

• The circulatory system has an analogous situation in which blood moves from arteries to arterioles at a slower pace.

• The reason is that blood vessel diameter, vessel num ber of capillaries, and blood pressure influence the speed at which blood body moves.
• The arteries carry blood to different parts of the body.

• The narrow diameter of these vessels creates resistance to flow.

• The elastic wal s of the arteries snap back during diastole.

• When the ventricles are relaxed, the diastolic pressure goes down.

• Doctors and nurses often use an inflatable cuff to measure blood pressure.
• Figure 34.10 shows the interrelationship of cross-sectional area of blood vessels, blood flow velocity, and blood pressure.

• The cuff is deflated gradually.

• The main force driving blood from the heart to the capillaries is highest in the aorta and other arteries when the cuff pressure drops just below that.

• The pressure measured at this beds is equivalent to the pressure in the arteries.
• The blood flow from the arteries to the capil aries is no longer restricted by a decrease in the cuff pressure.
• When the blood begins 500 times more slowly in the capil aries, it equals the diastolic pressure on the gauge.
• After passing through a healthy 20-year-old human at rest, the blood pressure in the capillaries is normal and the blood speed up as it enters the venules, which have smaller total cross-sectional areas.

• Homeostatic mechanisms regulate blood pressure by ates blood pressure, which exerts a force in al directions.
• The arterioles' diameter is changed.
• The arterioles narrow when the smooth muscles in part of the force directed in an arteries cause them to contract.

• The force exerts sideways stretches the wal of the upstream in the arteries.
• The smooth muscles relax.
• The recoil of the elas arterioles causes an increase in diameter that causes blood pressure in the arteries to rise.

• The ner and blood supply are regulated to help control body temperature.
• Homeostatic regulation of blood pressure can be achieved by the use of blood endothelin in blood vessels.

• Blood pressure can be affected by gravity.
• It is one reason why you should exercise immediately after you are standing, for example, if you are eating a big meal and your head is 0.35 m.

• The arterioles that supply capil ary beds can be dilated by constriction relationship of blood pressure and gravity.
• There are changes to the response.
• When the blood pressure in your flow is affected by the diameter of your blood vessel, it causes a homeostatic response to the brain, which is needed to provide adequate blood changes in water balance in the body.

• By placing your head at the level of your heart, rings can be used to cause your body to col apse to the ground.

• The opening and closing of the muscular rings regulates the flow of blood into and out of the veins.

• The critical exchange of substances be blood downward to your legs and feet and impedes its upward tween the blood and interstitial fluid takes place across the thin return to the heart.
• The walls of the capillaries have blood pressure in them.

• The return of blood to the heart is accomplished by endocytosis on one side and exocytosis on the other side.
• Small molecule, such as O2 wal s of venules and veins and by the contraction of skeletal and CO2, simply diffuse across the endothelial cells or, in some muscles during exercise.

• The route for transport of small solutes such as sugars, salts, and urea is provided by these openings.

• The direction of blood flow is determined by the pressure within the capillary.

• The movement of veins is controlled by two opposing forces.
• The one-way valves that keep blood moving only presence of blood proteins tend to pull fluid back from the capil aries as pressure tends to drive fluid out of the veins.
• If you sit or stand too long, the Skeletal muscle will not be able to pass large amounts of blood to other parts of the body.
• The dissolved blood pools are responsible for a lot of the blood in your veins.

• The difference in osmotic pressure between the blood and the interstitial fluid Valve causes fluid movement out of the capillaries.
• Net loss of fluid from capil aries occurs when blood pressure is greater than the opposing forces.
• The greatest net loss is at the end of the vessels.

• At any given time, the adult human body loses up to 8 L of fluid from capil aries to the surrounding tissues.
• Blood is flowing through them.
• Every part of the body is not very impermeable to large molecule drugs, even though the capil ary wal many capil aries, so each tissue has some leakage of blood proteins.
• The fluid and blood were lost.
• Capil aries in the brain, heart, kidneys, and other parts of the body are usually recovered and returned to the blood by the liver.

• There is a network of tiny destinations to the lymphatic system.
• Blood flow to the skin is vessels that are intertwined with capil aries.

• The lymphatic vessels are shown in green.
• Foreign substances are trapped in the adenoids, Peyer's patches, and appendix in the lymph.
• The critical role of the lymph and its flow are shown in steps four and five.

• When you feel sick, your doctor may check the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems to make sure the recovery is complete.

• The spread of the disease can be detected by the movement of the peripheral tissues to the heart.

• Evidence has shown that veins.
• The lymphatic system plays a role in the backflow of fluid by having valves that prevent it.
• The lymphatic system plays a role in moving lymph.

• The movement of the lymph can be disrupted in research.

• The consequence can be severe.

If you had more hearts in your body, what would be one advantage and one body's defense?

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The osmotic balance of the blood is maintained by ions.
• The same composition is required for serving all of these functions.
• The fluid in a closed circulatory system can be more homeostatic.

• The blood is a tissue that has certain functions.
• Immunoglobulins are used to fight in a liquid matrix.
• The compoviruses and other foreign agents that invade the body are separated.
• When bound to blood, apolipoproteins escort lipids occupy 45% of the volume of water and can travel in blood only.
• The remainder is a liquid.
• It was dissolved in the proteins.
• The factors that help plug leaks when blood vessels are injured are found in the blood.

• Blood ents, metabolism, respiratory gases, and hormones are some of the solutes in the blood that are in transit from one part of the body to another.

• Figure 34.13 shows the composition of blood.

• One erythrocyte can transport 1 billion O2 molecules.
• erythrocytes pass through the capil ary beds of lungs, gils, or transport O2, which function in defense.

• The erythrocytes are also suspended in blood ar.
• The systemic capillaries are involved in the clotting process.

• 2 diffuses from hemoglobin into the body.

• The (HbS) is an abnormal form of hemoglobin located in the red marrow inside bones.
• These multipotent stem cells produce two sets of cells that are large enough to distort the erythrocyte into a progenitor cell with a limited capacity.
• One set, the lymphoid progenitors, produces from an altered sequence of hemoglobin lymphocytes.

• Red blood cells are the shortest lived cells, they only last for 120 days before being replaced.

• There are two levels of erythrocyte production in the blood and a feedback mechanism that is sensitive to the O of human blood.
• The body's 5 L of blood contains 25 tril ion of these cells.
• Their main function is O 2, the kidneys produce erythropoietin 2 transport, and their structure is closely related to EPO, a hormone that stimulates erythrocyte production.

• Human erythrocytes are smal disks that are used to treat health problems such as anemia.
• This shape increases surface area, which improves erythrocyte or hemoglobin levels.

• Although this practice has been banned by major istic, it leaves more space in these tiny cells for the sports organizations.

• There are five types of white 250 mil ion molecule of Hb in the blood.
• They are supposed to fight infections.

• T cells have no nuclei but are specialized in bone marrow.

• Blood loss and exposure to infections are halted by eosinophils.
• Coagulation, the conversion of liq Figure 34.14 Differentiation of blood cells is the key mechani cal event in this response.

• The immune cells in an inactive form are called fibrinogen.
• B and T cells are the primary types of blood clotting.
• When injury causes blood to contact the platelets in a broken fragment, the myeloid progenitor cells give rise to other immune cells, red blood cells, and cell.

• Plugs that are small are exposed to the tissue in the wall of the vessel to reinforce it.

• The clotting factors released from the damaged cells mix with the clotting factors in the plasma to form a cascade that converts prothrombin to its active form, thrombin.

• The clot is formed by thrombi of fibrin.

• These or heart valve function to a life threatening disruptions of clotting factorstrigger a cascade of reactions leading to the blood flow to the heart or brain.

• The framework of the clot is reduced by the smooth inner lining of healthy arteries.
• There are anymutations that disrupt the blood flow.
• Bleeding from even minor cuts and bumps can lead to a disease called Hemophilia, a disease characterized by exces roughen the lining and lead to, the hardening sive bleeding.

• thrombin stimulates the enzymatic in particles that consist of thousands of cholesterol molecule cascade, leading to more conversion of prothrombin to throm and other lipids bound to aProtein One type of particle-- bin.

• Anticlotting factors in the blood can prevent sponta.
• Excess cholesterol in a blood vessel blocks the flow of blood.

• There is a clot.
• We'll look at how a throm increased the risk.

• Cardiovascular diseases include disorders of the heart and cholesterol.
• More than 750,000 people in the United States have blood vessels that grow from a plaque.
• The diseases range from minor to major.

• It is also influenced by lifestyle.

• Exercise decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease.
• In contrast, consuming certain processed vegetable oils increase the LDL/HDL ratio.

• In the Scientific Skills Exercise, you can see the effect of a ge 1mm netic mutation on blood LDL levels.

• Inflammation plays a central role in Atherosclerosis.
• thrombus formation and the formation of plaque can restrict blood flow in the arteries.
• Fragments of rupturing plaque can be used in the treatment of cardiovascular disease.
• The bloodstream becomes lodged in other arteries.
• The result of a heart attack or stroke can be prevented if the arteries that supply the heart or brain are blocked with aspirin.

• There is one hypoth crease.
• Chronic high blood pressure can cause a thrombus to form in the esis, potentially triggering a heart attack or that lines the arteries.

• It is easy to diagnose hypertension if you have one or more coronary arteries that supply oxygen to the heart muscle.
• The coronary arteries are small.

• C O N C E P T C H E C K 3 4 can be blocked.

• The heart stops beating if a large portion of it is affected.

• There are arteries that can cause heart attacks and strokes.

• The death of nervous tissue in the brain is caused by the body converting nitroglycerin to nitric oxide.
• Why would you expect it to be in the arteries?

How do you stem brain tissue from the bone?

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• There can be warning signs if critical blood flow is disrupted.

• We will focus on the process mesh tube in the rest of the chapter.
• The process of re ing a healthy blood vessel from the chest or a limb should not be confused with the blockage.

• 15,000 people's genes were examined by researchers interested in genetic factors affecting susceptibility to cardiovascular disease.
• They found that 3% of the individuals had a variation that causes them to lose their PCSK9 gene.
• You will see the results of the experiment they carried out to test the hypothesis.

• The control group has two functional copies of the gene.

• About 4% of the people studied had LDL cholesterol levels in the range of 25-50 grams per deciliter.

• Consider two people with a high cholesterol level, one from the study group and one from the control group.

• There is a version of the Scientific Skills Exercise that can be assigned.

• Exchange oc To understand the driving forces for gas exchange, we must cross a membrane at specialized respiratory surfaces, which is the pressure exerted by a par and relies on partial pressure gradients that drive net diffusion ticular gas in a mixture of gases.
• The partial pressures are being determined.
• The source of the respiratory medium is either water or air.

• O2 is considered an ex exchange.
• The cel s that carry out ample are the same as al living ones.
• The atmosphere exerts a downward force gas exchange that must be in contact with a column of mercury at sea level.

• 760mm Hg is the atmospheric pressure at sea level.

• O 2 and CO2 are found across respiratory surfaces.
• The value is called takes place.

• The area 0.29mm Hg at sea level is fast for gas exchange.

• Respiratory surfaces tend to be large and thin as partial pressures apply to gases dissolved in a liquid.

• In sponges and flatworms, cnidar state is reached in which the partial pressure of the gas in the ians and the air is equal to the partial pressure of the water in the body.

• The majority of the body's cells don't have immediate access to the air and water because of O2's environment.
• The respiratory surface in these animals is very thin.
• The warmer and moist epithelium is a respiratory organ.

• The skin of some animals serves as a respiratory organ.

• The conditions for gas exchange are dependent on the environment and the circulatory system.
• The general body surface doesn't have enough air or water for the respiratory medium.
• O2 makes up 21% of Earth's atmo sphere by volume.
• Compared to water, air is less dense and more elastic, so it is easier to move and force through smal passage ways.
• Breathing air is relatively easy and doesn't need to be very efficient.

• Humans only get 25% of the O2 in the air.

• Air is less demanding than water.

• The gills of a sea star are simple, such as fishes and lobsters.
• The hollow erable energy can be used to carry out a gas exchange.
• Gas exchange takes place in the context of these chal enges.
• Most aquatic animals are able to serve as gills and also function in fluid in the coelom by virtue of the parapodia being spread across the gill surfaces.

• The organization of the sur gas exchange is one of the functions of the sea star's tube feet.

• The evolutionary In fishes, the efficiency of gas exchange is maximized by solution to this limitation is a respiratory organ that is extentive countercurrent exchange, the exchange of a substance or sively folded or branched, thereby increasing the available sur heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions.
• The three fish gil are the lungs, tracheae and gils.

• Gils are outfoldings of the body surface that are suspended in a gil capil ary.
• This tion of gils over the body can vary greatly because of the amount of dissolved O2.

• The blood's pas is greater than the rest of the body's exterior.

• The movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory encounters keeps the partial pres in line with an earlier position in the water's passage over the gil.
• Most of the O2 from water to blood can be moved through the water or the capil ary.

• In the fish gil, more than 80% of the O2 dissolved in the gils.
• As the water passes over the respiratory sur puses, squids take in and excrete their gil s. Countercurrent mechanisms contribute water in other settings, with the benefit of jet to temperature regulation and the functioning of the mam.
• The motion of swimming is used by fishes.

• Respiratory surfaces are enclosed in most animals.

• Each gil arch has two O2 in the water rows of gil.
• O2 is picked up from the water by blood flowing through capil aries.

• cross sections of branched internal tubes are shown in the TEM above.
• The largest allowing air to enter and pass into smaller tracheoles in a tiny piece of insect flight tubes is called the tracheae.
• The muscle cells in the insect's body lie within about 5mm of each of the numerous mitochondria openings.
• Air sacs were formed throughout the body.
• There is a closed tracheole.

• When the organs need a lot of oxygen.

• The surface area of air-filled tracheoles is increased.

• The insect lungs are the most common example of external body surfaces that carry out gas exchange.
• Most lizards and mammals rely on a network of air tubes that go through the lungs.
• The largest tubes are called tra.
• Lungs and air breathing are open to the outside.
• At the tips of the few aquatic vertebrates as adaptation to living in oxygen-poor finest branches, a moist epithelial lining enables gas exchange water or to spending part of their time exposed to air.
• When the water level in a pond goes down, the tracheal system brings air into a stance.

• 2 and CO2 are not required for the animal's open circulatory system.

• In mammals, branching ducts convey air to the lungs, which Tracheal systems often exhibit adaptations related to.
• Consider, for example, a flying insect.
• When in flight, air enters through the nostrils consumes 10 to 200 times more O2 than it does in the air, and isFILTERED by hairs, warmed, humidified, and samples for rest.
• Flying insects have flight muscles that go through a maze of spaces in the nose.

• The pharynx is an intersection of the nose and throat.
• The paths for air and food cross are improved by this pumping.
• The O2 to the densely packed mitochondria that support the high larynx moves upward when food is owed.

• The airway is open the rest of the time.

• The respiratory organs are in the cartilage body.
• This part of the airway is usually kept open by representing an that reinforces the wal s of the larynx and the trachea infolding of the body surface.
• The respiratory surface of a lung mammal does not allow for direct contact with other parts of the body, such as the vocal folds or the gap muscle.
• The sounds must be bridged by the circulatory system, which transports gases between the lungs and the rest of the body.
• Lungs vibrate the cords.
• In organisms with open circulatory systems, high-pitched sounds result in the evolution of organisms such as spiders and land snails.

• Amphibians rely on the flow of air across one lung.

• Figure 34.20 shows the respiratory system of the mammal.
• Inhaled air travels through the nose, pharynx, and trachea to the bronchioles, which are lined with moist alveoli.
• The branches of the pulmonary arteries and pulmonary veins carry oxygen-rich blood from the alveoli to the heart.

• If too much particulate matter reaches the tire system of air ducts, the defense can be overwhelmed, leading to inflaming the trunk being the trachea.
• The damage is caused by the lining of the epithelium.
• A thin from cigarette smoke that enters alveoli can cause a permanent film of mucus.
• Dust, pol en, and other particles are trapped in the mucus.
• Coal miners who breathe in large late contaminants and the cilia that move the mucus upward can lead to silicosis, a disabling disease that can be found in the pharynx.

• The film of liquid that lines alveoli is subject to surface ten and plays a crucial role in cleansing the respiratory system.

• The mixture of phos produced by alveoli have a surface area of about 100 m2 and 50 pholipids.
• The alveoli agent coats the alveoli and reduces surface tension.

• After 33 weeks of development, alveoli are highly susceptible to contami, due to the fact that typical y appears in the lungs after from their surface.
• In the 1950s, RDS had 10,000 in the nation.

• Mary Ellen Avery, a research fellow at Harvard University, conducted an experiment to find out if a lack of surfactant caused respiratory distress syndrome in preterm infants.
• To test this idea, we have to look at the process of breathing.
• Like fishes, ter obtained autopsy samples of lungs from infants that had died of restrial causes.
• The samples had low CO2 concentrations.
• The pro allowed it to make a film on water.
• The alternating inhala lowest surface tension was observed for each sample.

• The air in and out of lungs have evolved based on the body mass of the infants, which is less than 1,200 g.

• Fresh air is first drawn through the nostrils into the mouth.

• There is direct air flow through the lungs.

• The sites of gas exchange are cal ed parabronchi.

• For infants with a body mass of 1,200 g or greater, two cycles of inhalation and exhalation are required.

• A lack of fil ing a is a likely cause of RDS.

• If you lower the pressure results from infants with a body mass less than 1,200 g, you can draw gas or fluid through the needle into infants who have died from RDS, suggesting that it is not normally produced until a fetus is born.

• The rib cage is used to treat premature infants.
• As rib muscles contract, they are treated as rib muscles.

• She received the National Medal of Science in 1991.

• The earthworms come to the surface after a heavy rain.

• The diaphragm rent exchange facilitates respiration in fish and thermo contracts.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The medul a oblongata is near the base of the brain where the breathing tubes are located.

• The breathing control centers help establish the breathing rhythm.

• The bottom wal of the cavity is formed when you breathe deeply.
• The front wall of the lung tissue is stretched by one set of rib muscles, which in turn causes the rib cage to expand.

• The medulla regulates breathing by using the pH of the sur the lung.
• It is this descending diaphragm rounding tissue fluid that is an indicator of blood CO2 concentra.

• The main reason that the pH can be used in this way is that blood CO2 is always active and requires work.
• The muscles con fluid around the brain and spine.
• The volume of the lung is reduced when carbon dioxide relaxes and diffuses from the blood to the brain.
• Increased air pressure in the alveoli causes air to act with water and form carbonic acid.

• There is a thin space fil ed with fluid.
• The two layers are caused by surface tension in the fluid.
• Increased metabolism raises the concentra to stick together like two plates of glass separated by a film of CO2 in the blood.
• The layers can slide smoothly past each other, but the higher the CO2 concentration, the harder it is to pul ed apart.
• The volume of an increase in the concentration of H+ lowers the pH.
• The volume of the lungs and the volume of the sensors change at the same time.

• The volume of air breathed in and exhaled is different.
• The control circuits increase the cal ed.
• Both are humans.
• The tidal volume during maximal inhalation and high until the excess CO2 is eliminated in exhaled air and pH exhalation is 3.4 L and 4.8 L, which is a normal value.

• The blood O2 level has little effect on the breathing mains after a forced exhalation.

• With age, the lungs lose their resilience, residual volume, and O2 sensors in the aorta, and the increases at the expense of vital capacity.

• O2 is used when climbing in the Himalayas.

• Blood vessels detect a decrease in blood pH.

• Medulla gets most of the time for breathing.

• The arteries in the neck send signals to the breathing con when they interact with O2 and CO2.
• trol centers respond by increasing the breathing rate.

• Let's track the variation in partial pressure for C O N C E P T C H E C K 3 4 to appreciate how the gas exchange and circulatory systems function together.

• O2 and CO2 are shed across these systems.
• Fresh air mixes with air remaining in the lungs when the concentration of CO2 increases.

• An increase in heart rate is caused by a drop in blood pH.

If a smal hole is torn in the membranes, what effect will it have on lung function?

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The blood is pumped through the system after it comes back to the heart.

• CO2 is added to the surrounding fluid because of the high demands of many animals.
• Blood is unloaded and returned to the heart, where it is pumped to the lungs again.

• Respiratory pigments have evolved in animals.

• Hemoglobin is the main component of the body.

• Each iron has a relative amount of O2 bound to hemoglobin that is exposed to an atom.

• The molecule is shown as shown.

• Figure 34.25 O2 is loading O2 in Hemoglobin.

• It was found in body tissues.

• The pH is decreasing.
• The shape of the hemoglobin is affected by hydrogen ion concentrations.
• The O2 dissociation curve is shifted by the effect of sub a drop in pH and a slight drop in PO.

• Increased cellular respiration is supported by an increase in the amount of O lower pH.

• Hemoglobin is efficient at delivering O2 to tissues that are consuming it.

• The increasedciency results from CO2 production, not from O2 consumption.
• CO2 is produced by tissues as they consume O2 in cell respiration.
• CO2 reacts with Hemoglobin, which helps in buffering the blood, by forming carbonic acid, which lowers the pH of the water.
• There are minor role roundings.
• We'll explore the topic of hemo in CO2 transport next.

2 production is greater, hemoglobin releases more O2, which can be used to support more cellular

• The erythrocytes respond to water with the help of O2 in their bodies.
• H2CO3 is formed by the carbonic anhydrase in the Weddel seal.
• Fur easily splits into H+ and HCO - 3.
• Most of the H+ bind thermore is done by the muscles of seals and other diving mammals, which reduces the change in blood pH.
• The HCO - 3 diffuses out of the erythrocytes myoglobin.
• The Weddel seal can store twice and be transported to the lungs.
• A human can have as much O2 as a kilogram of body mass.

• About 5% of the CO2 is bound to hemoglo Diving mammals, who have a large O2 stock bin and are transported in erythrocytes.

• When blood flows through the lungs, the relative partial with little muscular effort and glide passively for long periods of time favor the net dispersal of CO2 out of the riods.
• Most of the blood goes to the brain during a dive.
• As CO2 diffuses into alveoli, the amount of CO2 in the cord, eyes, adrenal glands, and pregnant seals is increased.

• During the longest time in favor of the conversion of HCO - 3 to CO2, the blood supply to the muscles is restricted or shut off.

• In environments in which there is no access to their normal re response to environmental chal enges over the short term by spiratory medium, animals vary greatly in their ability to spend time showcase two related themes in our study of organisms.

• If O2 or CO2 undergoes net diffusion for more than an hour, what determines it.

• A doctor could give a pa tient bicarbonate to help him breathe.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• There is a chemical exchange between blood and blood products in the body.

• There are variations in ventricle number and separation.

• The flow of a fluid in a closed circulatory system is influenced by the movement of molecules between cells.

• The erythrocyte's shape and function are affected by berrant.

• The potential for life threatening damage to the heart or brain is caused by alveolar and cells.

• There is gas exchange across respiratory surfaces.

• Air has a higher O2 content and lower density than water.

• Spiders, land snails, and most ter t T a complete sequence of the heart's pumping restrial vertebrates, consists of a period.

• Breathing helps the lungs.

• Blood vessels are adapted to function.
• The outgoing air mix is decreasing the efficiency.

• Arteries have thick breathing rate and depth.
• The elastic walls maintain blood pressure.
• Veins contain one-way tional input to the control center, which is provided by sensors in the valves that contribute to the return of blood to the heart.
• Blood levels of O2 and pressure are monitored by the blood aorta and carotid arteries.

• The adaptions for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases.

• Transport red blood and deplete it slowly.

• Platelets play a role in blood clotting.

• The following respiratory systems are not aorta, the left ventricle, or the right ventricle.

• A hypothesis 0 20 40 60 80 100 (A) blood pressure is proposed by pulse.

• The largest insects were the Paleozoic dragonflies.

• The tent in which PO is kept is a feature that both humans and the salamanders have in common.

• The number of circuits for circulation is related to the behaviors in the short essay.

• Compared with the fluid that bathes active muscle exchange media and gas cells, blood reaching these cells in arteries has an exchange organ among (A) higher PO.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• F prevent diseases from entering the body.
• The internal environment of an entry by many pathogens is blocked by an outer covering such as a skin or shel.
• It's a great place to seal off the entire body surface animal.
• The animal body can't be offered because gas exchange, nutrition, and a ready source of nutrients are needed in a protected setting for growth and reproduction.

• We are wonderful and leave when we get a cold or flu.
• The situation is not ideal from our point of view.

• Most animals interact with and destroy pathogens when they enter the body fluids and tissues of the body.

• The animal's im phage is attacking the rod-shapedbacteria.
• Im mune system must detect foreign particles and also release defense molecule into the body.
• In other words, a properly functioning immune is what distinguishes self from nonself.
• Viruses are blocked from entering body cells.
• The body's de produce receptor molecule that bind specifically tomol fenses make up the, which enables an animal to avoid or limit many infections.
• The immune the central event in identifying nonself molecule, particles, is a type of molecular recognition that doesn't have to be caused by a disease.

• Innate immunity is found in animals and plants.

• The insect is a barrier against infections in body cells.

• Figure 35.2 Overview of animal immunity shows that an enzyme that breaks downbacteria acts as a chemical.
• Immune responses protect against food-borne diseases.

• Immune defenses are activated by components of a pathogen that break an insect's barrier.

• Immune cells in sects are able to recognize pathogens by binding to them.
• The basis for immune defense in animals is provided by two types of molecule recognition, one of which is double.
• These two types of immunity are highlighted by the funda macromolecule characteristic of a broad class of pathogens.

• An innate immune response specific to that class is gained by binding the recognition protein trig to a macromolecule.

• Some hemocytes ingest and break down micro animal bodies but are common to a group of viruses,bacteria, organisms.

• In a foreign molecule, the binding of an innate immune receptor to Many hemocytes releases antimicrobial peptides, which in a foreign molecule, causes internal defenses to kick in.

• One class of hemocytes produces another type, which relies on a defense molecule that helps entrap larger pathogens, each of which recognizes a feature as Plasmodium, the single-cel ed parasites of mosquitoes that typically found only on a particular part of the body.

• Re sponse in adaptive immunity occur with remarkable specificity as a result of this.

• In jawed animals, innate immune defenses coexist with each other more slowly.
• The adaptive immunity system has evolved recently.
• The immune response is enhanced by previous discoveries regarding innate im exposure to the infecting pathogen.
• There are examples of adaptive re munity from studies of mice and humans.

• How patho tides will be investigated.
• Natural killer cells, interferons, and fects in the immune system can endanger an animal's health, and some unique aspects of vertebrates can avoid or overwhelm the immune system.

• This schematic shows the destruction of a microbe by a phagocytic cell.

• The barrier defenses of mammals block the entry of all of the organisms found in animal cells.
• There are many pathogens that include the skin.

• Body fluids create an environment that is hostile to many pathogens.
• TLR3 binding to double pathogens is an example.
• A form of nucleic acid characteristic of certain, lysozyme in tears, saliva, and mucus, destroys susceptiblebacteria as they enter viruses.
• lipopolysaccharide is a mol the openings around the eyes or the upper respiratory tract.

• The acidic environment of the stomach makes it difficult for the two main types of phagocytic cells in the mammal to enter the intestines.

• Human skin tissues are created from oil and sweat glands.

• In mammals and insects there are innate immune cells that contact the environment.
• They detected, devoured, and destroyed invading patho that stimulated adaptive immunity.
• We'll explore how to recognize viral, fungal, orbacterial components soon.
• The eosinophils rely on several types of receptors.

• Some of them are very similar to Tol, a key activator of innate immu against multicel ular invaders.
• eosinophils discharge destructive Physiology or Medicine in 2011.

• Some white blood cells release chemicals that help fight cancer.
• Drug companies are using recombinant DNA to stop the spread of diseases.

• There are many innate defenses that involve the viral infections.

• They reside in the lyme, where they are activated by substances that enter the lyme from the interstitial fluid.
• The surface of many organisms.
• There is a cascade of reside outside the lymphatic system but migrate to the lymph biochemical reactions that can lead to lysis after interacting with pathogens.
• The cells of the immune system.

• When a splinter lodges in your skin, the surrounding area will release a variety of peptides and proteins that attack patho.
• Both changes affect the reproduction of Gens.
• As in insects, some of the events triggered upon defense molecule function as antibiotics.
• Disruption of membrane integrity can cause activated and inactivating pathogens.

• Interleukin and complement are two of the cytokines that promote blood flow to the immune system.

• Mast cells, which are found in connec Interferons, provide innate defense by in tive tissue, releasing the signaling molecule at sites terfering with viral infections.
• Histamine causes nearby blood vessels to dilate, which in turn causes nearby uninfected cells to pro and become more permeable.
• The increase in local duce substances reduces the amount of viral replication.
• In this way, the blood supply produces redness and increased skin interferons limit the cell-to-cell spread of viruses in the body, which is typical of the inflammatory response.

• Neutrophils produce cytokines and digest pathogens.
• The signaling molecule cause nearby capillaries to enter the tissue by allowing fluid containing antimicrobial peptides cell debris at the site.
• The tissue heals the cytokiness.

• During inflammation, there are cycles of signaling and response.

• Pus is a sign of infections and an indicator of the immune system.

What happens when the blood flow to the site is increased and the molecules act the same time?

• The wasp injects their eggs into the damaged tissue.

• A minor injury can cause a local inflammatory egg, the egg hatch and the wasp can eat the host, but more extensive tissue damage can cause the wasp to become food.
• Why do insect species differ in how they respond to something?

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Within a few hours, the number of white blood cells in the blood stream can increase severalfold.

• There is a systemic inflammatory response.

• phago vertebrates are unique in having both adaptive and innate im cytosis and, by speeding up chemical reactions, accelerate munity.

• The stem cells in the lymphocytes can cause a life-threatening bone marrow disease if they get into the bloodstream.

• There are cells that remain and health.

• Some pathogens have evolved to allow them to bind just one part of a molecule to avoid destruction by the immune system.

• The immune system produces mil s of different types of cells.
• Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major cause of pneumonia and produces just one variety of lymphocyte, which is why it is a major cause of meningitis in humans.

• Somebacteria are recognized, but are resistant to break terium, or other pathogen causes the B and T cells to go down after being engulfed by a host.
• There is an example of a specific part of the pathogen.

• Instead of being destroyed, this bacterium ceptors, but there are actually 100,000 antigen receptors that grow and reproduce within host cells, hidden on the surface of a single B or T cell.

• The Antigens are foreign and usually result in a disease like Tuberculosis.
• The lungs and other tissues are tacks.
• More than 1 million people a year are affected by Tuberculosis worldwide.

• There is a particular protein.
• Each of the epi topes has a different specificity.

• The specificity of each B or T cell allows it to respond to any pathogen that produces a molecule containing that epitope.

• There are different ways in which B cell components encounter antigens.

• The two processes are considered in turn.

• Two identical heavy chains and a B cell bind to an epitope, a particular part of an antigen.

• The B cell gives rise to cells that produce a form of the antigen.
• Figure 35.6 shows the relationship between the soluble receptor and the other one.

• Different epitopes can be recognized by different antibodies.
• Antibodies can recognize both free and antigens on a pathogen's surface.

• The light and heavy chains have the same Y-shaped region, Antibodies have the same Y-shaped region, but they are different on B cels.
• The transmembrane region of the antibodies provides a defense against pathogens in body fluids.

• A lock-and-key fit is provided by the variable (V) region of the antigen-binding site of a heavy and light chain because it has a unique shape.
• Part of a heavy-chain V region and a light-chain V region form a binding site for an interaction.

• The formation of Gens in the blood and lymph can be traced back to the binding of a B cell antigen to an antigen.

• A fragment from a pathogen that is bound to an MHC molecule is brought to the host's surface and displayed.

• There is an immense amount of lymphocytes and receptors bridge.
• A transmembrane region is found near the base of the T cel receptor and can be used to detect antigens and pathogens for the first time.
• Second, adaptive immunity usually has a self that anchors the molecule.
• There is a lack of reactivity against an animal's own mol outer tip of the molecule.
• The number of B and T cells specific for the mainder of the molecule is increased by the re.

• The T cel s bind only to fragments of the previously encountered epitope, whereas the B cel s bind to the previously encountered epitope, due to a feature known of intact antigens.

• A cal memory occurs after a mature lymphocyte encounters and binding to a specific antigen.
• When an acteristics in the order in which they develop begins, we'll consider these four char Recognition ofProtein Antigens.

• The cell cleaves the antigen into smal er peptides.

• Each person makes more than 1 milion different B cel antigen fragment, binding to an MHC molecule inside the cel.
• There are only about 20,000 genes on the human surface.
• The display of genome was the result.
• How do we generate so many different antigen fragments in the same place?

• The answer is in combinations.

• The presentation advertises that there is a choice of nine dinners and five desserts.
• There is a foreign substance in hostcel.
• The 45 (9 x 5) combinations are displayed on the screen.
• The immune system assembles mil ion of the interaction of an MHC molecule, an antigen fragment, and different receptors from a very small collection of parts if the antigen fragment encounters a T cell with the right specificity, variable elements.

• Concept 35.3 will help us understand the origin of receptor diversity.

• Let's consider four major characteristics of adaptive immunity, since we know how B and T cels recognize antigens.

• The structure rearranged genes are transcribed and pro-Ig genes are found in the transcripts.
• Three genes are used for translation of a light chain.
• The light chain consists of a variable segment, a joining segment, and a heavy chain together.
• The C segment and light chains result in a different antigen-binding site when rearranged.
• The total population of Bcels in a human body, the number a single C segment, 40 different V segments, and 5 different combinations has been calculated as 3.5 x 106.
• The alternative copies of the V and J segments thermore are in a series.
• Adding more variation will make the number of antigen-binding cause a functional gene even greater.

• The number of different heavy-chain com binations is greater.

• There are genes that are random.
• Some immature lymphocytes produce a recombinase that links one light-chain V gene segment to one specific for their own molecule.
• The immune system could not distinguish between self and non-self because the stretch of DNA between the segments was not eliminated.

• Instead, as lym Recombinase acts randomly, linking any one of the 40 V phocytes to any one of the 5 J genes.
• Self-reactivity is tested for heavy receptors.
• Some B and T cels have the same genes.
• Only one light-chain gene and one programmed cell death are destroyed in any given cell.
• The remaining heavy-chain genes are rearranged.
• The rearrange self-reactive lymphocytes are rendered nonfunctional, ments are permanent and are passed on to the daughter.

• The immune system is said to have been rearranged after the light-chain and heavy-chain genes react against each other.
• The goal is to exhibit self-acceptance.

• A functional receptor is formed by a combination of transcription and a polypeptide produced from an rearranged heavy-chain gene.

• A successful tection that a prior infection provides against many diseases, match between an antigenreceptor and an epitope initiate such as chickenpox.
• This type of protection was almost activated by events.

• Once activated, a B cell or T cell undergoes multiple cell divi served that individuals who had recovered from the plague.
• The result of this proliferation is a can safely care for those who were sick or dying, for the clone, a population of cels that are identical to the original cel.

• Some of the cells from this clone become, mostly short, before exposure to an antigen alters the speed, strength, and lived cells that take effect immediately against it.
• The production of effector pathogens.
• The effector forms from a clone of lymphocytes after the first exposure to ar.
• The primary response peaks after the initial ex, with the effector forms of T cel s. The cells in the clone will be posure.
• During this time, selected cells give rise to come, long-lived cells that can give rise to effector forms.
• If the same antigen is encountered later in the animal's life, an individual is exposed again to the same thing.

• The hallmark of adap is using B cells as an example.
• This process is called immunity.

• Only one of the three B cells has a particular antigen bind to it.

• A clone of identical cells is formed when a B cell is selected.

• B cells are an example of clonal selection.
• One B cell divides and forms a clone of another B cell in response to an immune cell signal.

• The remaining B cells do not respond.
• The clone of cells formed by the selected B cell gives rise to other cells.
• T cells can be generated with effector T cells and memory T cells.

• The Antibody concentration of the blood and lymph is protected.

• Exposure to the A and B humoral immunity can include a primary and a time secondary immune response.

• This must be displayed on the surfac.

• T and B memory cells are generated when animal cells are exposed to eign antigens on their surface.
• What distinguishes an object?
• The answer lies in the existence of two bases for immunological memory.
• Most bodies have class I decades.
• If an antigen is encountered again, it is important to remember a signature by which an antigen-presenting cell can form quickly.

• Although the processes for antigen recognition, clonal selec, and immunological memory are the same, there are some differences.
• In Concept 35.3 we'll look at ways and settings.

• Draw a B cell.
• The V and C should be labeled.
• The form of cytokines and disulfide bridges are exchanged.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Cell proliferation produces a clone of the pathogen and displays fragments of the cytokines by the T cells.
• The cells in the clone were complexed with MHC molecules.
• These cells are able to bind to this complex via its antigen, which in turn stimulates the T cell, B cells, and accessory proteins.

• The life span of the humoral immune response is 4 to 5 days, and the amount of antibodies produced is 2,000 every second.
• In nearly a tril ion antibody molecule.
• Antibodies do not directly kill pathogens, but by binding to the surface of the pathogen, they can kill it.
• Stimulated by both fere and pathogen activity, the B cell can grow and destroy.
• Consider the process of neutralization, which ate into memory B and plasma.

• The activated B cell degrades the antigen and displays a differentiates into memory B cells and pathogen on the cell surface.
• The helper T cell that recognizes the complex is the one that initiated the response.

• Antitrypsins are used to prevent infections by viruses or other pathogens.

• helper T cells and interaction with an antigen-presenting antibodies can bind cel.

• The toxins displayed on the surface of the cel are prevented from entering the body by the fluids associated with class I MHC molecules.

• The MHC molecule can be binding to two antigen-binding sites with the help of an accessoryProtein.
• Figure 35.15 neutralization can be aided by this accessoryprotein, cal ed antibodies.

• Antibodies bind to the CD8 and help keep the twocels in contact while the bac- surface of a virus blocks its ability.

• The complement system shows how antibodies can work together with the proteins of disrupt membrane integrity.
• The binding of a complement to circulating antibodies causes an event on a foreign cel.

• Ions and water rush into the cell, causing it to swell and lyse.

• There are five different types of immunoglobulin.

• There is a distinct heavy-chain C region and humoral immunity specificity.
• Secondary immune responses can be included in one type of Ig.

• The other four types of memory include helper T cel, B cel, and cytotoxic Ig types.

• The class I MHC-antigen fragment complex on which the granzymes initiate apoptosis forms in the cell, leading to the breakdown of the cell through the use of the cell's nucleus and cytoplasm.

• There are Granzymes in the death.
• The released T cell can cause infections.

• Figure 35.16 shows the killing action of T cells.
• The cell's death can be promoted by an activated cytotoxic T cell that releases molecules that make pores in the cell's membrane.

• By binding to and lysing the better targets for phagocytic cells and complement proteins, intracellular pathogens can be prevented from binding to and making them and cancer.

• The primary or secondary response is represented by the black or brown arrow.

• When the blood of a fetus is troduced into the body in a vaccine, active immunity can be created.
• The protection is called passive immunity because of the antibodies in the recipi genes.
• In this case, the fetus is produced by another individ immunization, which causes the mother to have a primary immune ual.
• Antibodies present in breast milk provide a response.
• The infant's immune system develops while the vaccine is in the infant's system.

• The recipient of a blood transfusion is immune to a public health problem.
• The system can recognize the glycoproteins on the surface of blood.
• The side effects of immunization are very rare.

• Medical personnel match blood donors if they have a reaction to the vaccine.

• It is not fail-safe in artificial passive immunization.
• Here we look at some of the ways the mune animal is injected.
• The adaptive immune system fails to protect the host.

• When injected immediately, Al ergies are exaggerated and the antivenin can neutralize the calle.
• Hay fever occurs when the toxins in the venom can cause a lot of damage.

• Sneezing, teary eyes, and plasma s can be included in the results.
• Anti smooth muscle contractions in the lungs can be prepared from a clone of B cel s grown in cul breathing.
• Antihistamines block the receptors for ture.
• The produced by such a culture is histamine.

• The basis for many advances in medical diagnosis and treatment can be found inonoclonal antibodies.

• The presence of hCG in a woman's urine is a reliable indicator of a very early stage of pregnancy because the hormone is produced as soon as an embryo implants in the uterus.
• A number of human diseases, including certain cancers, can be treated with large amounts ofonoclonal antibodies.

• The immune defenses of another person can attack the foreign cells from another person.

• The person who received the IgE antibodies will look healthy for a week or so, but will be exposed to an allergic reaction and will be re-injected.
• Mast cells are turned on by it.

• Each of us has at least a dozen different MHC genes.
• There are more than 100 different versions of human MHC genes.

• The immune response can be stimulated by the differences.

• In order to minimize rejection of a transplant, surgeons use MHC molecules in donor tissue that match those of the leading allergy symptoms.

• The recipient takes Mast cells and the allergic response.
• In this medicine that suppresses immune responses, the recipient is more susceptible to infections due to the fact that pollen grains act as the allergen.

• An acute allergic response can lead to a life-threatening anaphylactic shock.
• Inflammation is a major public health problem.
• As it replicates in leased from immune cells, it causes constriction of bronchioles and one human host after another, which causes a pre frequent mutations.
• The drop in blood pressure is caused by any change.
• The immune system has an advantage due to the inability to breathe and lack of blood flow.
• The host immune bee venom, penicil in, peanuts, and shel fish can be affected by the virus's changes in sur that can cause anaphylactic shock in al ergic individuals.
• A new flu vaccine must be developed and distributed each year.
• This al ergic response is counteracted by the human epinephrine.

• In some people, the immune system is active against particular, which can be seen by any of the memory cells in the body.
• The 1918-1919 systemic lupus erythematosus outbreak killed more than 20 million people.

• The targets of autoimmunity include the production ofinsulin and entering a largely inactive state cal ed latency.
• In type 1 diabetes, the myelin production of most viral proteins and free viruses ceases, as a sheath that protects many neurons.

• The effects of gender, heredity, and environment on susceptibility to autoimmune disorders persist until there are favorable conditions.

• Many autoim Herpes simplexviruses give a good example of latency.

• The type 1 virus causes more infections than males.

• Men are likely to suffer from a variety of stimuli until the viruses are reactivated two to three times.
• rheuma can develop in blisters around the mouth that are inaccurately cal ed "cold" if the type 1 virus is activated.
• Infections of the type 2 virus can cause inflammation in the babies of mothers who are HIV positive and can increase transmission of the disease.

• The causes of AIDS are escapes and attacks of the sex bias.
• The rise in HIV in autoimmune disease is due to the high efficiency of the HIV.
• There are areas of active X-ray of hands in colored countries that are affected by HIV.

• The immune body of animals has evolved to fight HIV.
• The presence of HIV is aided by latency.

• The immune system is altered by an HIV infection over time.
• The adaptive immune response can also be abolished.
• When a host is killed by a virus, it can cause a loss of helper T cells, which can affect both humoral and immune responses.

• A healthy immune sickness that causes sleeping body to be susceptible to infections and cancer is an extreme example.
• One example is Pneumocystis carini, a common fungus that does not cause disease in healthy individuals over its entire surface.
• Severe pneumonia in people with AIDS can be caused by the Scientific Skills Exercise.
• The data on this form of antigenic variation is used to interpret the body's response to diseases such as nerve damage and wasting.

• Natural selection favors parasites that can keep a low level of infections in a host for a long time.

• The glycoproteins covering a trypanosome's surface contain a relative a gene that is duplicated more than a thousand times in the organ abundance of two such antibodies during the early period of chronic ism's genome.
• The copies are slightly different.
• Use an index ranging from 0 to 1 to periodically switch infections.

• The axis labels on the right are the independent variable and the dependent vari side of the graph.

• The pattern you described in question 2 can now be distinguished by scientists.

• Drugs that can slow the progression to AIDS, as well as semen, blood, and breast cation, have been developed, thanks to the transfer of HIV particles.

• People with HIV can transmit the disease to others.
• For example, if they express HIV-specific veloping Kaposi's sarcoma in the first few weeks, the risk is 20,000 times greater than if they don't.
• 10% to 50% of new HIV infections appear to be caused by re initial y puzzling.
• If the immune system only recognizes non cently infections.

• That is the mark of cancer.
• C O N C E P T C H E C K 3 5 was discovered.

• The immune system can recognize the bind to and block of certain receptors on muscle cells, foreign, so it can act as a defense against viruses that can cause preventing muscle contraction.
• What type of disorder is cancer?

What is the function of the surface antigen receptors?

• The first vaccine shown to help prevent a specific human can lar venomous snake species was treated with antivenin if a snake handler was bitten.

• The same treatment might be given for a second bite a year after the first.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• Stem cells are diated by physical and chemical barriers as well as cell-based Cell division and defenses.

• Changes in blood vessels are promoted by the elimination of released at the injury site.

• In adaptive immunity, thereceptors provide pathogenspecific recognition.

• T cells help other cells by binding to foreign populations, while cal ed plasma cells bind to foreign cells.
• B cells call out against future infections by the same pathogen.

• Pathogen t Recognition involves binding of variable regions of receptors.

• The surface of an tigens has epitopes on it.

• Intate (B) infecting cells that produce very few MHC molecules destroy them.

• Draw it and you'll get immediate, short-term protection.

• They are stimulating immune rejection in organ transplants.

• In allergies, the interaction of antibodies and iggers picture shows the antibodies linking proteins into a complex immune cells to release histamine and other mediators that cause that couldtrigger endocytosis by a macrophage.

• Multiplesclerosis can be caused by loss of self- tolerance.

• Make connections between Lamarck's Antigenic variation, latency, and direct assault on the immune idea for the inheritance of acquired characteristics and clonal selection.

• Discuss how an evolutionary adaptation retained in vertebrates is a defense mechanism in the invertebrate world.

• Only B and T cels lose their DNA production during their development and maturation.

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• These marine molluscs may remain joined for hours if not disturbed as sperm are the generation of new individuals from existing ones.
• Eggs are fertilized in this transfer.
• The new chapter compares the different reproductive mechanisms that have evolved in the animal kingdom.
• The details of reproduction in mammals are simple and unexpected.
• There is an example of humans studied.
• We'll have eggs and sperm and therefore we'll be a mother and father to the next generation.

• reproduction animal from a fertil takes many forms across the animal kingdom.
• Individuals change their ized egg.

• There are two ways in which animals reproduce--sexual and meiosis-free.

• Parthenogenesis is thought to be a rare form of the diploid cell.
• The female gamete produces offspring when kept apart and nonmotile, whereas the male produces offspring from males of its species.
• In 2015, a group of new individuals are created without the fusion of egg and female sawfish that were genetically identical to one another.

• Each of them will be considered in turn.

• Imagine an animal population in which half of the females reproduce sexually and the other half reproduce asexu, which is only found in invertebrates.
• One of these is a budding ally.
• The number of offspring in which new individuals arise from outgrowths of exist per female is a constant, two in this case.
• In stony corals, buds asexual female and daughters give birth to each other and remain attached to their parents.
• Two more daughters can reproduce.
• Half of a sexual female's offspring will be male because of the large colony on av.
• The num connected people.
• Sexual offspring remain the same at each generation because both a male and a female are required to reproduce.

• Generation is a two-step process of asexual reproduction.
• Sex is maintained despite the twofold cost, even in animal species that can reproduce asexually.

• The answer is not known.
• Net effect is the focus of most hypotheses.
• A certain type of annelid worms can split their body into several fragments, each regenerating meiotic recombination and fertilization.
• A complete worm was produced in less than a week.
• Sexual reproduction may enhance ians, bristle worms, sea stars, and sea squirts because of the reproductive success of parents.

• We would expect asexual reproduction to be the most successful in stable environments.

• The orange and white clown fish reproduce sexually.
• Many others can reproduce either sexually or asexually, including the sea star at the lower left.

• Most animals exhibit cycles in re productive activity, which are related to changing seasons.
• The hormones that control these cycles are regulated by the environment.
• In this way, animals conserve resources, reproducing only when sufficient energy sources or stores are available and when environmental conditions favor the survival of offspring.

• Climate change can affect reproductive activity because seasonal temperature is an important cue for reproduction.

• The person on top is playing a male role.
• There are two sex roles in Greenland.

• Prior to 1993, the arrival of caribou at the calving grounds coincide with a brief period in which the plants were healthy.

• Plants sprouted two weeks earlier because of the crease in the ovulation.

• There is a mismatch between the timing of new plant growth and the birthing of caribou.

• Some asexual animals have a cycle of reproductive behavior.

• There are no males.
• Similar to sexual species of Aspidoscelis, these lizards have courting and mating behaviors.
• The member of the pair alternates roles two or three times during the changes in ovary size, hormone levels, and sexual behavior of one female lizard.

• Sexual behavior in parthenogenetic lizards is influenced by the level of the female sex hormone estradiol.

• When the level of progesterone is high, these reptiles reproduce by parthenogenesis.
• If the individual is mounted, the ovulation is more likely to occur if there is an unfertilized egg.

• During the evolu doing, there were adaptation that arose.
• A form of sexual reproduction that blurs the distinction between male and female is what hermaphrodites are capable of.
• One doesn't need a partner.

• These coral reef fish live in harems, each consisting of a single ity, and have little chance to find a mate.
• When the lone male dies, the oppor evolutionary solution is lost.

• The week begins to produce sperm instead of eggs.

• A larger size may be important for a male to ensure successful reproduction because it is the male wrasse that defends a harem against invaders.

• The male and fe Penis release eggs into the environment, where the male clasps them andfertilizes them.
• The sperm form in the testes, pass through a sperm duct, and are stored in the seminal vesicles.
• The male deposited in or near the female reproductive tract fertilizes eggs by sedating them with fluid from the accessory glands.

• Many aquatic inverte Ovary brates simply shed their eggs and sperm into the surroundings, and fertilization occurs without the parents making physical contact.
• Timing is important to ensure that mature sperm and eggs meet.

• Other individuals release gametes when vulva gametes are triggered.
• Eggs travel through the population and cause them to release gametes.
• The palolo worm, native to coral reefs of the South spermathecae, is connected to the uterus by short ducts.

• The female uses stored sperm to fertilize each egg as it enters the Pacific and then passes the egg out through the vagina.

• When the moon is in its last month, palolo worms break in half, releasing tail segments fertilization.
• Sexual reproduction requires fertilization with sperm or eggs.

• Within hours, the palolo's once-a-year reproductive frenzy is complete, as the sperm quickly fertilizes the floating eggs.

• When external fertilization is not synchronized across water-soluble molecules that are dispersed into the environment population, individuals may exhibit specific "courtship" be and, like hormones, are active at very low concentrations.
• Many haviors leading to the fertilization of the eggs of one female pheromones function as mate attractants, enabling some female by one male.
• The release of sperm and insects can be detected by males more than a kilometer away.

• Animals that fertilize their eggs internal are less likely to reach an egg efficiently, even when the environment is dry.
• It requires a compatible fraction of their zygotes to survive.
• The fact that eggs fertilized inside are sheltered copulation leads to better zygote survival.
• The male copulatory organ is used to deliver sperm.
• The female reproductive tract is often associated with mechanisms that provide greater delivery of sperm to mature eggs.

• Sexual reproduction in animals depends on sets of cells.
• Early in the embryo's development, there is a group of cel s dedicated to this function.
• The number of cells available for making eggs or sperm increases or decreases after the body takes shape.

• Animals use a variety of reproductive systems to produce gametes.

• The palolo worm is an exception.
• The female glues her cussed earlier after internal fertilization.
• The eggs were fertilized by the palolo and other polychaete worms.

• The eggs of fishes and salamanders have only a gelati fil the coelom as the gametes mature.
• Depending on the species, mature gametes don't have internal membranes.

• More elaborate reproductive systems include sets of acces mals, such as kangaroos and opossums, which spend only a short sory tube and glands that carry, nourish, and protect the gam period in the uterus.
• Most insects have separate sexes with complex reproductive mother's pouch.
• In many insect species, the female remains in the uterus throughout her reproductive system with one or more spermathecae, sacs fetal development.
• They are nourished by the mother's in which sperm may be kept alive for extended periods, a year blood supply through a temporary organ.
• The spermathecae only completes development gametes from the spermathecae when the female releases male embryos of some fishes and sharks.

• When a human is well suited to survival of offspring.

• Adult birds feed their young and adult variations.
• The mals nurse their offspring.
• There are many examples of parental care in the reproductive and excretory systems of animals.

• Lacking a wel -developed penis, males of these species release sperm by turning the cloaca inside out.

• There are examples of plant reproduction birds.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• Some structures are labeled for orientation purposes.

• The scro is the external reproductive organ of the human male.

• The male gonads, or testis, produce sperm in volume.
• The fluid is thick and coiled.
• It contains mucus, the sugar fructose mals produce sperm only when the testes are cooler than the rest of the body.

• The fluid is thin and milky and contains develop in the abdominal cavity and descend into the scrotum.
• A testis within a scrotum is a testicle.

• Between breeding seasons, sperm maturation is interrupted by the release of clear before ejaculation.

• One reason for the high failure rate of retain the testes in the abdominal cavity is that Bulbourethral fluid carries some sperm that has been released.

• The coiled duct of the human's urethra completes matu inders of sexual tissue.
• The ration becomes motile during sexual arousal.
• The sperm are derived from modified veins and propel ed from each epididymis through a muscular duct.
• A vas deferens from each epididymis extends fil s, the increasing pressure seals off the veins that drain the around and behind the urinary bladder, where it joins a duct penis, causing it to engorge with blood.
• The erec came from the seminal vesicle.

• The inside diameter of the erectile dysfunc tube can cause an inability to achieve an erection.
• The uterus is as narrow as a human hair for people with long-term ED.
• The drugs such as Viagra cause the release of nitric oxide in the egg, which in turn causes the relaxation of the smooth muscles in the blood duct and the pen.
• Although all mammals rely on penile erection for mat oviduct, the cilia convey the egg down the duct to t, ing, the penis of dogs, raccoons, polar bears, and several other also known as the womb.
• The baculum, a bone in the uterus, is thought to be able to expand during pregnancy to help stiffen the penis for sex.

• The penis is covered with blood vessels.
• The penis has a thinner cov cal ed that opens into the vagina.

• The external reproductive structures of the human female are the clitoris and two sets of labia, the collective term for the external female genitalia.

• Both eggs and reproductive hormones can be produced by a pair of thick, fatty ridges.
• The embryo and fetus are located within a cavity house where the vaginal opening and the ducts and chambers are located.

• The flanks of the uterus are where the female gonads are located.
• The abdominal cavity is held in place by ligaments.

• The vagina and labia minora al engorge are nourished by the surrounding cels.

• One of the most sensitive points of sexual stimulation is the clitoris.

• Milk is only produced in females.

• The uterus is important to reproduction.
• The milk from the Urinary bladder goes into a series ofPubic bone ducts that open at the nipple.

• Some structures are labeled for orientation purposes.

• The stem cells come from the seminiferous tubules.
• As they pass mordial germ cells, their offspring move inward.
• In mature testes, spermatocytes and spermatid stages are used to divide and form the tubule.
• Each spermatocyte gives rise to four sper travel along the tubule into the epididymis, where they become matids through meiosis.

• Spermatids change into sperm.

• The sperm cell's structure matches its function.

• The flagellar tail can be moved with the help of a large mitochondrion.

• Women are born with all oogonia from primordial germ cells.
• They will never have the primary oocytes.
• It is worth noting that to form cells that begin meiosis, but stop the process at prophase that a similar conclusion regarding most other mammals was over before birth.
• When researchers discovered in 2004 that the ovaries of adult females each reside within a small follicle, they discovered that these cells were turned into oocytes.
• At birth, the ovaries contain the same number of primary oocytes, which can decline in fertility as women get older.

• The sperm entry stops at the metaphase.
• When its follicle breaks open, it is released at ovula Ruptured tion.

• The fusion of the haploid nuclei of the sperm and secondary oocyte is what is referred to as fertilization.

• Spermatogenesis, the formation and development of they act on endocrine tissues to cause the release of other sperm, is continuous and prolific in adult males.
• To make hormones.
• They are called gonadotropins because they act on sperm and other tissues in the gonads.
• There are coiled control sex hormone production in the seminiferous tubules.

• From start to finish, the gonads produce three major types.

• The human female has a lengthy process.
• Immature eggs form hormones in both males and females, but they don't complete their concentrations in the female embryo.

• In humans, spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis in three estradiol levels are about 10 times higher in females than significant ways.
• The gonads are the main source of sex.
• Sex hormones in the smal ing meiosis are equal to or greater than the cytokinesis dur hormones in oogenesis.

• Sex hormone function in reproduction becomes the egg in mammals, the other products of meiosis begin in the embryo.
• The cal ed polar bodies were produced by androgens.

• The seminal vesicles and associ human females are thought to be complete before birth.

• Oogenesis has long structures in mammals, whereas Spermatogenesis produces mature sperm from an experiment investigating the development of reproductive cells in a continuous sequence.

• Sex hormones induce the formation of secondary sex characteristics during sexual maturation.

• There is a second polar body and an early spermatid tem.

• It is possible that using a hot tub makes it harder for a female adult of a species.

How are we able to synthesise genes?

• Each vas deferens in a male was surgical.
• Estrogens have multiple effects on females.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The hypo Figure 36.10 Androgen- dependent male anatomy and behavior in a moose is the beginning ofcrine control of reproduction.
• Both ar means territorial behavior.

• Males and females have different X and Y chromosomes in mammals.
• In the 1940s, Alfred Jost wondered if the hormones produced by the gonads were necessary for the development of female or male embryos.
• You will interpret the results of an experiment that was performed to answer the question.

• This experiment is an example of a research approach in which the embryo is still in the mother's uterus and at a stage before the sex difference is known.
• What pro would make the testes?
• He made note of their chromosomal sex and genital ference, but he didn't know if they were male or female.

• The female controls male development.
• Data collection plan, prediction, and controls are some of the research done by A. Jost.

• There is a version of the Scientific Skills Exercise that can be assigned.

• Estradiol stimulates breast and pubic hair at puberty.

• In exploring this hormonal control of reproduction, we begin with the relatively simple system found in males.

• Hormonal control of the testes can be achieved by Leydig cells, which are scattered between the tubules.

• There are two reproductive cycles in humans.

• Both are controlled by the same pattern of hormones.

• Once per Together, these negative-feedback circuits maintain androgen cycle and an oocyte is released.

• Suppressed by the combination of estradiol and progesterone.

• The icles grow and the oocytes grow.

• The hormones that control reproduction are regulated by the endometrium of the cycle.

• The hypothalamus is supposed to increase its output of GnRH.
• The high concentration of estradiol al y lasts a few days and increases the GnRH sensitivity of LH-releasing cells in the pitu.
• The first day of flow is usually designated.
• The new uterus and ovarian cycle has a stronger response to LH from follicles.

• Increased estra uration and release with changes in the uterus, the organ that diol secretion from the growing icle is an example of positive must accommodate an embryo if the egg is fertilized.
• The result is maturation.
• A bulge near the surface of the ovary is the result of the embryo not being implanted in the endometrium by the end of the maturing follicle.
• The beginning of the next cycle.
• The chapter ends about a day after the LH surge.
• There are mechanisms that prevent the fall of the ovary endometrium in pregnancy.

• The ovarian cycle has a luteal phase.
• Between the ages of 46 and 54, it occurs.
• The form of a glandular structure is caused by the loss of responsiveness to FSH and LH by the follicular tissue left behind in the ovary.

• In most estradiol, females and males retain their reproductive capacity, because of the negative feedback it exerts on species.
• The feedback reduces the Secre.
• One hypothesis suggests that a pregnant woman may be early from maturing.

• Only humans and some other primate have men who have the ovary, which is where the next ovarian cycle begins.

• The males may engage in sexual activity throughout the menstrual uterus to prepare for support of an embryo.
• Estradiol cycle, mammals with estrous cycles, copulate only in increasing amounts by growing hair.
• This period was to be thick.
• The only time cycle that is coordinated with the proliferative phase of the uter is the ovarian estrus.
• It is a cycle of heat and ine.

• There are different lengths, frequencies, and nature of estrous cycles among mammals.
• Bears and wolves have one uterus.
• Elephants typically have multiple cycles lasting for a long time and can sustain an early embryo for 14-16 weeks.
• Rats have sex even before it implants in the uterus.
• The year lasts 5 days.
• The household phase of the ovarian cycle is coordinated with the cal ed cat.

• In response to pros many reproductive structures in the male and female are contractile.
• Smal endometrial blood vessels are different in appearance, but serve the same functions, releasing blood that is shed along with arousal.

• The excitement phase of an animal's life involves the preparation of the vagina and cies.

• Myotonia can occur when the vagina becomes lubricated and the zygote is cleaved into an embryo.
• Tension of the arms and legs was sulting over the course.

• As a result ofcel growth, the embryo is transformed into a stimulation of the genitalia.
• The blastula folds in the vagina and the inner two-thirds are rearranged into a three-layer embryo.
• The elevation of the in a process cal ed gastrulation is related to this change.
• During organogenesis, the last uterus forms a depression for receiving sperm at the back of major stage of embryo development.
• The ru to 150 beats per minute is generated by breathing increases and heart rate rises, sometimes shape and large-scale changes in cell location, not only in response to the physical dimentary organs from which adult structures grow.

• The stimulation of the autonomic nervous system is one of the topics discussed in this overview.

• The gametes have two stages.
• When the glands are easy to collect and they have external fertilization, researchers can observe fertilization and subsequent the urethra.
• Eggs and sperm are combined in the urethra to cause ejaculation.
• Sea contracts and semen are written.
• The inner two-thirds of sen for in-depth research in part because it is easy to study in the vagina does not, is one example of a model organism, a species cho uterus and outer vagina contract.
• The shortest phase of sexual activity is orgasm.

• The anal sphincter and several abdominal muscles are involved in both sexes.

• The resolution phase reverses the responses of the earlier stages.

• The muscles relax when sperm is put to their normal size and color.

• Egging may take as long as an hour.

• FSH and LH are named after events of the female repro ductive cycle, but they also function in males.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The timing of events and binding to the egg's receptors differ, as well as helping ensure that a sperm of the stage of meiosis the egg has reached when it is fertilized.

• When the Sea urchin eggs face the egg prevent polyspermy, the entry of multiple sperm are released from the female.
• Eggs in other species have ar nuclei in them.
• If polyspermy were to occur, the result would be dependent on the stage of meiosis and the number of chromosomes in the embryo.
• Human eggs can be lethal.
• The block to polyspermy arrest at metaphase of meiosis II should be fast and slow.

• Once fertilization is complete, there is a marked increase in the rates of cellular respiration and a marked increase in the number of cells in the egg.
• The egg and sperm nucleus are synthesised and the cycle of DNA and cell division begins.

• Studies show that sperm entry Cells skip the G1 and G2 phases, and little or no release of internal Ca2+ stores into the egg cytoplasm.

• The large fertilized egg is activated by injecting Ca2+ into an unfertilized egg.

• The fusion triggered the depolarization.
• A fast block to sperm-binding receptors and from the sperm head and pene polyspermy can be achieved by the growing actin filaments.

• The to form.
• This is a slow surface of the acrosomal process block.

• The nucleus of only one sperm enters the egg after contact.

• The embryo cells surround a large blastocoel, which can be seen in the picture.

• The fertilization envelope is present, even though it is not visible here.

• The embryo will hatch from the center of the blastocoel.

• A blastula is a hollow ball of cells called blastomeres.
• The sand dollar is similar to the sea urchin in many respects.

• The normal cycle is restored.

• The cells simple internal skeleton is brought about by the remaining stages of de Mesenchyme.

• Archenteron send thin extensions from the Latin germen to the minate.

• Mesenchyme blastocoel wall.

• There are twoderms, the ectoderm and the endoderm.

• The tube has a mouth and an anus.

• The gastrula has three germ forms future Anus layers and is covered with a vegetal pole that flattens slightly in the end of the embryo.

• The shal ow in the sea urchin embryo is formed by gastrulation.

• The mouth develops from the second opening in the body.

• There are two germ layers in the adrenal glands.

• As in sea urchin fertilization, sperm trulation, and organogenesis, we now return to our consider binding, which results in a slow ation of human reproduction.

• The condition of carrying one or more embryos in the semen coagulates may keep the ejaculate in place until the uterus is called pregnancyuman.
• The average time from fertilization of the egg, semen, and sperm is 38 weeks.

• In comparison to humans, the average length of gestation in rodents is 21 days, and in cows and elephants it is more than 600 days.

• The cell division begins.

• The uterus floats by peristalsis in the uterus for several days.

• A sperm blastocyst is fertilized.

• There are three trimesters of human gestation.
• During the first three months of life, the im planted embryo produces hormones that regulate its reproductive system.
• The human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone that helps maintain the production of proges terone and estrogens in the first few months of pregnancy.

• The basis of a common pregnancy test is the detection of hCG in the urine.

• Growth and development of the first month of development leads to the development of the fetus, which is now called a fetus.

• Fraternal, or dizygotic, twins arise in a very different way.

• The fetus can grow up to 3-4 kilograms in weight and 50 cm in length.

• Spontaneous abortion, or Childbirth begins with labor, a series of strong, rhythmic miscarriages, occurs in as many as one-third of all pregnancies, and often before the woman is even aware she is pregnant.

• The embryo ob is a central part of the positive-feedback loop.
• The outer layer of the embryo is stimulated by tractions and grows late.

• The production of mother's milk is one aspect of postnatal care unique to mammals.
• The vessels can weigh close to 1 kilo in response to organ shaped vessels containing both maternal and fetal blood.
• Nu tin is supplied by the maternal and embryonic circulatory systems and stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk.

• The embryo is vulnerable to damage during this stage.
• The deliberate prevention through the placenta and the developing nervous of pregnant women is what We'l look at now.
• Fetal alcohol syndrome, a dis development or release from female or male gonads, and an order that can result in mental retardation are some of the consequences of contraceptive methods.
• The major structures of the adult prevent the embryo from being implanted.
• You should consult a fetus if the embryo is present in rudimentary form.
• The heartbeat health-care provider beats by the fourth week.
• The introduction to com can be detected in 8 to 10 weeks.

• Abstinence from sexual inter can prevent the fertilization of the fetus, which can grow to 30 cm in length.
• Development continues or by any of the barriers that keep live sperm from con including formation of fingernails, external sex organs, and tacting the egg.
• The rhythm of the outer ears was often affected by temporary abstinence.
• Fetal movements can be felt by the mother as early as one month into this trimester.
• When conception is most likely, growth to nearly 20 cm in intercourse.

• Birth control methods that block sperm from reaching the egg have low pregnancy rates.
• The condom pill is a thin sheath that fits over the penis to collect semen.

• The failure rate is captured by foam or jelly.

• Birth control methods include tubal ligation, IUDs, and hormonal contraceptives.
• sterilization is almost 100% effective.

• The most common combination of hormones are synthetic estrogen and synthetic progesterone.
• The meeting of sperm and oocyte in oviduct ics negative feedback in the ovarian cycle stops the release of GnRH by the hypothalamus.

• Birth control pills can act as "morning-after" pills.

• There is a different type of contraceptive.
• Progestin blocks sperm from entering the uterus by making the woman's mucus thick.
• The mechanisms of several contraceptive methods are shown in Figure 36.20.
• The red arrows show where the methods, devices, or changes in the products interfere with events from the production of sperm and endometrium that may interfere with the implantation of a developing embryo.

• Progestin can be taken daily or for three months.
• The rates for progestin treatment are very low.

• Side effects are required for contraceptive methods based on fertility awareness.
• The couple understand that women who smoke cigarettes are three to ten times more likely to die from cardiovascular causes.
• They use oral contraceptives.
• Natural family planning is reported for a 10- 20% nonsmok rate.

• Withdrawal from birth control pills has a mortality rate about one from the vagina before ejaculation, which is unreliable.

• In some cases, doctors recommend mixing oocytes Infertility--an inability to conceive offspring--is quite com and sperm in culture dishes.
• One in ten couples in the United States are affected by fertilized eggs being incubated until mon and then being transferred States and worldwide.
• There are different causes of infertility to the woman's uterus.
• A sperm nucleus is sometimes injected into men and women if mature sperm are low in sperm count and the likelihood of a reproductive defect is the same.
• The most significant STD is sexual y transmitted disease.

• Approximately 700,000 cases of gonorrhea and chlamydia are reported annually in the United States.
• Most women with these STDs have no symptoms and the actual number is considerably higher.

• There are some forms of infertility that can be treated.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• There are assignments, the eText, and the Study Area Chapter Review.

• There is one large egg and four sperm in spermatogenesis.

• Internal fertilization can be associated with fewer offspring and with greater pro tection of offspring by the parents.

• Gametes are produced and transported by reproductive organs.

• Estrous cycles are more frequent than menstrual cycles.

• Changes in the ovary and estrous cycles can be caused by FSH and LH being released from the endometrium.

• In human spermatogenesis, there is a stem velopment.
• The stem cell and spermatogonium are created by changes at the egg surface.

• In many species, a multicel ular bal cal ed is created.

• You might discover a new worm species.
• You find sperm and oocytes in four adults.

• Lacking in tjor organs develops in 8 weeks.

• A female Komodo dragon kept isolated in a zoo had offspring.

• The offspring were not the same, but they had the same beginning of the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle.

• There is a period just before ovulation.

• See Appendix A for selected answers.

• In the first trimester, rudiments of all organs develop.

• Neu rons rely on chemical signals to transfer information from one cell to another.

• The tropical cone snail is slow and dangerous, yet it is smal and slow moving.

• Injecting venom with a hol ow, Al neurons transmit electrical signals within the cel in a harpoon-like tooth, the cone snail paralyzes its free-swimming identical manner.
• A neuron that senses an odor is almost instantaneous.
• The venom is so deadly that it can cause death from a single injection.

• The connections made by the active neuron are what distinguishes the answer.
• Understanding the nerve mechanism of disa involves sorting the signals according to the information within the body.
• An animal was attacked by paths and connections.
• In more complex animals, the cone snail can't escape, it can't defend itself, or even survive.

• We look at the structure of a neuron distance electrical signals and short-distance chemical sig in this chapter.
• The specialized structure of neurons allows them to communicate.
• In the remainder of this unit, we'll look at the electrical current flowing through the body and how it affects the nervous, sensory, and motor systems.

• The neu ron is an example of a close fit of form and function that often arises over the course of evolution.

• The ability of a neuron to receive and transmit information is based on a specialized organization.
• The nucleus of a neuron is located in the cell body.

• The cell bodies of the neurons are studded with branched extensions.
• The dendrites are from the Greek dendron.
• The rat's dendrites receive signals from other neurons and are shown in a fluorescently labeled laser confocal image.

• Dendrites of neurons are labeled green, while glia are labeled red.

• A neuron is an extension that sends signals to other cells.

• The base of an axon is branches.

• Dendrites another cell.

• The glia outnumber the neurons in the brain 10- to 50-fold.

• The axons of the neuron are protected by the axons of the neuron.

• We'll discuss signal direction transmission in Chapter 38.

• The arrows show the flow of signals.
• The cells are labeled with a reference to the sphinx.

• Let's look at how a cone snail like the one in Figure 37.1 identifies and attacks its prey.

• If a fish is present and where it is located, networks of neurons process this information to determine where the fish is.
• Motor output from the processing center starts the attack by triggering the release of the harpoon-like tooth toward the prey.

• Each stage of information processing is handled by specialized populations of neurons.

• There are additional neurons that extend out of the drawings of the cell bodies and dendrites.

• Integration is carried out by the central nervous system.

• The nervous system plays a role in information processing.
• A neuron's shape can vary from simple to complex.

• Some interneurons can receive input through tens of thousands of synapses.

• They form circuits by transferring information from one neuron to another.

• The remarkable properties that arise when the movement of strontium and strontium strontium is regulated by aproteins are what we will start with.

• The structure and function of axons and dendrites are compared.

• How might increased branching of an axon help snail's siphon act as a sensor, transferring information to neuronal coordinate responses to signals communicated by the nervous circuits in the snail's head.

• Appendix A contains suggested answers.

• The role of ion in signal ing is essential.
• In neurons, the cations are evenly distributed between the interior of the cell and the surrounding fluid.
• The inside of a cell is negatively charged relative to the outside.
• The attraction of opposite charges is a source of potential energy and is reflected in the charge difference.

• The potential of a neuron changes when it is stimulated.
• We can see a spiderweb, remember a song, or ride a bicycle because of rapid shifts in potential.
• To understand how changes in the inside of the cell communicate information, we need to look at how the cells are formed.

• The concentration of Na+ is shown in Table 37.1, while the K+ concentration is shown in Table 37.2.
• The pump channels are open.
• The net outflow of K+ is allowed by the many open potassium channels, which use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to transport Na+ out.
• The outflow of K+ of the cell and K+ into the cell is caused by the weakly permeable membrane.

• Ion channels al ow ion to diffuse.
• Every two K+ that it transports in, the ion diffuses through the cel.
• Units of electrical charge are carried with them.
• Any pumping that results in a net export of positive charge will result in a change in the potential of the water.

• The answer lies in ion movement through represent a chemical form of potential energy that can be used in ion channels.

• Not applicable a resting neuron has many open channels.

• The K+ outflow leads to a net negative Plugging of the K+ concentrations into the Nernst equation.
• The equilibrium potential for K+ is -90 mV and there is a build up of negative charge within veals.

• When the inside of the cell is 90 mV more nega negative charges than the outside, it exerts an attractive force.

• The equilibrium potential for K+ is -90 mV.
• The re resting potential of a mammal neuron can be achieved by the separation of charge and an electrical gradient that counterbalances the negative.
• The small but steady move cal concentration of K+ is reflected in the difference.

• Na+ diffuses the net flow of K+ out of a neuron, making the inside of the cel less negative.
• The electrical forces are in balance.
• The only open channels in the model are selec process, and we can model this model by considering a pair of chambers separated by tively permeable to Na+.
• Imagine that the Na+ tration in the outer chamber results in an equilibrium with many open ion channels and a potential of +62 mV.
• The resting potential is much closer to EK than it is to ENa because there are many open potassium channels in the inner.

• The K+ diffuses because neither K+ nor Na+ is at equilibrium in the outer chamber.
• There is a net flow of each ion.

• The excess of negative charge in the inner chamber is due to the steady resting potential.

• K+ and Na+ currents are not the same.

• The electrical on either side of the model neuron remains constant when it reaches equilibrium.
• The chemical gradient is balanced so that no resting potential arises from the net movement of fewer ions.
• The concentration would have to be altered.

• The potential will move away from EK.

• There is a model of a mammal neuron.

• The artificial is close to the outside.