chapter 14

• The United States and Japan became more powerful than the rest of the world in the late 19th century because of the economic, social, and political changes of the Western world.
• The first genuinely worldwide order in history was created when these countries split up the world into their own countries.

• The world order was unstable due to conflicts among the privileged peoples.
• The rulers and peoples of Europe went to war in 1914 because of the emergence of two opposing groupings of great powers.
• Britain, France, Russia, the United States, and Japan fought against Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire in the early twentieth century.
• The progress of technology made the war the most devastating in history.

• The most powerful members of the larger coalition were Britain, France, and the United States.
• Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire were defeated in 1918.

• There were two movements against the existing order of Western and worldwide civilization that emerged out of the turmoil of the war.
• Each was inspired by a different secular ideology that had arisen within Western civilization, and their rise led to an era of struggle over the future organization of the West and the world that lasted for most of the twentieth century.

• Communism took power in Russia.
• It stood for the overthrow of the existing world order on behalf of the victims of capitalism and imperialism, leading to a world of ideal social justice and international harmony.
• The Soviet Union was remaking the vast country into a formidable power base through centralized economic control and massive bloodshed.
• As capitalism sank into depression and colonial peoples became restive, their worldwide following grew.

• Germany, Italy, and Japan were among the countries where fascists gained power.
• Its sources were hurt by the war and its aftermath of depression and unemployment, fear of communism, and hatred of the Jews.
• The struggle for existence was influenced by nineteenth-century social Darwinism.
• European fascists wanted a leader with a capital "L" who would embody the collective might of the nation and its collective anger at its enemies.

• In Britain, France, and the United States, victory confirmed liberal and national ideals, but their societies were damaged by wartime bloodshed and postwar unemployment.
• The welfare state was brought into being because of political and labor movements that promised to change the workings of capitalism.
• The basic features of capitalism--private ownership and competition-- remained largely untouched, however, for these changes were meant to uphold the existing social and political order.

• It was up to these countries to uphold the existing order against fascist and communist opponents.
• Many of the victor countries' citizens admired one of the rival systems.
• The communists wanted peace so that they could build their power base in the Soviet Union.
• The fascist nations were able to exploit the hesitations and mutual distrust of their rivals.
• They swept aside the treaties that ended the First World War, began the Second World War on favorable terms, and won its early stages in Europe and the Far East.

• For a short period of time in Europe, fascists came into effect, and proved to be the most destructive and sinister system in the world.
• The fascist countries' ideology of brutality and force made them reckless.
• The United States and Britain were the perfect guardians of the world order, and the Soviet Union was against them, so the new coalition was able to crush the fascist challenge.
• The struggle over the future organization of Western and world civilization had ended.
• The next round was about to start.

• Imperialistic expansion is usually driven by greed for the wealth, power, and glory that brings, fear that the alternative to conquering is to be conquered, and confidence in one's own military superiority, so that the opportunities seem to be there for the taking.
• The results of imperial expansion include exploitation by conquerors and savage revolts by the conquered to welcome prosperity and cultural exchange for both sides.
• The social and cultural changes that imperialist people bring can last for hundreds or even thousands of years.

• Most of the things that happened over the centuries between Persian, Roman, Arab, Turkish, and many other conquerors happened on a regional or continental scale.
• European and non- European conquerors were going to dominate the peoples of the world.

• The long-term result of this new era of imperialist expansion was a worldwide expansion of Western civilization.

• The expansion of Western civilization began in the 15th century and continued into the 18th, but slowed down in the 17th.
• Europeans were busy at home with their liberal-nationalist restructuring of the political and social order for more than a century.
• As a result of these revolutions, the countries in Europe and elsewhere built up a much wider margin of political, military, and technological supremacy over the rest of the world.
• A small group of advanced countries dominated the world after overseas expansion resumed after 1870.

• The overseas expansion of the 19th century differed from earlier efforts.
• The United States and Japan were included in the countries that took part because they had undergone similar political and industrial changes.
• The forms of overseas expansion included indirect penetration and domination.
• As the imperialist countries had undergone changes, so also the motives for expansion.
• The non religious belief in racial superiority was more powerful than the desire of monarchs for power and glory, and it was replaced by the desire of the merchants for gold.

• One thing in common with the old is its competitive nature.
• The world wars of the twentieth century were brought about by the rivalries between the imperialist countries.

• In the past, earlier empires used indirect methods of domination, taking tribute from subject peoples and making them obey without actually ruling them.
• Control could be informal as well as formal in the new imperialism.
• Informal control was cheaper and allowed a nation to avoid many risks and responsibilities.
• Prior to 1870, the British were skillful at securing economic privileges abroad.
• Informal and formal relations were woven together into a single fabric of empire.
• The United States pursued a similar strategy in the Western Hemisphere.
• The United States used dollar diplomacy to control the rest of the Caribbean republics, even though it annexed Puerto Rico and secured special constitutional privileges in Cuba.

• Britain sought exclusive arrangements when rival states began to challenge their economic privileges.
• Treaty rights, "spheres of interest," and colonies were sought by the Foreign Office after 1870.
• Germany and Italy joined the race.
• Asia and Africa were helpless before this onslaught.
• The Europeans had the advantages of aggressive purpose, superior organization, and advanced technology.

• The growth of industrial capitalism had a powerful economic motive.
• In Chapter 13 we learned how surplus profits ended up in "backward" countries.
• The desire to secure raw materials, markets, and investments gave a push to overseas penetration.

• An influential analysis of the economic causes of expansionism was written by an English socialist.

• In order to invest their profits, manufacturers had to go abroad to sell part of their output.
• He claimed that colonial administration and defense were costly and dangerous, and that economic problems could be solved by providing higher wages and better social services at home.
• The home market would be expanded, and capitalists would have better opportunities to invest their money there.
• A change in policy would bring British capitalism closer to its aims.

• There was a different tack taken by Vladimir Lenin.
• He accepted the analysis of imperial ism but was a Marxist.
• He believed that imperialism was the final stage of capitalism.
• In a colony, investments yielded their maximum return.
• The capitalist states were going to wage wars against one another now that the globe had been parceled out.
• He predicted that the proletarian revolutions, the establishment of socialist states, and the death of imperialism would follow.

• War tial confirmation by events and its acceptance by communist leaders throughout the world made it influential.

• The economic motive was only one of the forces behind the empire.
• The drive for national power and prestige was more important.
• European nationalism came of age in 1870.
• The desire to control other nations and peoples was caused by the pride and effort that went into achieving self-determination for nations.

• Along with the soldiers and merchants came hundreds of Christian missionaries, responding to the challenge of bringing the Gospel to the unbelievers.
• Many members of the upper and middle classes sought careers in the overseas services.
• The new global maps show their nation's overseas possessions in distinctive colors.
• The vocal minorities that protested against imperialism were labeled as small-minded or unpatriotic.

• Europeans had extensive contacts with the Muslim peoples of North Africa and other coastal peoples in Africa in the earlier centuries of trade and exploration.

• The conditions of Africa made it difficult for outsiders to penetrate and conquer it.
• The Western capacity for investigation, missionary activity, and greed for wealth was shown in 19th century ventures.

• David Livingstone was the first white person to explore the interior.

• Livingstone, a Scottish physician and missionary, traveled the upper courses of the great rivers for thirty years while doing medical and religious work among the Africans.
• A New York newspaper sent a reporter to find him after he was reported as being lost in the jungles.
• Stanley was interested in the possibilities of making money from central Africa.
• In his promotional plans, he succeeded in King Leopold II of Belgium.

• Belgium, a small country that gained independence a generation before, had no overseas possessions.
• Leopold's venture was private and kept with the spirit of the times.
• He formed a company with himself as president and sent agents to the region.
• Leopold took the view that the African interior was open for sale to the white race and made "treaties" in exchange for hundreds of tribal gifts.
• In 1885, the major powers recognized the "Congo Free State" as legal under his personal rule.
• The United States east of the Mississippi River was enclosed by the boundaries.

• Leopold's main purpose was to make money, even though he claimed scientific and humanitarian purposes.
• He was focused on the huge demand for rubber in the industrial sector and the large supply of African laborers.
• The Africans were resistant to European work incentives and were forced to work only by the toughest methods.

• The value of Leopold's rubber exports reached $10 million by 1908, thanks to the agents' use of trees and people.
• Leopold borrowed huge sums from the Belgian government and used much of the income for personal extravagance.
• The government took over the Free State after he died.
• The region received a bit of better treatment as the Belgian Congo, but it was still a shocking example of human and resource exploitation.

• The prize of Africa attracted the attention of other European states.
• In 1885, a conference was held to order the carving up of the rest of the continent.
• A nation with possessions on the coast had a prior right to the hinterlands, but for a claim to any territory to be recognized, it must be supported by the presence of administrators and soldiers.
• The conference agreement was a signal to all competitors to join the military.

• The methods used were similar to those used by Leopold's agents.
• White men went to the interior to look for tribal chiefs who would sign treaties.
• The chiefs didn't understand what the treaties meant and the whites acted as if they did.
• A colony was established when the rights were transferred to the European government.
• Rival nations were able to get grants in the same region.
• The European capitals would usually refer the problems to them.

• The entire continent was partitioned by 1914.
• The bulge of West Africa was mostly desert, with France holding most of it and the British holding the richest lands.
• The ancient East African kingdom of Ethiopia was the only one that had been able to preserve its independence.

• China and Japan were historic empires, well mapped and administered, that shared a common civilization that began in China.
• They did their best to keep themselves out of earlier Western influences, but now they faced intrusions that they could not resist.
• Japan joined the ranks of the imperialist powers because the Chinese empire was too unwieldy to cope with them.

• Like India, Chinese civilization began at 2500 b.c.

• Most of Africa was independent in 1884.
• The whole of Africa was divided between seven European powers in about thirty years.
• In North Africa, the Europeans took over existing Muslim states; elsewhere, the new borders reflected what each European country could lay its hands on before its rivals.
• The situation was mostly unchanged for forty years.

• European travelers have been impressed by the country's wealth and power since Marco Polo.

• European contacts to China were kept to a minimum in the 18th century due to the fact that China did not match the scientific and technological advances of the West after 1500.
• The Europeans possessed superior military equipment when they decided to penetrate the Chinese "wall" of isolation from foreigners.
• The Europeans wanted trading privileges.

• They wanted to secure the luxury goods of China in exchange for their factory-made products.
• The Chinese didn't want such articles.
• opium, grown in India and sold by British merchants, was the only item they would buy in large quantities.
• The Opium War began when the Chinese government tried to stop opium imports.

• China was forced to sign the treaty at the end of the Opium War.
• The opium trade was to be resumed without further interference according to the treaty.
• Britain won possession of the Chinese city of Hong Kong.
• Other countries made their own demands within the next few decades.
• European nationals were allowed to travel inside China, subject to the laws of their homelands.
• The Chinese government was not given control over its external commerce because the European powers required that no tariffs of more than 5 percent be placed on imports.
• The revenue was sucked off as "war indemnities" to the invaders.

• Massive economic and social dislocation occurred in China.
• The entry of low-priced manufactured goods in the 19th century upset the structure of the Chinese economy.
• Europeans undermined Chinese handicrafts and demoralized the regular workforce by building factories in the free ports.
• The cost to the Chinese people was beyond measure because of the quick fortunes made by foreign traders and manufacturers.

• The Japanese were better off.
• Their leaders were afraid of the influence of Western ideas on their society.

• Japanese ports were closed to foreign vessels in the 17th century because of bad experiences with Portuguese and Dutch traders.
• The ruling power was persuaded to negotiate a commercial treaty by the American commodore.

• If the Japanese were to survive in the modern world, they would have to accept industrialization.
• They were determined to develop it on their own.
• They modernized their economy and armed forces because of their jealously guarded control over their finances and tariffs.

• By 1890, the Japanese were able to become an imperialist power in their own right.
• In 1894, they drew China into a war with Korea, and their Western-style army won.

• The British and the Dutch ruled India and the East Indies in the mid-nineteenth century.
• Other countries joined in as Britain expanded its territories and spheres of influence.
• Afghanistan, China, Japan, Siam, and Persia were legally independent by 1914.
• Japan was strong enough to become an imperialist country, but its share of the spoils was small.

• The Europeans were amazed by the strength and will of the Japanese.
• They decided to take control of the territories they could to protect their interests after it became apparent that China might be falling into the wrong hands.
• The rest of China was spared from complete partition because of suspicions and disagreements among the great powers.

• When the United States took the Philippine Islands from Spain in 1898, it had become a Pacific power.
• If foreign interests in China succeeded in spreading their territorial holdings, the Americans feared that their commerce with China would be cut off.
• In 1899, the secretary of state, John Hay, pushed for the acceptance of an "open door" policy in China, which would guarantee the "territorial integrity" of the country against further losses, as well as the commercial privileges that had been won from the Chinese government.

• The Open Door policy was supported by Britain because it promised to block annexations by China's neighbors.
• The other powers wanted to pounce on parts of the empire that were faltering.
• The Open Door principle was ignored by Japan.
• Japan faced Russia in both Korea and Manchuria.
• About 1850, the Russians began to develop their long-neglected Siberia possessions, founding the city of Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean.
• They had turned their attention to Manchuria and Korea.
• The Japanese decided to settle the issue by force after failing to negotiate an agreement for two separate spheres of influence.

• After a surprise naval attack on the Russian fleet, Japan declared war a few days later.
• This strike was a clear violation of international law and was repeated by the Japanese forty years later in their attack on American forces at Pearl Harbor.
• The tsarist government was defeated on land and sea during the Japanese War.
• Russia's expansion in this area was checked, as well as Japan's special rights in Korea and Manchuria.
• Japan gained a lot of international prestige for having defeated the Russian Empire.

• The rest of Asia had been taken over.
• In the 17th century, the British began to build settlements in India, and in the 19th century, the crown took control of the Indian government.
• The Dutch expanded their holdings in the East Indies, while Persia and Afghanistan were split into British and Russian spheres of influence.
• In 1913, Russia established a "protectorate" over Mongolia.

• This era of conquest came to an end.
• The relationship between the West and the rest of the world had changed over the course of fifty years.

• The ancient civilizations and cultures of Africa and Asia, which had so far not felt the full force of Western influence, and even the Latin American countries with their regional version of Western civilization--nearly all were by 1914 directly ruled or indirectly controlled by a small group of Western or Westernized countries In 1900, Queen Victoria chapter 14: the west divided the British Empire into nearly 400 million subjects, with overseas territory forty times larger than the home island.
• French possessions expanded by almost as much.
• Germany, Russia, Belgium, Portugal, and Italy have acquired substantial areas.
• The United States and Japan joined the list of imperial powers.

• Imperialism brought advantages to colonial peoples.
• They were pushed into the mainstream of world development.
• The slave trade was stopped while roads, railways, hospitals, and schools were introduced.
• The benefits must be measured against the physical and psychic blows inflicted by imperialism: forced labor, heavy colonial taxes, land confiscations, inferior status compared to European immigrants, destruction of traditional institutions and ways of life.
• The subject peoples of the new imperialism were left with a sense of confusion, defeat, and degradation.

• The empires were destined to be short lived.
• It was partly because they were the work of countries that accepted individual freedom, national independence, and material well-being as universal principles.
• The main influences were from the imperialist countries to the subject peoples, and like all empires, those of the nineteenth century were vehicles of cultural exchange.
• To the extent that the colonial peoples learned and sought to imitate the ways of their rulers, this led them not to submission but to resistance and rebellion to demand the freedom, independence, and prosperity that the imperial nations proclaimed as the birthright of the whole human race.

• The forces that were pushing the Western nations toward war were intensified by the thrust of the new imperialism.
• Europeans were unable to solve their own problems because they claimed to look after the problems of "backward" peoples.
• Europe was about to explode in a conflagration that would lead to the collapse of the colonial empires.

• The First World War and the Decline of Europe are related.

• The European powers created and legitimized the international political system.
• The First World War ended with a truce and the Second World War ended with bloodshed.
• The two wars ended the dominance of Europe and opened the world to competition.

• There weren't many who could see what the future would hold on the eve of 1914.
• The surface events trend had been deceptive.
• Since Napoleon's downfall, Europe has not had a general war.
• The advancement of science, liberal institutions, and material well-being was irrefutable.
• The years before 1914 were a time of optimism with the promise of the Enlightenment.
• Europe might have made the liberal order secure with another half century of peace.

• There was a darker side to the European picture.
• Technology had created forces that were dissolving the foundations of traditional liberalism, and imperialism had opened wounds, both in Europe and overseas.

• Europe's fatal flaw was that it became connected with militarism and military alliances among the great powers.

• It had turned into a self-centered passion.
• In every Western land, the people believed in their own superiority, sovereignty, and special mission.
• The goal of all citizens was advancement of national power and glory.
• Nationalism was the true faith of most Europeans at the turn of the century.
• Each nation viewed itself as the instrument of God, its founding and heroes were its apostles and martyrs, and its political charters were revered as holy texts.

• Some ethnic minorities within states were suspected of having less than total loyalty to the larger community.
• Most Jews were not accepted as full citizens of the states where they lived.
• Some Jews began to think of securing a national state of their own as a response to this feeling, and this fit in with an age-old yearning following the Jewish Diaspora of ancient times.
• Theodor Herzl founded the World Zionist Organization in 1897.
• The site of King Solomon's temple and palace is known as Zion, and it was intended to create a Jewish nation in Palestine.
• Herzl and his successors appealed to world leaders to support their cause, leading to the creation of the state of Israel.

• Each European nation's armed forces were the embodiment of its spirit and honor.
• Both pride and interest moved public officials and citizens to respect and strengthen the army and navy, because they served at the same time as the ultimate means of pursuing national aims.
• Germany had taken the lead in land warfare, but the other powers worked to catch up as quickly as possible.
• Universal male and military training was adopted by all except Britain.
• By the end of the century, Europe had become a bristling camp due to competition in weaponry.
• militarism and nationalism were joined.

• Militarists aim to build stronger military power than any likely combination of enemies.
• Their slogan is "peace through strength".
• Each of the major nations wanted to be the strongest.
• The European peoples took off on an unrestricted arms race after embracing militarism in the 19th century.

• The European powers were unable to agree on principles for peaceful coexistence because of their own nationalisms.
• The ultimate resort was to go to war because each power recognized no superior authority.

• An attempt was made to deal with the problem of international anarchy by the interests of the great powers.

• This idea was doomed from the beginning.
• During the course of the 19th century, a few individuals tried to modify the sovereignty principle, strengthen international law, and establish international courts of justice.
• There were peace conferences in 1899 and 1907.
• They promised not to use poison gas or other weapons that were considered inhumane.
• They created an international court to adjudicate disputes.
• Several "peace societies" were formed in Europe and America during the prewar period.

• These efforts were the beginning of larger moves to replace anar chy with international order.
• The leaders of the era believed that the only way to keep their nation strong was to enter into alliances with friendly powers.
• The alliance system of the late nineteenth century was the result of nationalism and militarism.
• The alliances were not as strong as the arms race, but they were competitive.
• European states didn't find safety from war in either arms or alliances.
• When the war fires flared up, the pursuit made them hotter and more widespread.

• There were grounds for optimism until 1914, when a number of international crises had been settled without resorting to arms.
• The right type of crisis at the right time was almost certain to ignite the spark regardless of the expense or frightfulness of war.

• The unification of Germany in 1871 made it the dominant power on the Continent.
• Germany's unifier wanted to maintain his country's dominance.

• The French were stung by their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and he feared that they would seek revenge.
• In 1879 he formed an alliance with Austria-Hungary.
• He wanted to keep Germany on good terms with the other two great powers, Russia and Britain.
• He respected Russia's interests in eastern Europe and Britain's position as the leading worldwide power.
• His friendship and alliances were designed to deter a war and preserve German dominance.
• If Germany's allies and friends ever lost their trust in Germany, the war-deterring structure would fall.

• When the isolation of France was broken after he fell from office in 1890, this began to happen.

• The Triple Alliance of Britain, France, and Russia, as well as the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, are shown on the map.
• Italy is allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary while the Ottoman Empire is allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary.
• The basic balance of forces remained the same.
• A stronger group of countries confronted a weaker one.
• It would take four years of slaughter and ruin for the stronger group to win.

• Both Russia and Britain responded to the emperor's policy by developing closer relations with France.

• The French had been looking for military partners for a long time.
• They looked at the power on Germany's eastern border.
• Russia was an authoritarian and conservative country that was very different from France.
• The two countries entered into a dual alliance in 1894 because of the internal differences between them.
• Germany was confronted with the threat of a two-front war by this action.

• William II wanted Germany to find its "place in the sun" as well as overseas.
• He was determined to have a great navy as well as the world's finest army because of the importance of sea power to overseas commerce, colonies and national prestige.
• In 1898, Germany began to spend a lot on warships.
• Britain insisted that its navy remain the same as any other two, despite being alarmed.

• Britain was swinging ever closer to France and Russia.
• The French accepted British advances in Africa that they had previously opposed and persuaded Russian diplomats to settle long-standing disputes with the British in the Middle East.
• The British were becoming more concerned with the Kaiser's moves.
• British and French military officers were talking to each other.
• The tripleente was extended into the dual alliance.

• There were now two rival groups.
• Statesmen on both sides wanted to keep the peace.
• They liked to think of the alliances as balancing each other and giving stability to the Western-dominated world order.
• If the alliance failed to deter the two powers from going to war, the other alliance members would have little choice but to join in.
• Any local conflict could turn into a European war.

• The Ottoman Turks held on to much of southeastern Europe, as well as the Middle East, despite losing territory from the 17th century onward.
• The Balkans began to respond to the spirit of nationalism in the first half of the 19th century.
• The Greeks had won their independence in 1829, and other countries were waiting for a chance to leave Turkey.
• The Balkans were divided among themselves.
• Most of them were of Slavic ethnic origin, but some belonged to other ethnic groups that had lived in the Balkans for longer than the Slavs; most were Eastern Orthodox Christians, but some were Roman Catholic or had become Muslim under Turkish rule; and each was eager to claim the largest possible share

• The great powers were bound to interfere with each other because of the situation.
• Russia had three objectives in the 1870s: to liberate fellow Slavs and Orthodox Christians, to win control of the Black Sea coasts, and to secure a "warm water" outlet.

• Austria resented growing Russian prestige in the region because it was afraid of the spread of Balkan nationalist unrest to its own territory.
• Russia was considered Britain's main opponent in the Balkans if Germany kept its interest low.
• Britain's "line of empire," which ran through the Mediterranean to India, seemed to be in danger because of Russia's southward push.

• The tsar almost achieved Russia's objectives when he invaded the Turkish Empire.
• Austria and Britain demanded that the Russians reduce their demands.
• Russia gained a few harbors and border territories at the Berlin Conference, which was presided over by Bismarck.
• Bulgaria secured self-rule under the Turkish sultan, as well as being recognized as an independent state.

• The sultan tried to check the decline of Turkish strength by playing off the great powers against one another.

• The British occupied Egypt in the late 19th century as part of their colonization of Africa.
• The island of Crete broke free from Turkey in 1896 and became part of Greece.
• Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece went to war over the division of territory and population after they invaded and liberated most of European Turkey in 1912.
• The last of the Turkish-ruled Balkan nations, mostly Muslim Albania, was given independence by an international conference.
• The Ottoman Empire's European territories were almost completely destroyed by 1914.

• The local and international rivalries in the Balkans did not end after Ottoman rule was overthrown.
• When the Germany of William II joined in, the competition for influence grew more intense.
• To open up the Middle East to German economic and political penetration, the Germans began work on a Berlin-to-Baghdad railway.
• Understandings with the Balkans and the Turkish sultan were required for this ambitious project.
• Britain, Russia, and France viewed the German enterprise as a source of aid to the Turkish Empire and an invasion into their own spheres of interest, and Britain now sees Germany as the main threat to its interests in the Balkans and the Middle East.

• The Balkans and the empire of Austria-Hungary had some of the most serious conflicts.
• The empire of the Habsburg emperor stretched from central Europe to the Balkans.
• In the Balkans, the empire included several "South Slav" nationalities--Catholic Croats, Muslim Bosnians, and Orthodox Serbs--who were closely related to or actually identical with what were now independent Balkan nations living farther east in the Balkans.
• The leaders of Serbia wanted to unite all of the South Slavs into a single state, including those who lived in Austria-Hungary.
• The leaders of the "Greater Serbia" movement began subversion in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to win over the loyalties of the Slavs who lived side by side in the country.

• The statesmen in Vienna were worried.
• The Serbian territories would be taken away from the Austrian Empire.
• The force that would set in motion was still more dangerous.
• The emperor's traditionally dominant subjects of German nationality, the Hungarians, gained self-rule within the empire in 1867.
• The Czechs, Slovaks, and other nationalities were still treated as inferior peoples.
• If the South Slavs won independence, they would probably demand the same rights as the Germans and Hungarians.

• The general peace of Europe seemed to have been affected by the explosion.
• The Triple Alliance would be weakened if Austria-Hungary broke apart.
• Germany, the senior partner of the alliance, kept in touch with Vienna.
• The Russians tried to encourage the Serbs to seek independence.
• There was a conflict between two great powers that was important enough to draw them into war and with their friends and allies.

• The Serbian nationalists used terror to further their "holy" cause because their country was weaker than the Austrian Empire.
• They achieved their goal in the streets of Sarajevo in June 1914.

• The Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by a young terrorist.
• The Austrian government decided to use the occasion for a confrontation with Serbia after world leaders were shocked by the murders.
• The Austrians believed that the Serbian government was involved in the assassination plot and sent a harsh ultimatum.
• Most but not all of the requirements were accepted by the Serbs.
• The Austrians declared war on Serbia after rejecting their response as unsatisfactory.

• The tsar's order to mobilize the Russian army was the most important step in widening the war.
• A week or more was needed before an army could be made ready for battle, and German leaders decided that they could not stand by.
• The Russians were told to stop their call-up within twelve hours.
• The Germans declared war on Russia after failing to get a positive reply.
• The French refused a German demand to stay out of the fighting, even though they had urged Russia to avoid a compromise.
• Berlin declared war on France as well.
• The catastrophe that nobody wanted came about.

• If the French were attacked by Germany, Britain's ministers promised to help.
• When the Germans invaded Belgium, parliament made good on its promise.
• Britain was one of the guarantors of Belgian neutrality and security.
• On August 4, parliament declared war on Germany.
• Japan, Britain's treaty partner in the Pacific, entered on the side of the "Allies," while the Turks, renewing their struggle with Russia, joined the "Central Powers" (Austria and Germany).
• Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, remained neutral until 1915, when secret promises of extensive territorial rewards won it over to the Allied side.
• Smaller nations were gradually drawn into the war, but they did not influence its outcome.

• The strategy of the First World War was very simple.
• The Allies were certain of victory in the war.
• The Central Powers wanted a quick, decisive victory based on superior military technique and forces already in place.

• Their troops could concentrate quickly on chosen fronts if the image wasn't available.
• The Germans wanted to avoid dividing their army between west and east, so they planned to blow up France and then turn against the Russians.
• The German generals did not hesitate to sweep through tiny Belgium, violating the treaty guaranteeing Belgium's neutrality.

• The German attack on the French army was stopped at the Marne River near Paris.
• The battle on the Western Front changed from one of movement to one of fixed positions after a few weeks.
• The advantage went to those who were on the defensive.
• Tanks by Britain, poison gas by Germany, and aircraft by both sides were tried out to break the military stalemate there.
• The weapons failed to change the course of the conflict, but two of them--tanks and aircraft--would become decisive forces during the next world war.

• The Germans gained the upper hand on the Eastern Front.
• The soldiers of the tsar, brave but poorly supplied, suffered disastrous losses and were almost out of the war by 1917.
• The military loss to the Allies was balanced by the entrance of the United States in 1917.
• The chapter 14: the west divided country's traditional opposition to "entangling alliances" was overcome by a combination of forces: the American government, fearing the strategic consequences of a German The Americans brought in fresh troops and equipment and pledged their resources to ensure victory for the Allies.
• They agreed to lay down their arms in 1918.

• Each of the Central Powers had their own treaties arranged at the peace conference.
• France, Britain, and the United States laid down the conditions for victor's peace after all the defeated nations were not given any effective voice in the settlements.
• The delegates from the Central Powers were forced to accept that the war would be renewed.

• Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lor raine, as well as valuable lands on its eastern frontiers, under the provisions of the treaty.
• Germany had to dismantle its armed forces and surrender most of its merchant shipping.
• The "war guilt" clause, which stated that Germany and its partners accepted responsibility for all loss and damage caused by the war, was the most objectionable part of the Versailles treaty.
• The historical facts show that other powers shared the responsibility for the Germans not feeling that they alone were to blame.
• The popular sentiment in the Allied countries was reflected by the guilt clause.
• It was put into the treaty to make up for the damage done by the victors.
• The "war guilt" clause caused Germans to hate the treaty and only small amounts of these claims were ever collected.

• Wilson's principle of "self-determination" for nationalities was the guiding principle for drawing the new frontiers.
• Seven new states came into being.
• There were four Baltic states in northeastern Europe.

• There were two Slav nations in central Europe, the Czechs and Slovaks.
• The new European frontiers are shown on the map.
• Europe was divided into "satisfied" ones that gained territory, such as France, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, and "dissatisfied" ones, such as Germany, Hungary, and the Soviet Union.
• It was the same situation that led to war in the first place.

• There were many groups within Yugoslavia's borders, including Orthodox Serbs, Catholic Croats and Slovenes, Muslim Bosnians and Albanians.

• Austria and Hungary were divided into small states.

• Turkey lost all of its Arab-inhabited Middle Eastern territories and was supposed to give up more territory in the west to Greece and the east to the Kurds.
• In a brutal war with Greece, the nationalist revolutionaries led by Mustapha Kemal were able to form an independent Republic of Turkey that included all of Asia Minor and a small area in Europe.
• About a million Turks were expelled from Greece after the Greeks were forced to leave their communities in western Asia Minor.
• The Kurds are under Turkish rule and are often rebelling and repressed.

• Kemal ruled as a dictator after bringing an independent and united Turkish nation into being in defiance of the West, like Peter the Great did with Russia two centuries before.
• He refused to pay the debts of the former Ottoman Empire to foreign bankers, and instead used Turkey's resources to build up government-owned modern industries.
• He broke with Turkey's Muslim past, decreeing the separation of Islam from the state, the abolition of the fez, and the prohibition of Muslim groups that he considered too religious.
• Hagia Sophia, the Christian cathedral of Constantinople, was once the revered Muslim mosque.
• The city became a museum and was now known as Istanbul.

• Kemal succeeded with these radical measures because he was a leader of national ist triumph--the Father of the Turks (Ataturk) as he called himself, who had resisted the West, expelled the Greeks, and held down the Kurds.
• His successors were able to turn Turkey into a more or less democratic state after he died.
• Secular and Islamic political groups were held together by Turkish nationalism.
• When Islamic or left-wing groups were too successful at the polls, the army would step in.

• The problem of national conflict continued to plague Europe despite the general application of national self-determination.
• The nationalities were so diverse that no state boundary could be drawn that did not leave a national minority on the wrong side.
• The new nation-states of central Europe and the Balkans were full of minorities from nations that had lost the war.

• There were endless opportunities for conflict in Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia because they were divided by history and religion.

• The war went far beyond the treaties and the making of states.
• The loss of lives and treasure was a result of the war.
• Nine million men were killed when more than sixty million men were mobilized.
• There were more than thirty million civilian deaths and economic costs of trillions of dollars.
• Europe's spirit was broken by its aristocracy.
• Traditional morals, manners, and standards seemed to be irrelevant as the old beliefs and slogans became mockeries.

• Men and morals were not the only casualties of the war.
• The liberal order was badly damaged when it appeared firm in 1914.
• France and England are the leading liberal states.
• Their world positions had been affected by their losses in manpower.
• Both nations had to sell off a large amount of their overseas investments in order to prosecute the war.
• The spectacle of Europe at war stripped away the awe with which colonial peoples had viewed their conquerors.
• The Western powers gave them reason to hope that one day they would send the imperialists packing.

• The injury to their professed ideas and institutions equaled the loss of physical and psychological power by the liberal states.
• Liberalism was founded in the Enlightenment, with its optimistic faith in humanity, reason, nature, and progress.
• The faith was crushed by the futility of the war.
• Europeans were unsure.

• Some went into skepticism, cynicism, or nihilism.
• Europeans were drawn to Marxism or to fascists, a new strain of nationalism.

• Liberal institutions were undermined by the war.
• During the 19th century, "free enterprise" was jealously guarded in the economic sphere.
• The draft on manpower was compulsory in every nation at war, as was the call for economic resources.
• In the pursuit of victory, prices, raw materials, exports and imports had been regulated.
• The experience of government planning and direction continued into the future after 510 511).

• The end of historic laissez-faire was marked by a chain of financial dislocations after 1918 after the war had disrupted the intricate mechanism of international trade.
• Private enterprise, both domestic and international, was not always self-regulating in the public interest.
• Western governments would be called on to take action to maintain employment and save business.

• He might have thought that the goal was within reach when he looked at Europe in 1919.
• The longstanding empires had been reduced to ruins and the proud monarchies had been overthrown.

• Democracy and nationalism appeared to be triumphant.
• Wilson and other liberal-democratic convictions were to be disappointed.
• The older democracies were soon to lose their liberal character as the new democracies were only superficial.
• The war opened the doors of revolution in several countries.
• New social and international orders were promoted from the underground of the 19th century by people who were opposed to both liberalism and bourgeois democracy.
• The world was about to enter an era of struggle between rival social systems and global orders that would continue for most of the century.

• More or less restriction of individual choice and freedom in the collective interests of society is what it is.
• They were different ways of organizing society and the world as a whole.
• Liberal democratic reformers intended to preserve and reform communism and fascists.
• In a period when communism was confined to a single country, Russia, we are concerned with the first and longest- lasting movements to overturn the existing social and worldwide order.

• Modern forces had barely begun to develop when the first communist state was established.
• Russia was behind the changes in western Europe.
• The position of the Romanov dynasty was the same as it had been two centuries earlier under Catherine the Great.
• It was similar to the Bourbon monarchy of France in 1789.

• Russia had created a vast empire of many different nationalities, stretching from central Europe to the Pacific Ocean.
• Most of the population lived in European Russia, which included Poland and the Baltic lands.
• Most of the peasants had just recently been freed from serfdom.

• They were seen by the landed aristocracy as an inferior caste because they were largely uneducated.
• The tsar's "divine" rule of Holy Russia and its empire was supported by the heavy hand of the Russian Orthodox Church.

• Western influences reached into Russia.
• The intelligentsia were familiar with Western books and ideas.
• Writers like Dostoevsky were members of this group.

• They were popular in the West because of a common ground of culture.
• Musical composers, philosophers, and poets, as well as some outstanding mathematicians and scientists, were produced by Russia.

• The Industrial Revolution was the leader of Westernization.
• The capitalist pattern of economic growth began to take shape in Russia with the help of outside funds.
• Russia became active in the world trading system after substantial investments went into factories, mines, and railroads.
• Capitalist development was limited in comparison to England or Germany.
• The working conditions of industrial wage earners were similar to those in England fifty years earlier.
• The capitalist class had to share the economic field with many state-owned enterprises.

• Nicholas II was troubled by a wide range of domestic criticism.
• The Constitutional Democrats were formed around 1900 by the rising business and political class.
• They wanted to follow in the footsteps of western Europe and convert Russia's autocracy into a constitutional government.
• The Social Revolutionaries and the Social Democrats were founded at the same time.
• The Social Democrats were Marxists.
• They believed that social change would have to follow Marxist theory because they viewed the peasants as hopelessly backward.

• In 1905, a group of workers gathered in front of the tsar's Win ter Palace and were fired on by troops.
• The "Bloody Sunday" set off insurrections across the country that were supported and used by the opposition parties.
• The tsar promised a constitution and civil liberties in order to restore order.
• Most classes of the population were unhappy.
• The tsar was able to keep down the opposition by using a hated secret police.
• No public official was safe from assassination even though revolutionaries were resorting to terrorism.
• Alexander II, the grandfather of Nicholas, was killed by a bomb, while Nicholas's prime minister was shot dead.

• The poorly supplied and hungry soldiers and sailors refused to continue the fight against the Germans.
• The Romanov dynasty ended when the tsar abdicated on the advice of his generals.
• A government composed of reformers assumed power.
• The Petrograd Soviet was dominated by the radical parties and challenged the government.
• During the insurrection of 1905, local soviets first appeared.
• The Petrograd Soviet formed again in 1917 and began to act as a shadow government, supposedly speaking for the peasants, city workers, and soldiers.
• The country's future lies in the struggle for power between the Soviet and the government.

• In 1917, Vladimir Lenin arrived in Petrograd.
• The son of a civil official, Lenin had a comfortable childhood.
• After his older brother was executed for alleged involvement in a terrorist plot, he threw himself into opposition to the tsarist regime.
• Depending on his friends, he made revolution his life career.
• He spent most of his time in exile in Siberia and western Europe.

• The Russian Social Democratic party was made a disciplined revolutionary organization by Lenin.
• The "revisionist" wing of the party gained majority support at a meeting in 1903.
• The words on the banner show that these women are not alone.
• The first street protest that led to the fall of the tsarist government of Russia was against high bread prices.
• Workers were already on strike, and soldiers refused orders to break up the protesters.

• The Social Democrats were broken away from by the Bolsheviks in 1912.
• The name was changed to Communist in 1918.

• Swiss Marxist activi ties were promoted by Lenin during the First World War.
• The Germans hoped that his activities in Petrograd would help to overthrow the new government and take Russia out of the war.
• He had to take power from the government that was trying to restore order and uphold Russia's obligation to its allies.
• The country's conditions grew more desperate.
• Though Russia's economy had not developed to the point at which a proletarian revolution in the Marxist pattern could be expected, Lenin became convinced that the war had opened a shortcut to socialism.
• The majority of the Russian people wanted peace, land, and food.
• Alexander Kerensky, a Social Revolutionary, headed the government after July.

• The road to power was through Petrograd Soviet.
• Despite being a minority within the Soviet, the Bolsheviks were supported by the public because of their promises of peace and land.
• Leon Trotsky, a close ally of Lenin, was elected chairman of the Soviet in October 1917.
• As Kerensky's power waned and soldiers began to desert their units, Lenin decided to move against the government.

• The seizure of power was carefully planned and executed.

• The telephone exchanges, power plants, and railway stations of the capital were occupied by a revolutionary force with the support of the Petrograd military garrison.
• Kerensky didn't find any troops to defend his government, and the rest of his ministers fled or were captured.

• According to plan, on the afternoon of the coup, Lenin arranged a meeting for delegates from soviets in other parts of the country.
• The congress, controlled by the Bolsheviks, declared the government to be over and claimed full authority.
• The decrees were approved for peace with Germany and the distribution of land to the peasants.
• The congress elected a Council of People's Commissars to conduct the government, with Lenin at its head.

• The fact that a small group, shrewdly and bravely led, had moved into the confused situation and taken command was not concealed.
• The only organs of administration were the Communist party and soviets.
• The Red Army was authorized by the commissars and established a secret police.
• The leader of the military was to be the military commissar, Trotsky.

• The first test of the new government was the arrival of delegates to a national assembly in Petrograd in January 1918.
• The body was authorized months before to write a liberal constitution for the country.
• A majority of the delegates were from Kerensky's Social Revolutionary party.
• The meetings of the assembly were stopped by a company of sailors who were sent by Lenin.

• In March 1918, the new Soviet government signed a peace treaty with the Central Powers and agreed to give up control of many parts of the former Russian Empire.
• The defeat freed the Soviets' hands to face the next challenge.
• Counterrevolutionary forces were led by former tsarist generals in several regions of the country.
• Property owners, reactionaries, liberals, and anti-Bolshevik revolutionaries were with them.
• The Western Allies sent military units to help the Whites against the Reds, while the Allies were trying to keep Russia in the war.
• The Communists emerged victorious after two years of war.

• The Red triumph was made possible by the will of Lenin and the genius of Trotsky.
• It was due to the confusion and splits among the counterrevolutionary groups and their association with foreign powers.
• The attitude of the common people was most to blame in the last analysis.
• The new regime was opposed by many of the commoners.

• They preferred the reactionaries over the Communists.
• In the fluid, guerrilla-type struggle popular support proved decisive.
• With the bloody incident over, Lenin and his party sought to bring order to the chaos.

• The task of pulling together a battle-torn country and changing its social structure was staggering.
• The war against the Central Powers brought more distress than the civil unrest.
• Forced deliveries of food from the peasants were included in order to relieve hunger in the cities.
• In 1921, the economic conditions were so bad that the plans for socialism had to be put on hold.

• The primary problem was food, and it had gotten worse because of the dry spell.
• In order to spur their efforts and encourage them to market their produce, the peasants of each community had divided their properties among themselves, and something had to be done quickly.

• The New Economic Policy was launched in 1921.
• Peasant farmers were allowed to hire workers and sell or lease land.

• The growers could market what they wanted.
• The NEP was extended to industry and commerce.
• Private entrepreneurs were encouraged to start new businesses because the state kept its grip on public utilities and other large industries.

• Significant recovery of production was brought about by this temporary return to capitalistic methods.
• It was not up to the expectations of the Communists.
• The NEP seemed to slacken as output was about the same as it had been in 1913.
• In 1924, the revered Lenin had died, and his former colleagues were maneuvering to take his place.
• The most talented and radical, and the best known, was Trotsky.

• The majority of the party did not support Trotsky.
• Joseph Stalin, who held the post of party secretary, built a following for himself as the heir to the throne.
• He asked those who wanted to concentrate on the revolution inside Russia to look inward rather than to the world.
• Trotsky was expelled from the party in 1927 and sent to Siberia.
• Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico in 1940 by agents of Stalin, who was branded a communist heretic.

• Stalin began the building of socialism in one country using the policies of rapid planned development that Trotsky had called for.
• The party's first five-year plan focused on the collectivization of farming and the development of industry.
• State-controlled planning was the fulfillment of an idea that had been worked out by Marx's partner.
• The efficient operation of individual factories and industries depends on planning.
• He thought that the ultimate goal was the creation of a unified and complete national plan.

• Stalin's plan ran into resistance.
• His officials joined private farms into large collectives of 1,000 or more acres.
• The farmers of each collective kept possession of the land, but individual farmers lost control of the land.
• The kulaks fought collectivization bitterly, but the poorer peasants usually submitted to these forced measures.

• Most of the two million kulaks and their families were shipped off to Siberia to work in labor camps.
• Some of them sabotaged and destroyed their animals in a final act of defiance.
• The famines of the early 1930s were caused by heavy losses and government manipulation.
• Stalin pursued the collective-farm program as a means of effecting complete state control over the rural population and of increasing agricultural efficiency and output.
• He believed the collectives could make better use of machinery and scientific methods.
• There was a loss of personal incentive in this system.

• The Com munist party's ruling bodies protested Stalin's farm policy.
• Theoretician and activist, who was an associate of both Stalin and Lenin, was his most notable critic.
• The use of force against the peasants was condemned by Bukharin.

• Stalin outmaneuvered his opponents.
• He was sentenced to be shot after a rigged show trial.
• The course of Soviet history might have been different if Bukharin and his allies had succeeded in stopping Stalin.

• Many other communist leaders, along with almost all the Old Bolsheviks who had belonged to the party before the Revolution, and millions of lower-ranking party members, government officials, and ordinary citizens, were also arrested in a series of massive purges, which probably originated in Stalin's determination The victims were often coerced into confessing to their crimes and sent to labor camps or shot.

• Positive advances were being made in industry despite the painful and destructive events that were taking place in the countryside.
• The rate of growth in the 1930s was higher than any Western nation.
• The life and culture of a chapter 14: the west divided vast region was altered by the east of the Urals.
• The combination of socialist planning and state exploitation of labor made rapid modernization possible.
• The example captured the attention of other countries.

• Russian workers and peasants were proud of their Soviet material accomplishments.
• They were happy to see that "backward Russia" was catching up to the West.
• Most Soviet children enjoyed more opportunities than their parents did, and access to education and the arts was extended.

• The Orthodox Church was stripped of its property and influence.
• There wasn't a free press, free speech, free unions or freedom of assembly.
• The feared secret police supported the political power of the party.
• Dissenters were put down or destroyed by Stalin's systematic terror: show trials, purges, labor camps, and mass executions.

• The Soviet government was able to deaden virtually every nerve of resistance using these modern tools.

• The major political institutions of the new state were formed.
• The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a federal, democratic state according to the 1923 constitution.
• The Communists wanted to avoid suppressing national feeling, and the former Russian Empire had embraced some fifty nationalities.
• A republic is a self-governing region within a nation.
• By 1940, there were fifteen republics, and the largest was the Russian, which had over half the population of the USSR.
• The Ukrainian Republic, which was taken by the Reds during the Civil War, had less inhabitants than the Russian Republic and the White Russian.
• One to six million inhabitants were the average for most of the other republics.

• Each republic had a different administration for its internal affairs.
• The Supreme Soviet was the highest body in the federal structure.

• The body only met for a short time each year, when it elected a Presidium of thirty members.
• The Council of People's Commissars were the heads of the federal government.
• In 1924 the Soviet capital was moved to Moscow.

• The agencies of the state were not in charge of controlling the power of the USSR.
• It wasn't a party that was liberal-democratic but a disciplined organization that wanted to run the country.
• The constitution of 1923 authorized it to carry out this special role.
• While one did not have to be a party member to vote or run for office in the Soviet Union, party representatives decided who would be placed on the election ballot.
• The principle of "democratic centralism" was followed within the party, as officers and delegates to higher bodies were elected at several levels.

• The Congress delegated its power to the Central Committee after being recognized as the highest party authority.
• Power went to the top after the time of Lenin.
• It was the duty of every Communist to work for the fulfillment of the policy that was decided there.

• Without the party organization and its carefully selected and trained membership, the Soviet state could not have transformed, as it did, a country that covers one-sixth of the land surface of the earth.
• The monopoly of power by a single party would prove incapable of satisfying the desires of the subject peoples in the long run.

• They were Marxists and worked for world revolution, but they didn't make much headway in that direction.
• Marx gave socialism its international character because national states were narrow creations of the bourgeoisie.
• He organized the First (Socialist) International in the 19th century.
• The international socialist movement was weak during the rest of the 19th century.
• It was troubled by internal differences and by rival patriotisms.
• The socialist parties of many nations fell apart with the start of the First World War.
• Most "reformist" socialists supported the "patriotic fronts" of their homelands despite the fact that a radical minority refused to support their war governments.

• The war was a natural outcome of capitalism and the reformist parties were disdained by Lenin.
• He invited left-wing socialists in Europe to join the Soviet Communist party in forming a Third International.
• This would be a pure successor to Marx's original organization, declared Lenin.
• It was free of the socialists and pledged to revolution and dictatorship.

• Left-wing socialists of other countries were impressed by Lenin's stand and readily accepted radical leadership.
• The methods of the Soviet party were adopted by the new association.
• The name "Communist" was imposed on the international body and on each of the national parties.
• Rival groups of Marxists outside the Soviet Union became hostile.
• The violence used by the Communists, especially under Stalin, was viewed with horror by the reformist socialists.

• The Third International, known as the Comintern, had little chance of success due to alienating the large majority of Marxists outside the Soviet Union.
• The democratic socialists were strengthened by their break with Marxism and made gains in the Western nations.
• The existing order was preserved by legal and democratic reforms in France, Germany, Sweden, and Britain.
• France and Germany had large and legal Communist parties, but they were excluded from governing power.
• There was no proletarian revolution in the West.

• Communist parties with Moscow's support and direction were at work in fifty or more countries, militantly opposing capitalism and imperialism and serving as arms of propaganda and espionage for the USSR.
• The main international influence of communism was not through the activities of the Comintern but through chapter 14: the west divided the fact that the Soviet Union was a world power.
• It could be seen as a concrete alternative to liberalism and capitalism by collectivists of all shades.
• They could use the Soviet Union as an example of state planning and cooperative social principles despite their objections.

• The fear of communism pushed several European nations into revolutionary changes.
• In Italy and Germany, the fascist revolutions sprang from two conditions: a social crisis that arose in the wake of the First World War and the inadequacy of liberal-democratic government.
• The revolutions in Italy and Germany were propelled by violent nationalisms.

• There is a significant difference between the two types of revolution.
• The decades of Marxist organization, propaganda, and threats of action had anticipated the Communist uprisings in Europe.
• It came as a surprise.
• Before 1918, it had no ideological founders, no authoritative books, and no forces in evidence.

• It can now be understood as a break out of strong ideas and passions, some open to view and some hidden, that were opposed to liberalism, democracy, and rationalism.
• Privileged groups as well as ordinary people were attracted to fascists.
• Its support of class interests, including those of the military, satisfied individuals of property and power.

• Most male citizens were not entitled to vote until 1912 and the parliamentary institutions were less than fifty years old.

• The Italian legislature seemed incapable of dealing with inflation and unemployment after the war, and most Italians were angry about their country's role in the war.
• Though they finished on the side of the victors, their armies had suffered a lot.
• The Allies promised Italy a portion of what they had promised as a reward for entering the conflict on the Allied side.

• Many voters turned to the Socialists in the hope that they would do something about the economy.
• The elections of 1919 gave the Socialist party one-third of the seats in the national Chamber ofDeputies, and with the Catholic Popular party, the Socialists might have developed a constructive program for the country.
• Socialist trade unions began to take action after mutual distrust between Catholics and Marxists made cooperation impossible.
• Unionists tried to operate a number of factories in the 1920s.
• The propertied classes were frightened by the action of the workers.
• The Socialist party lost its chance to become a dominant political force when it split over whether or not to join the Communist Third International.
• It was on this scene of confusion, discontent, and fear that Mussolini presented himself as the national savior.

• Mussolini was a man of the laboring class and the son of a blacksmith.
• He went to school to become a teacher.
• He gained a reputation as a radical leader after he became editor of the Socialist party newspaper in Milan in 1912.
• He was a Marxist and initially opposed war, but in October 1914 he changed his mind and urged Italy to join the war against Germany.
• He was kicked out of the party and newspaper.

• He used to publish his new convictions in a journal that he used to advance his political career.

• Mussolini was injured in an accident in 1917 while serving in the war.
• He tried to get the public to support the war effort.
• After the Russian Revolution, he turned against socialism completely.
• He was attracted to violence as a way of life and as a means of securing change after he opposed the parliamentary government of his own country.
• The units took part in street fighting with socialists and others they disliked, smashed opposing party and newspaper offices, and killed some of the opposing leaders.

• Mussolini organized his forces into a fascist political party even though he had contempt for the parliamentary party system.
• Thirty-five seats in the Chamber of Deputies were won by the Fascists in the national election of 1921.
• Mussolini made attacks on socialism as their leader.
• He gained support from the shopkeepers and white-collar class, but also from the rich.
• The uniforms, parades, mass rallies, and calls for action were popular with young people.
• In 1922, his Blackshirts drove the legally elected socialist governments from control of Italy's northern industrial cities, and later that year, a huge Fascist assembly in Naples called for a march on Rome.

• The king of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III, was faced with the prospect of black-shirted bullies coming to his capital.
• The prime minister urged him to declare martial law.
• Mussolini was invited by the king to form a new administration.
• Mussolini arrived by railway car to take over the government after the Fascists marched on the city.

• Mussolini was given dictatorial power for one year by the Chamber of Deputies after the west surrendered to the Blackshirt threat.
• The party won 70 percent of the national vote in the 1924 election.
• The party received the support of many moderates who hoped that they could exert a restraining influence on the Duce.
• Within a few years, he had established a fascist state.

• Musso lini's triumph was a result of a variety of factors, but the collapse of Italian democracy was clearly due to its own failures.
• The army and industrialists of the country were critical to them.
• Mussolini didn't have to create a new army, the regular army came to his side.
• Many of its high officers had fascist sympathies from the beginning, and the Duce's glorification of militarism and his extravagant support of the army gained their active loyalty.

• The industrial leaders were unsure about Mussolini at first.

• He smashed the Socialist party and the unions, but they were worried about his intentions for business.
• The industrialists signed an agreement with the Duce.
• The industrialists were given a position in the government in return for their support of the Fascists.
• Major employers in agriculture and commerce were given the same authority later.
• It was thought that this state would harmonize all the economic and social interests in the country.
• The dictator allowed the leading capitalists to administer the nation's economic affairs through the corporate state.

• Mussolini had an alliance with the pope.
• In the middle of the 19th century, the state and church in Italy were against national unification.
• The Lateran Treaty and Concordat of 1929 were signed by Mussolini and Pius XI.
• The pope gained control over the area of Vatican City, which includes Saint Peter's Basilica.
• State financial aid and a special position in the educational system were secured by the Church.
• In return, the fascist state received the support of the Italian clergy and laity.
• Like Napoleon before him, Mussolini sealed his position as dictator by a bargain with the Church.
• He violated the terms of the Concordat as he saw fit.

• Italy's political institutions underwent a steady evolution under Mussolini.

• Political representation in the national legislative body was made possible by the corporate associations.
• The Fascist party was the true power in all fields.
• The party was similar to the Communist party of the Soviet Union.
• It was the only legal party, it consisted of only a fraction of the total population, and its members were carefully drawn from the ranks of select youth organizations.
• The Grand Council of Fascism was related to the Communist Central Committee.
• The interlocking of party and state officials that existed in the Soviet system was similar to the way its members held high offices in the government.

• Though it was anti-intellectual and stressed action, it still developed a distinctive ideology.
• Mussolini admitted that it was mostly a negative movement against liberalism, democracy, rationalism, socialism, and pacifism.
• Mussolini's personal experience and that of many other Europeans during and after the war made for a negative feeling.
• They were let down by failed hopes of progress and happiness.
• The Fascists found an answer to the emptiness with extreme nationalism.
• One can get an emotional lift by forgetting one's problems as a person and by giving oneself to something larger and grander.

• The Fascists said that the state is a living entity.
• The state must expand in order to express its strength.

• The liberal reliance on reason was replaced by a mystical faith in the fascist myth.
• Intellectuals were looked upon as suspicious characters by fascists because of their private mental fancies.
• Most Italian intellectuals cooperated with the Fascists in order to confirm Mussolini's view that they were lacking in honesty and courage.
• The Fascist secret police struck down any active opposition who opposed the government.

• Italians accepted fascists with enthusiasm.
• The individual who used to feel alone and unneeded now has a new sense of belonging because of the paternalistic measures of the government and other means.
• Mass rituals were staged in the great public squares of Rome and other cities, and many types of workers wore distinctive uniforms.
• By 1930, fascists gained the support of most of the Italian people, as well as the admiration of conservatives abroad.

• Fascist ideology supported rule by an elite.
• The Fascists believed in permanent rule by their "natural" leaders after the abolition of capitalism.
• These individuals would be capable of rising above selfinterest and being able to sense the character and desires of the nation.

• The fascist philosophy spread quickly across Europe and the world because of the ideas of communism.
• It had a large following in Austria, Portugal, Spain, and Argentina, but its world-shaking triumph was in Germany.
• Here fascists were fused with deeper and older forces in the German tradition to turn the words of elitism and imperialism into actions of conquest and genocide.

• The ground for Hitler and his National Socialists was prepared after Germany's humiliation at Versailles.
• The Germans adopted a democratic constitution in 1919, but the new government was inexperienced and it was associated with the crushing military defeat.
• It fell under the weight of its unresolved problems in little more than a decade.

• The problem was that Hitler was the son of middle-class parents in a small Austrian town.
• He became an ardent German nationalist early in life, and though he spent some of his formative years in Vienna, he found its cosmopolitan atmosphere distasteful.
• He didn't find a place for himself until the outbreak of the First World War.
• Hitler experienced the comradeship and discipline of military life when he enlisted in the German army.

• He went to the capital of the south German state of Bavaria in 1919 because he was bitter about the war's outcome.
• There were large numbers of unemployed veterans and political dissidents there.
• The new role gave Hitler an outlet for his ambitions.
• He was attracted to the National Socialist banner because of his hatred for Jews.
• He had the support of a number of people, including a pilothero, a journalist, and a military commander during the First World War.

• He had an intuitive grasp of the concerns of his fellow Germans, especially the middle class, about the decline of culture, the threat of social revolution, and the mixing of the races.
• Like Mussolini, he had a gift for rousing speech-making.
• Rioting and street fighting were commonplace in Germany during the early 1920s.
• The Nazi party seemed to have been crushed by the government reprisals after it was stopped in the streets of Munich.
• He founded the party after his release from prison.

• The international economic crisis of 1930 gave the German revolutionary parties a great opportunity, despite the fact that the revived party made little headway.
• Many men were looking for work.
• Many of them found " jobs" as Nazi storm troopers, similar to Mussolini's Blackshirts.
• During the years of economic hardship, the party gained electoral strength.
• Powerful industrialists came to the rescue when it ran out of funds.
• In January 1933, Hitler received a promise to pay the wages of his storm troopers and the party's debts.
• Conservative politicians were preferred by German business leaders.

• They turned to the Nazis as a "bulwark against communism" in order to protect themselves against the possibility of a Nazi victory in the elections.

• The Nazis did not have a majority in the legislature.

• Hitler suspended constitutional guarantees after the Reichstag building was burned.
• The Social Democrats were the only opposition party left after the Communist party was banned.
• The Enabling Act of March 1933 gave the government the power to rule by decree for four years.

• The flag of the republic was replaced with a Nazi swastika and Hitler declared the beginning of the Third Reich.

• By mid- 1933, Hitler's political opponents were either in jail or in exile.
• He assumed the office of president after Hindenburg's death.
• The act was approved by the German electorate.
• One of the most educated and civilized nations of the world was ruled by the mad Austrian.
• The army and leading industrialists cooperated to marshal the country's manpower and resources.
• Hitler wanted to make Germany the most powerful nation in Europe and the world.

• Italian fascists had a lot in common with Nazism.
• The myth of the "organic state," the importance of struggle and will, the glorification of militarism, insistence on authority and discipline, rule by an elite, and a mystical faith in the Leader were all present.
• NeoRomanticism, nihilism, and violent racism were added to Germany.
• The first two were out of the 19th century and the last one was an outgrowth of the war.

• The Nazi racial theories led to genocide for the Jews of Europe.
• In most parts of Europe, Jews were liberated from the ghetto in the 19th century because of the liberal philosophy of equal civil rights for all.
• The supremacy of Nordic "races" over other races began to be asserted by some writers in France, England, and Germany.

• Hitler and his associates, resentful of the resurgence of Jewish social and cultural influ ence in postwar Germany, embraced these racial ideas and made them a central part of their program.
• Building on that passion, they enacted discrimination legislation, banned marriage and sexual relations between Jews and citizens of German blood, forced Jews to wear a humiliating badge, and laid plans for the systematic destruction of the Jewish people.

• The Nazis were contemptuous of reason and intellectuals.
• Hitler declared that the German peasantry's values were the basis of Nazi goals.
• The country became divided between industrialized and urbanized under Hitler.
• The Nazis covered up the reality of technological change by encouraging popular belief in the myths of rustic purity and racial superiority.
• Millions of people became converts to the Nazi faith during the 1930s.
• It suited the traditional romantic longings of most Germans, offered a total view of life, and appealed to national and racial pride.
• The urge to violence was finally released.
• The murder of Jews and political opponents was one of the steps taken by the Nazis.

• Some indi viduals and groups struggled to resist Hitler.
• The Roman Catholic hierarchy criticized many of the Nazi policies, but they were able to secure the Church's functioning while enduring an uneasy relationship with the state.

• In Rome, Pope Pius XII kept silent about the systematic destruction of the Jews, in the belief that moral condemnation of the Nazis by the pope would only make the situation worse for both Jews and Catholics in Germany.

• Less fortunate were the German Protestant churches, which Hitler wanted to organize into a supporting force for his party.
• Some individuals formed a separate "Confessing Church" which openly opposed Nazi power, but most of them yielded to the relentless threats and pressure.
• They paid a high price for failing to stop Hitler, as their chief leader, the Lutheran pastor Martin Niemoller, was arrested in 1937 and remained in a concentration camp until the Allies liberated him at the end of the war.
• The theologian and also arrested, imprisoned, and executed in 1945.

• The shift from liberalism to communism took place in a different way in the West than it did in Germany, Italy, and the USSR.
• The major prewar social institutions in the Nordic lands, France, Great Britain, and the United States held firm.
• There was no security from the disruptions that followed the war or the march of science and technology.

• In response to these forces, democratic governments intervene more and more.
• Some of the principles and practices of historic liberalism were left behind by the governments as their functions expanded.

• The historic liberal spirit and principles of this country have been identified more than any other country.
• Britain in the 19th century was the main stronghold of capitalism and free trade, as well as having an extraordinary tradition of stability.

• Prior to 1914, one wouldn't have expected this nation to move toward collectivism.

• Even before the war, the British had distanced themselves from liberalism.
• Parliament had passed many laws regulating industrial conditions, and trade unions had become a force between workers and their employers.
• By 1914, compulsory national insurance was put in place to protect workers against the costs of accidents, sickness, unemployment, and old age.
• Revenues from progressive income taxes were to be used to support such programs.
• There were new problems that the government had to deal with after the First World War.
• The experience of the war made it easier for the British to accept state intervention in the postwar period.

• England's most pressing problem at the end of the war was to recover its financial and trading position in the world, as it had suffered severe losses of manpower and wealth during the struggle against Germany.
• Britain's aging industrial plants were an obstacle to the effort.
• Organized labor would not agree to lower wages after the war.
• After 1921, Britain fell into a chronic depression because it failed to regain the lost markets.
• Unemployment and poverty were a way of life for millions of Britons.

• The 1920s saw the growth of organized labor in British politics.

• The Labour party was formed by the unions and moderate socialists.
• The Conservative party had the largest number of seats in Parliament by 1924.
• The working class realized that political power did not guarantee a better standard of living for workers or a solution to the country's economic problems.
• The policies of Labour governments were not very different from those of Conservatives.
• Both parties agreed that the protection and advancement of the public well-being required continued and widening intervention by the state.

• The traditional policy of free trade was ended as the British depression grew deeper.
• The home market was protected against imports from the United States.
• In 1931, the government went off the gold standard and devalued the pound.

• The latter step was taken as a means of aiding British exports, but it was undone by the depreciation of other currencies in capitals around the world.

• Coal was voted subsidies by Parliament when it proved unable to compete.
• The government laid out plans for the development of British industry and agriculture.

• The United States became the strongest capitalist country after the First World War.
• During the 1920s, the nation pulled away from its military adventures overseas and from the domestic controls imposed during the war.
• The decade of "normalcy" was defined by the President chapter 14: the west divided Warren Harding.
• The power of big business and finance was rarely checked by the governing Republican party.

• During the 1930s, the government of the United States was pushed into the kind of intervention that had become common in other Western democracies.
• The economic boom of the postwar years brought temporary prosperity to the nation, but it was driven by artificial and unstable forces.
• The stock market Crash of 1929 wiped out many of the inflated values.
• The Crash signaled the beginning of the Great Depression, a long and bitter experience for millions of Americans.

• They discovered that the "free-market" economy wasn't all it's cracked up to be.

• President Herbert Hoover was in office at the time of the crash.
• Hoover didn't understand that a system and an era had ended.
• Although he approved limited government measures to assist certain financial institutions and railroads, he held the view that business would recover on its own.

• Production and employment went down when Hoover told the public that the recovery was "around the corner".

• During the winter of 1932- 1933, they struck bottom.
• Wages were down by the same proportion as physical production, and farm income was reduced by half.
• About fifteen million people were out of work.

• Depressions were not a new experience in capitalist countries.

• There was reason to believe that normal recovery forces were unlikely to work in this depression.
• The factors that contributed to this were rigid price and wage structures, rapid technological advances in industry, and the near-hopeless situation of farmers, who were producing for a depressed and uncontrollable world market.
• It is likely that some kind of balance in the economy would have come about through natural forces.

• The economy had grown so complex that the forces would have been too slow.
• The strain on the social system could have proved intolerable, and so many individuals and families would have been crushed in the process.

• Franklin D. Roosevelt promised the American people that he would lead the federal government in an attack on the depression as if it were an enemy.
• More radical leaders might have gained a mass following if he had not promised to act.
• Roosevelt began the first hundred days of his "New Deal" program after his party won an electoral victory.

• The New Deal was built on the ideas and policies of earlier American "progressives" as well as the wartime experience of industrial mobilization.
• Roosevelt realized that the challenges were much greater and that they needed a new boldness.
• He proposed remedies with no ideology.
• The New Deal was meant to strengthen the capitalist system.

• Relief, recovery, and re form are the headings Roosevelt classified his measures under.
• Legislative provisions for the Social Security system, bank deposit insurance, regulation of the securities exchanges, stabilization of agricultural production, and guarantees for labor collective bargaining were some of the most important and enduring.
• The New Deal programs did not cure all of the nation's ills, but they did place the federal government in a new and generally accepted role in the social and economic life of the country.
• FDR was attacked by some of his opponents as a traitor to his class, but he saw himself as a duly elected president making necessary reforms in light of new economic realities.

• In America and Europe, the democratic welfare state did not lose sight of the dual.
• What was needed for the protection and well-being of the majority of individuals was what it aimed to do.
• Western men and women have had less economic freedom in the twentieth century than they did in the nineteenth.
• Increased wealth and economic security due to advances in technology and social organization have given them more freedom in their personal lives.
• The areas include education, leisure and travel, the arts, books and magazines, and material consumption.

• Wilson was determined to fulfill his promise after the conflict ended.
• The goals of "open" diplomacy, freedom of the seas, arms reductions, removal of trade barriers, and political "self-determination" for peoples everywhere were included.

• Wilson proposed a "general associa tion of nations" to guarantee their independence.
• Wilson traveled to Paris after the war to make sure that this association was established.
• The plan for a League of Nations was written into the Treaty of Versailles.

• Wilson made concessions to them on the other provisions of the treaty in return for them approving it.
• Wilson believed that the League could correct injustice and lay the foundation for a warless world after it was established.
• The Treaty of Versailles was later approved by all the Allied governments except the United States.

• The League's high purpose was crippled by America's failure to join it.
• The organization was not universal because Germany and the Soviet Union were excluded from membership for a number of years.

• The United States would one day become a member, despite the fact that it had some strong supporters.
• Disillusionment with the war and the Great Depression turned Americans inward.

• The League provided aid to refugees, returned prisoners of war to their homelands, and held popular votes in disputed territories.
• The commission arranged for the exchange of scientific and cultural information and the collection of social and economic statistics.
• The sponsoring of the conferences proved to be useless, as the participating nations viewed the proposals for arms reduction as another arena for the continuing power struggle.

• Wilson intended the League to prevent war.

• The treaty required member states to submit their disputes to the Council of the League if they failed to do so.
• The Council, which consisted of representatives of the principal countries, could only call for sanctions against any state that attacked them.
• Collective action against potential aggressors would not start acts of conquest.

• If the leading powers put priority on stopping aggressors, collective security might have worked.
• In and out of the League, each nation continued to pursue their own goals and refused to act when their interest seemed to be in danger.
• Japan, Italy, and Germany were conspiring to support one another's seizure of territory.
• The balance between countries that want to preserve territorial boundaries and those that want to break them proved to be too much for the collective security idea to succeed.

• Japan was the first country to test the will of the League.
• The Japanese soldiers occupied Manchuria in 1931.
• In response to China's appeal, the League sent an investigating commission to Manchuria and concluded that Japan was guilty of aggression.
• The Council of the League could not agree on sanctions.
• Britain was reluctant to offend the Japanese, who had a powerful Pacific fleet.
• The British decided that nothing should be done because they couldn't get a guarantee of assistance from the United States.
• Britain was the most influential member of the League.

• The League's failure encouraged the militarists in Tokyo to prepare for more ambitious conquests in China and beyond, as well as emboldening the aggressors in Europe.
• After the First World War, the Wilsonian hope for collective security was shattered.
• The road to the Second World War was already begun by the great powers.

• He tried to gain a foothold in the ancient empire of Ethiopia during the 1920s.
• The emperor of Ethiopia had refused.
• Mussolini decided to move by force of arms after observing the League's weakness.

• The tribesmen of Selassie were not able to hold out against the Italians.
• Ethiopia was annexed to Italy within a year.
• The Council of the League called for economic sanctions against Italy because Britain was more aroused than in the case of Manchuria.
• Mussolini continued to receive needed supplies from Germany despite the measure only being partially effective.

• Japan and Germany had already left the League.

• By now, it was clear that the three nations were linked in a plan for conquest.
• In 1936, the Rome-Berlin axis joined the fascist states of Europe.
• Germany and Italy signed an Anti-Comintern Pact with the militaristic and profascist government of Japan.
• The pact was supposed to check the spread of communism by the Comintern in Moscow.
• Germany was the strongest member of the alliance.
• Hitler decided to rearm Germany in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles.
• His air force was growing in strength.
• Hitler continued to violate the 1919 peace settlement even after he moved cautiously.
• The absorption of Austria into the new German Empire was announced by the Fuhrer in 1938.

• Hitler supported an army rebellion against the newly established Republic of Spain a year earlier.
• The war became a bloody theater for the ideological struggle between Left and Right in Europe after the government appealed to the Soviet Union for help against the rebels.
• It proved to be a testing ground for new weapons.
• The fascists won the war in 1939.
• Franco's repressive government was supported by the Spanish Church and lasted until his death in 1975.

• Britain and France were alarmed by the fascist threat, but they were not able to respond effectively because of their political incompetence.
• The only power that could check Hitler was the Soviet Union.
• The defensive alliance between France and the Soviets ended in 1935.

• The collapse of the Franco-Soviet alliance was due to the failure of France and Britain to honor their treaty obligations.
• In September of 1938, the two Western powers agreed to Hitler's demands for a portion of Czech territory.
• The Soviet dictator was worried that some British diplomats were secretly hoping that Hitler would smash into the Soviet Ukraine so that they wouldn't have to worry about the Nazi and Soviet threats.
• The Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact of 1939 came as a shock to British and French diplomats, as Stalin chose to remove the threat of an invasion of his country by working out a deal with Hitler.
• Stalin would not interfere with Hitler's next territorial grab in Europe in return for pledges of non-aggression and territorial promises to the Soviet Union.

• Poland was invaded by the Nazis on September 1, 1939.
• The British and French had made last-minute pledges of assistance to the Poles.
• They declared war on Germany this time.
• The Second World War began.
• Within a month, Poland was destroyed by the Germans.
• The Polish troops were surrounded by swift tank formations.
• By agreement with the Nazis, Soviet troops moved into the eastern part of Poland.
• The Soviet Union was savagely attacked by Hitler in June 1941.

• Between 1939 and 1942, the German armies advanced eastward into territories that had held the majority of the world's Jews since the western European persecutions of the Middle Ages.
• The Germans separated the Jews from the rest of the population and placed them in ghettos or concentration camps, where many died from brutality, hunger, and disease.
• There were mass shootings and gassings by special task forces.
• Jews from all over Europe were transported and selected for immediate gassing or hard labor at the most notorious of the camps, which were located in Poland.
• Six million Jews and three or four million non-Jews died.

• The German diversion of men, supplies, and transport from the war effort was enormous.
• It was aided by the cooperation of governments and non-Jews throughout occupied Europe, as well as the passivity of the Allied governments.
• The Holocaust stands as a warning of the possibilities of evil released by the combined technical advances and inner conflicts of modern civilization in general and Western civilization in particular.

• The fascist forces made huge gains in the early part of the fighting.

• There is a happy Hitler in this picture.
• He has a good reason to be happy.
• His aides just told him that France had accepted the German cease-fire terms.
• Germany has become the dominant power on the mainland of Europe after conquering France.

• Britain held out against Nazi bombs and threats of invasion.
• Japanese forces had occupied large areas of China before 1941 and hoped for further gains as a result of the defeats suffered by the main European imperial powers in the Far East, Britain, France, and the Dutch.
• Six months after the German attack on Russia, they struck the United States' Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor.

• They conquered the British colonies in the western Pacific Ocean and its islands, as well as the Dutch East Indies, and the American-controlled Philippine Islands.

• By 1942, the fascist power was at its height in Europe and the Far East, and all the major powers were involved in the war by land, sea, and air.

• The population and resources of the Allies were vastly superior, however, and in the end they achieved victory.
• The final outcome of the six-year war was decided by Soviet armies and the United States air power.

• After their attack on Russia, the Nazis penetrated deep into the country and were close to overthrowing the regime.
• They were stopped just short of Moscow, having suffered heavy losses.
• They surrounded and destroyed twenty-two Nazi divisions in the largest battle in history.

• In the war in the air, the Americans first pursued a tactic called "strategic bombing", which was to destroy key transport and production facilities whose elimination would cripple the enemy's war machine.
• This type of bombing, which depended on "pinpoint" accuracy and spared the civilian population, was only partially successful.

• The strategic pattern was the same as it was during the First World War.
• A group of opponents was confronted by the powers.
• The opponents were hesitant and distrustful and faced the threat of Japanese expansion in the Far East.
• For a time, theAxis powers made spectacular conquests in western Europe, eastern Europe, and North Africa until the rival coalition mobilized enough resources, determination, and mutual cooperation to crush the bloatedAxis domain.

• The war against Germany was marked by fire raids.

• The Pacific and Europe were both on the defensive by mid-1943.
• Allied forces based in Britain under the command of American General Eisenhower landed on the beaches of Normandy on June 6, 1944.
• Their Russian allies advanced from the east while they moved cautiously toward Berlin.
• The war in Europe ended in May 1945, when the Germans surrendered.

• Before the end of World War II, American forces had bases within the range of the Japanese home islands.
• The enemy's population centers and air defenses were now open to unlimited attacks from the sky.
• By the standards of nuclear weapons, the weapon that wreaked this destruction was small.

• Tens of thousands of men, women, and children were killed by the two weapons.
• The public justification for using atomic bombs against these defenseless cities was that it was necessary to bring a quick end to the war and save millions of lives that would have been lost in a military invasion of Japan.
• The quick and total victory of the Allies was assured by these superscientific devices for mass killing.

• The new weapons confirmed a radical shift in the nature of warfare, from attacking opposing armed forces to destroying whole populations.

• The books by Stephanson are detailed and readable.

• The war is conveyed in works of fiction and personal narratives.

• The World History Resources Center at http://history.wadsworth.com/west_civ/ offers a variety of tools to help you succeed in this course.