The period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the fall of Christian Constantinople was known as the Dark Ages. Then came the Renaissance. History is not neatly divided. Cause and effect are ignored by dated divisions, which stress chronology at the expense of continuity.

To understand Europe from the fifteenth century onward, it is necessary to look at the foundations upon which it was built. Chaos was what the medieval period in Europe was initially characterized by. The Western Roman Empire was brought to its knees by barbarian invasions. The rise of Christianity ignores the loss of classical Greek and Roman learning and culture. With the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire, feu dalism became the dominant social structure at the highest levels, binding the church and state in their attempts to control the political, economic, social, religious, and cultural evolution of a modernizing society. Christianity did not result in political unity. It would take a long time for political unity to be based on nation-states.

Feudalism affected the politi cal, economic, religious, and cultural elements for centuries. feudal society had a king at the very top. Everyone pledged their loyalty to the king and God. The will of the king was enforced by nobles or feudal lords. To a large degree, cultural activity was controlled by the clergy. Review the knowledge you need to score high order and fight for your lords as necessary. Merchants were hired by the feudal lords. They paid taxes and fees. They paid for access to towns where they could sell their goods, a fee to set up booths, and a "tax" on everything sold. Serfs worked the land to the benefit of everyone higher in the social pyramid and then received protection from barbarian raiders and other feudal lords who were intent on expanding their fiefdoms. The Crusades and the Black Plague would cause irreparable cracks in the pyramidal structure.

The Crusades included eight major and several minor wars that lasted until the end of the fifteenth century. They did more than just extend the reach of Christianity. They did not enrich the Roman Church. The Crusades resulted in an exchange of scientific and cultural ideas, as well as the establishment of transportation and trade networks across the world.

The manufacture of goods, from weaponry to foodstuffs, and an increase in industry were equally noteworthy. The merchant class grew as goods moved between Asia and Europe. Expansion of trade fairs was held to promote the growth of cities.

The pyramidal structure was weakened by the Black Plague. As much as 50 percent of Europe's population was wiped out by the plague. Some feudal lords lost their labor pool and had to find workers from other countries. serfs were able to bargain and get paid for their labor for the first time. Control was not in the hands of feudal lords. Merchants and artisans formed a middle class that was supported by the peasant class.

The changes should sound familiar. When the domestication of animals and agriculture led to settlement, which led to different social roles, division and specialization of labor, and to some standardization of produced goods, they echo what had happened before.

During the Middle Ages, when the Crusades represented the Christian attempt to regain the Holy Land from the Muslim, a sort of renaissance was taking place on the Iberian Peninsula.

The Peninsula was under the control of the Umayyad Dynasty from 711 to 1492.

Hospitals, public libraries, and schools of translation were established by the Muslim government in order to provide alternate versions of classical science and philosophy. The universities were established. Chess and irrigation systems were introduced. The first multicultural poetry was love poetry written in Arabic and Ibero-Romance. The tradition of teaching history to the general public continued even after the epics of classical times. The importance of the heroic individual is often stressed in literature and artwork. The changes in attitude between medieval and renaissance thought are reflected in architecture. Europe's medieval architecture would be able to produce Gothic wonders thanks to the use of ancient archi tectural elements like the arch. The modernizing world was characterized by the resurgence of a belief in man's ability to contemplate the divine through human endeavor. People were able to explore potential and possibility instead of resigning themselves to their position in the social hierarchy.

Language would play a big part in this change. The way for the Counter-Reformation of the High Renaissance was paved by the way the vernacular replaced Latin as the language of trade and education.

Laying the foundations for the Renaissance is warfare.

Medieval Asian-European interactions resulted in the use of gunpowder, cannons, and the longbow, which led to the "impersonalization" of war. Combat was no longer face-to-face. Cannons and longbows made it possible to kill the enemy from a distance. The word "enemy" represents a faceless opponent. The 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476 888-282-0476

The Middle Ages had southern and northern European manifestations. The Vikings and their descendants, the Normans, changed Northern Europe, the British Isles, France, Kievan Russia, and Sicily. It was the Normans who under the leadership of William the Conqueror conquered England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, ending Saxon rule and paving the way for the subsequent ruling dynasties.

Students should focus on legacies and purpose in order to understand how the medieval foundations allowed the building of the Renaissance. Legacies include ideas of continuity, action/reaction, and cause and effect.

The reign of King Henry II of England is an example of continuity. Henry's work in establishing the jury system, replacing Roman law with common law in England, and gaining control over feudal lords are some of his legacies. He is best known for his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine and his attempts to expand England's control in France. The war lasted almost 400 years. He is known for his friendship with Thomas a Becket. Thomas a Becket studied theology at the University of Bologna in Italy, where he apparently grew a conscience.

He resisted the king by defending the rights of the Church. Four of Henry's knights murdered Becket in the cathedral in response to Henry's exasperation. Two hundred years after the Pilgrims were set, the fictional pilgrims were set on their trek to Thomas a Becket's shrine. The author wrote in the vernacular. He matched style and literary form to people from all walks of life.

The change from a feudal monarchy to one with a bureaucracy made up of professionals is one of Henry's legacies.

The culmination of changes begun before and during the Middle Ages is what the Renaissance was about. History is not defined by eras. It shows the actions and reactions that have come before.

A linear chronology is not history. It considers causes and effects, of connections, of changes, and of innovations over time.

Six broad themes of European history are the focus of the AP History course. All of the questions on the AP European History Exam have at least one of these themes. You will learn more about the themes in this chapter.

There are six main themes in modern European history identified by the AP European History Exam.

The curriculum of AP European history courses explores these themes.

Chapters 10 through 23 will discuss the particulars of each theme. You can take the first step in contextualizing the visual prompt from each question on the exam by becoming familiar with the broad themes.

The merchant class of Western Europe was very wealthy by the 15th century because of the increased wealth flowing into the economies of Western European KEY IDEA kingdoms. The combined investment of the monarchies and merchant classes funded great voyages of exploration across the globe, establishing new trade routes and bringing European civilization into contact with previously unknown civilizations. The effects of this exploration and interaction on the civilization of Western Europe were profound.

The economies of Western KEY IDEA expanded and changed over time. The new wealth that flowed into those economies from their trading empires and colonies fostered a shift in the nature of wealth. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, wealth was in the hands of those who had the military ability to hold it. Over the next four centuries, wealth became capital and land became just one form of capital. The wealthy, those who had and controlled capital, became a larger and slightly more diverse segment of society, ranging from traditional landholders who were savvy enough to transform their traditional holdings into capital-produced con cerns, to the class of merchants, bankers, and entrepreneurs who are often referred to

Intellectuals were engaged in the pur KEY IDEA suit of knowledge throughout modern European history. Church scholars were able to read and write ancient texts because of their ability to read and write.

They chose information and a world view that was compatible with Christian notions of revealed knowledge and a hierarchy.

Increased wealth allowed European elites to create secular spaces. This development gave rise to a new type of secular scholar who stressed the use of observation and reason in the creation of knowledge and who successfully challenged the idea of a theocentric universe. The change resulted in a lot of cultural responses.

The traditional social structures and institutions of European society are under stress due to the growth of the European economy. Dramatic changes in where and how the population lived and worked fostered and benefited from changes in the means of production and exchange.

The demands for changes in the nature of the social hierarchy were created by the economic and social changes of the fifteenth through the twentieth century.

European elites were competing with commercial elites for political power. Women were involved in sociocultural change during the pre-industrial period. In the 19th century, women, along with industrial and urban workers, began to demand access to, and participation in, the wielding of political power.

The idea of national, and eventually European, identity was often based on geography and political power. The creation of a parliamentary monarchy in England, the unification of Italy and Germany in the 19th century, and the Reconquest of Spain are all examples of states united in their beliefs in social, political, cultural, and/or religious values. Changing economic, political, social, cultural, and legal frameworks affect the idea of a European identity.

The College Board defines four "units" to organize the content relating to the major themes of European history. These units form the basic structure of the AP course, but don't worry, you won't have to memorize these time periods. They are not part of the AP exam and are only a behind-the-scenes structure. The College Board website can be used to review the knowledge you need to score high on the AP exam. This information is provided in the table below.

The revival of commerce, the renewal of interest in the classical world, and the growing belief in the potential of human achievement were all part of the Renaissance.

The Italian Renaissance's spread to northern Europe is described in this chapter.

The cottage industries of the 18th century broke the exclusive organizations that dominated the skilled trades in Europe from the medieval period.

There was a belief in the value of human in the Renaissance and an educational program based on classical Greek and Roman languages.

Classical Latin and Greek languages are included in the educational program of the Renaissance.

The belief in the dignity and potential of humans that characterized Renaissance humanism was written by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola.

Machiavelli's book marks the shift from a "civic ideal" to a "princely ideal" in Renaissance humanism. The princely ideal focuses on the qualities and strategies that are needed to hold social and political power.

The study of mathematics was spurred by the belief that reality was located in a changeless world of forms. The artistic idea that contemplation of beauty led to contemplation of the divine is also referred to.

A group of people devoted to the revival of the teachings of Plato were founded by Marsilio Ficino and Cosimo de' Medici.

During the Renaissance, paintings were done on wet or dry plaster.

The sculpture of the biblical hero is characteristic of the last and most heroic phase of Renaissance art. Sculpted from a single piece of marble, it is larger than life and offers a vision of the human body and spirit that is more dramatic than real life, an effect that Michelangelo produced by making the head and hands too large for the torso.

The treaty established a defensive pact among Venice, Milan, Florence, Naples, and the Papal States. The French invasion of 1494 ended it.

Dialogues written by the most important and influential of the northern humanists, Desiderius Erasmus, for the purpose of teaching his students both the Latin language and how to live a good life.

A tradition in the smaller, independent German provinces flourished in the 15th and 16th century, whereby organized groups promoted religious behavior and learning outside the bureaucracy of the church.

The support of artists and artisans, often by the newly emergent middle class merchant, as well as the awarding of noble titles and government appointments as a means of gaining political support.

It refers to a time in Western civilization when the revival of three things: commerce, interest in the classical world, and the belief in the potential of human achievement, took place.

Increased military, economic, and cultural interactions with the rest of Europe made its way north after the Renaissance flowered for 200 years.

The society of the Italian peninsula between 1350 and 1550 was unique to Western civilization.

The degree to which Italian society was urban was the most outstanding characteristic. Italy was home to seven of the ten largest cities in Europe by 1500. The Italian peninsula was made up of many independent city-states, unlike most of Western Europe, which was characterized by large kingdoms with powerful monarchs. These city-states were able to control the revival of networks of trade with the Eastern empire because of their location.

In the rest of Europe, social status was determined by occupation, rather than by birth or ownership of land, as was the case in these city-states.

The trades were controlled by monopolies. The manufacturing guilds, such as clothiers and metalworkers, sat at the top of the hierarchy. The professional groups that included bankers, admin istrators, and merchants were the most prestigious. They were followed by skilled laborers.

Wealth was not based on control of land as it was in the rest of Europe, because the city-states of Italy developed as commercial centers. Wealth was in the form of capital and power was the ability to lend it. The Italian peninsula's traditional aristocracy was not as powerful as their European counterparts. Powerful merchant families dominated the cally. The monarchs of the more traditional kingdoms had to come to Italy for loans to finance their wars of territorial expansion because of their status as holders of capital.

The city-states of Renaissance Italy were set up according to different models.

The social relations of feudal hierarchy were reflected in the values of European civilization before the Renaissance. The ambition and pride of the com mercial class that dominated Renaissance Italian society were reflected in these traditional values. In contrast to European noblemen who competed for prestige on the battlefield or in jousting and fencing tour naments, successful Renaissance men competed via displays of civic duty, which included patronage of philosophy and the arts.

Humanism was at the center of the values of the Renaissance. A newfound confidence in what modern men could achieve was combined with an admiration for classical Greek and Roman literature. The Renaissance man could read the works of the ancient Greek and Roman authors and absorb what the philosophers of the last great Western civilization had to teach them about how to succeed in life and how to live.

The ancient Greek and Roman philosophers were guides, but their achievements could be equaled and improved upon. The goal of the Renaissance humanist program was to have a well-rounded citizen who excelled in many areas. As a testament to the dignity and ability of man, and also for the way in which they contributed to the glory of the city-state, these scholarly achievements were valued in their own right.

Humanism lost some of its ideal character, where scholarly achievements were valued for their own sake, and took on a more cynical quality.

One of the most amazing bursts of artistic creativity in the history of Western civilization was the result of the unique structure of Renaissance society and the corresponding system of Renaissance values. The arts brought fame and prestige to the rich and powerful of the Renaissance society. Artists and craftsmen were in constant demand because of the competitive spirit of the elites.

Lorenzo de' Medici, who led the ruling family of Florence from 1469 until his death in 1492, commissioned work 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110 888-739-5110

Pope Julius II's patronage of the arts, including the construction of St. Peter's Basilica, transformed Rome into one of Europe's most beautiful cities.

The artists were usually hailed from the class of guild craftsmen. Master craftsmen trained young men with skill to work in their shops. There was no separation between the artistic and com mercial sides of the Renaissance art world. The artist was supposed to give the patron what he ordered. The Renaissance artist used explicit contracts to show his creativity.

The guild culture that contributed to the brilliant innovations of the Renaissance period was the fact that the various media, such as sculpture, painting, and architecture, were not viewed as separate disciplines; instead, the Renaissance appren tice was expected to master the techniques of each of these art. Renaissance artists were able to apply ideas and techniques learned in one medium to projects in another because of the variety of materials they were able to work with.

The human being and the human form were taken from Greek and Roman forebears in the Renaissance style of art. The transition can be seen in Giotto's frescos. Giotto depicted the human characters in realistic detail and with a concern for their psychological reaction to the events of St. Francis's life. The biblical character of David is depicted in two sculp tures, one of which was the first life-size, free standing, bronze. The Papacy was believed to be that of Goliath.

The last and most idealistic phase of Renaissance art was typified by the second version sculpted by Michelangelo Buonarroti.

The introduction of the printing press allowed for more rapid dissemination of ideas and gave access to documents, fiction, and religious texts to a growing audience.

Using a scientific method, or proceeding through the stages of hypothesis, observation, experimentation, and replication, individuals like Copernicus and Galileo challenged the accepted wisdom of the day. The idea that human health was governed by the four humors was put to rest by physicians who used a similar form of inquiry. The Church punished early scientists for deviating from teachings.

The politics of the Italian peninsula were characterized by an equilibrium that broke. The Treaty of Lodi brought Milan, Naples, Florence, Venice, and the Papal States into a mutual defense alliance. The balance of power was shattered when Naples prepared to attack Milan. The French king, Charles VIII of France, was invited to lead French troops into Italy and to revive the claims to Naples that the French had made in the 13th century.

Florence, Naples, and the Papal States made major concessions after the French invaded the Italian peninsula. To score high French aggression, you need to review the knowledge. The war for supremacy between European monarchs began in Italy in the late 1490s.

The spread of Renaissance ideals and values can be traced back to the print ing press. The moveable type printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the German city of Mainz in 1445 in response to increased demand for books from an increasingly literate public. Between fifteen and twenty million books were in circulation by 1500. The ideas that spread with the books were the thoughts and philosophies of the Renaissance humanists, which were both adopted and transformed in northern Europe.

He spread the Renaissance belief in the value of education. He taught his students how to live a good life from Latin dialogue that he wrote himself.

By mastering ancient languages, any man could learn to read the Bible and the works of an array of ancient philosophers, thereby learning the truth about God and nature for himself.

The Renaissance was centered in the royal courts of France, England, and Spain. The characteristics of the Renaissance were absorbed into a tradition of lay piety in the smaller, independent German prov inces. German scholars, such as Martin Luther, who were educated in a context that combined the humanistic and lay piety traditions, would be prominent in the creation of the Reformation.

I believe that grace is derived from the fact that everyone knows the difficulty of those things that are rare and done well.

He who does not esteem this art, seems to me very unreasonable.

Individual achievement is promoted.

The manner in which a prince should act is described.

The value of personal achievement is more important than the civic good.

The pursuit of excellence is stressed.

The virtue of skill in the visual arts is more important than the martial arts.

The artist's social status is stressed.

D. values grace.

The individual is told to pay attention to their appearance.

Reason should be the measure of everything.

The ancients look to them for guidance in matters of taste and accomplishment.

All men are encouraged to aspire to be Courtiers.

Explain the difference between the "civic ideal" in Renaissance humanism and the "princely ideal" that replaced it.

All Renaissance ideals promoted individual achievement.

Both traditional and Renaissance culture valued individual achieve ment and grace. The social status of artists is not mentioned in the passage.

The attention to personal appearance was not unique to Renaissance humanism. B is incorrect because neither Renaissance humanism nor the passage argued that reason should be all things. D is incorrect because neither Renaissance humanism nor the passage encouraged men to be Courtiers.

If you want to score high, you need to review the knowledge. Renaissance humanism valued individual achievement in scholarship and the arts as a fulfillment of God's gift and as a part of good citizenship. The "princely ideal" replaced it because it valued individual achievement in scholarship and the arts as a tool for individual success.

The revival of commerce, interest in the classical world, and belief in the potential of human KEY IDEA achievement that occurred on the Italian peninsula between 1350 and 1550 is known as the Renaissance. The successful merchant class in Renaissance Italian society wanted a well-rounded life of achievement and civic virtue, which led them to give their patronage to scholars and artists. Both scholar ship and artistic achievement reached new heights, and new philosophies like humanism and Neoplatonism were created. The Italian peninsula became a battleground in a war for supremacy between European monarchies after the leaders of Milan invited the French monarchy to intervene because of jealousy and distrust. The spread of Renaissance ideals and values was caused by the independence of the Italian city-states. The foundation of the Reformation was created by a northern European humanism that was less secular than its Italian counterpart.

The Roman Church's preoccupation with worldly matters and its failure to meet the needs of an increasingly literate population led to challenges to its doctrine and authority. The rise of Protestant churches in northern Europe is described in this chapter.

The pope ruled a kingdom in central Italy.

The church forgives people of their sins, sometimes even before they commit them, in return for a monetary contribution. One of the practices that Martin Luther objected to was the selling of indulgences.

The judgement day is tied to the belief that one is living in the last days of the world.

The belief that salvation is a gift from God given to all who possess true faith is one of the central tenets of Martin Luther's theol ogy.

The belief that scripture is the only guide to knowledge of God is one of the central tenets of Martin Luther's theology.

One of the central tenets of Martin Luther's theology is the belief that all who have true faith are priests.

In the fall of 1517, Martin Luther posted 95 challenges to official Church theology on the door of the Wittenberg castle church.

The principle of "whoever rules, his religion" was established by the treaty that was signed in 1555 and signaled to Rome that the German princes wouldn't go to war over religion.

The principle of religious toleration in France was established by a royal decree.

Henry VIII decided to break from the Church in Rome and establish a state church in England.

The Protestant groups refused to join the Anglican Church in England.

The Calvinist believes that God has a plan for which people will be saved and which will be damned.

The group of people who have been predestined by God for salvation are called the Calvinist group.

The sect of radical Protestant reformers in Europe in the 16th century considered true Protestant faith to require social reform.

The first deliberations of the Counter-Reformation council of the Catholic Church took place in 1545. The Catholic Church was the final arbiter in all matters of faith despite its attempts to be more moderate.

In 1478, the Catholic Church created an institution to enforce the conversion of Muslims and Jews in Spain. It was revived and expanded to fight all threats to orthodoxy and the Church's authority.

Huguenots were massacred by King Charles IX in August 1572.

Many believed that the church had become too focused on worldly matters. The Church was facing a serious challenge from Martin Luther and his followers. The revolution began as a protest. Secular was at stake as opposed to religious political control.

By the end of the century, a Europe that had been united by a single Church was deeply divided, as the Catholic and Protestant faiths vied for the minds and hearts of the people.

The Catholic Church of Europe was facing a lot of problems by the start of the 16th century. The Church had become too corrupt and worldly. The papacy in Rome was seen to be more concerned with building and retaining power and wealth than with guiding souls to salvation. The Papal States, a kingdom that encompassed much of the central portion of the Italian peninsula, was ruled by the pope, who was also the head of a powerful Church hierarchy. He used his religious power to influence politics in every kingdom in Europe.

One example of the way in which the Church seemed more concerned with amassing power and wealth than with guiding the faithful to salvation is the selling of indulgences, which allowed people to be absolved of their sins, sometimes even before they committed them, by making a monetary contribution to the Church. The Church failed to provide a powerful, personal, and emotional connection with God to many people who yearned for it, and worked actively to discourage it. Luther, the son of a mine manager in eastern Germany, was drawn to the Church after studying law and becoming a priest in 1507. Luther was appointed to the faculty at the University of Wittenberg in 1512 after receiving a doctorate of theology.

Luther's personal search led to the creation of the revolutionary ideas that would define Lutheran theology. Luther believed that God's final judgement would be upon the world and that he was living in the last days of the world. Luther became obsessed with the question of how any human being could be good enough to deserve salvation because of this view, now referred to as millenarianism and widespread in sixteenth-century Europe. The Priesthood of All Believers argued that all true believers received God's grace and were, therefore, priests in God, by stating that scripture was the only source of true knowledge of God's will.

The Church claimed that there were two sources of true knowledge of God: scripture and the traditions of the Church.

The Church claimed that only priests could read and interpret scriptures.

In the fall of 1517, Luther began his protest by tacking 95 theses to the door of the church. His students quickly translated them from Latin to German and distributed them throughout the German-speaking kingdoms. The survival of a Protestant movement was due to the political climate, but with the aid of the printing press, Luther attracted many followers. The movement might not have survived if the papacy had moved quickly to excommunicate Luther and his followers.

The prince of Luther's district was Frederick of Saxony. The princes of the German districts owed their allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor, who elected Frederick as one of seven electors. Luther's excommunication was delayed because of Frederick's protection. After 1529, the kind of Christian worship that Luther and his followers had established throughout Germany would be known as Protestant.

Luther's theology was promoted to both nobility and common people. He wrote an "Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation" in order to appeal to the German princes' desire for greater unity and power. In "The Freedom of the Christian Man" he encouraged the common man to obey their Christian conscience and to respect authority who seemed to possess true Christian principles. Luther offered the princes of Germany an opportunity to break away from the Roman Church without losing the trust of the common people. It was an opportunity that was too good to pass up. The German princes made it clear to Rome that they would not go to war with each other over religion, and they signed the Peace of Augsburg, which established the principle of "whoever rules, his religion" and signaled to Rome that the German princes would not go to war with each other

In areas where the local rulers were unwilling or not strong enough to enforce orthodoxy, Protestantism flourished. The Protestant movement spread with success to the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Scotland, and England, but it encountered more difficulty in southern and eastern Europe. France was the site of the most bloodshed because Protestantism was both heretical and illegal in 1534. The civil war pitting Catholics against Protestants erupted in 1562 and initially French Protestants were allowed to be. The principle of religious toleration in France was established by the Edict of Nantes in 1598, but it was revoked in 1685.

The English Reformation was different. There were long traditions of dissent and anti clericalism in England. Protestantism in England grew slowly, appealing to the middle classes, and by 1524 illegal English-language Bibles were circulating. As Henry VIII tried to consolidate his power and his legacy, he took the existence of a Protestant movement as an opportunity to break from Rome and create a national church, the Church of England.

Catherine of Aragon could not provide Henry with a male heir to the throne so he needed a divorce. He needed money and land to buy the loyalty of existing nobles and to establish loyalty in new ones who would owe their position to him. He became the head of the new Church of England in 1534 after breaking away from the Church in Rome. The English monas teries were dissolved in 1536 and the church lands and properties were given to those who were loyal to him. Sir Thomas More, a friend and counselor to Henry, was executed because he refused to sweat his loyalty to Henry. The Church that Henry had created was Protestant because it broke from Rome. The Church of England was not a Protestant because of the characteristics that were opposed by most Protestant reformers.

England was plagued by religious turmoil for the rest of the century. Edward VI, the son of Henry and Jane Seymour, became the ruler of England, but the communities who wanted to organize themselves along more Protestant lines grew to be known as Dissenters. Mary I, the daughter of Henry and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, brought England back to Catholicism and led to the persecution of Protestants. The daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth I, ruled England again. There was a kind of equilibrium in which a modicum of religious toleration was given to all during Elizabeth's reign.

After the break from the Roman Church, Protestant leaders had to create new religious communities and systematize a theology. John Calvin was the most influential Protestant theologian. Calvin was forced to leave his native France and flee to Switzerland after converting to Protestantism around 1534. The adult male population voted to become Protestant in 1536. Calvin worked in Geneva for 40 years to lay out the theology and structure for Protestant religious communities that would become known as Calvinism.

Calvinism accepted Martin Luther's contention that salvation is gained by faith alone and that scripture is the sole source of authoritative knowledge of God's will. Calvin developed the doctrine of Predestination, which said that God has a plan for which people will be saved and which will be damned. Calvin said that those who are predestined to salvation would be known by their righteous behavior and prosperity, even though their earthly behavior could not affect the status of their salvation.

In Calvinist communities, the structure and discipline of the congregation were inte grated into those of the town. Calvinist churches were organized by function in place of the Roman church's hierarchy.

Doctors wrote commentaries.

The social welfare of the community was seen by the debonairs.

The church and community were governed by elders.

The center of the Protestant movement was in Geneva.

The Protestantism of Martin Luther and John Calvin appealed to the commercial and merchant classes. People were able to read and react to criticism of the doctrine and practice of the Roman Church. The promise that God would bless the worldly endeavors of the elect provided a self-satisfying justification for the wealth and prosperity that many were enjoying. A more radical reformation was being shaped among the artisan and peasant classes.

The religious beliefs of the poorer and less educated classes were not always the same as those of the elite. Their knowledge of Christian theology was superficial and wedded to old folklore. They cared about the fact that they would be rewarded for their suffering in the future. The doctrine of jus tification by faith alone and predestination meant that God would never abandon the poor and simple people who suffered and that they could have direct knowledge of their salvation through an inner light that came to them directly. In some circles, this was used to create a belief that the poor had a special mission to prepare for the second coming of Christ.

The largest group of radical reformers was known as the Anabaptists. In 1534, a group of them captured the German city of Munster, seized the property of non-believers, and burned all books except the Bible.

The Anabaptists were seen as a threat to the social order by both Protestant and Catholic elites. The Anabaptist movement was violently repressed and driven underground after their rebellion was put down.

Although it was slow to believe that Protestantism could pose a threat to its power, the Roman Church began to construct a response by the middle of the 16th century. The Catholic response had two dimensions, one of which was to reform the Catholic Church and the other to end the Protestant movement.

The Society of Jesus was at the center of both dimensions. The Jesuits were founded in 1534 and saw themselves as soldiers in a war against Satan.

The Jesuits were often among the first Europeans to visit the new worlds that the Age of Exploration was opening up, thus establishing a beachhead for Catholicism. They preached a new piety and pushed the Church to curb its worldly practices and serve as a model for a holy life that could lead to salvation.

The Council of Trent began its deliberations in 1545. The worst abuses that led to Protestant discontent were abolished by the Council. The Council of Trent symbolized a defeat for Protestants who wanted to reconcile with the Catholic Church, as the Council refused to compromise on any of the key theological issues, and continued to insist that the Catholic Church was the final arbiter in all matters of faith.

The office known as the Inquisition was at the center of the Catholic Church's efforts to defeat Protestantism. An old institution within the Church that investigated charges of heresy was revived and expanded to combat all perceived threats to orthodoxy and the Church's authority. Those who ran afoul of the Inquisition were at risk of imprisonment, torture, and execution. The Church used censorship as one of its main weapons in its response to the Reformation.

The covenant of life not being equally preached to all, and among those to whom it is preached not always finding the same reception, discovers the wonderful depth of the divine judgment. This variety also follows, subject to the decision of God's eternal election. If it is the result of theDivine will, that salva tion is freely offered to some, and others are prevented from attaining it--this immediately gives rise to important and difficult questions, which are incapable of any other explication. His eternal election, which shows the grace of God, shows that he gives to some but not to others.

The gate of life is closed by those who he devotes to condemna tion, but we affirm that this counsel is founded on his mercy, totally regardless of human merit.

In the elect, we consider calling as an evidence of election, and justification as another token of its manifestations, until they arrive in glory. As God seals his elect by vocation and justification, he gives an indication of the judgement that awaits them by removing the knowledge of his name and the sanctification of his spirit.

salvation to everyone is not offered by God.

Man can't understand salvation.

One can decide if they want to be saved or not.

Protestants are the only ones saved.

If you want to score high, you need to review the knowledge.

Those souls on Earth committed sins.

There were sins committed in a previous life.

It isn't open to human understanding.

It's open to interpretation.

One can find a calling or vocation.

One can find a "calling" or vocation to be predestined to salvation.

Finding a calling can save you.

Finding a calling or vocation offers some solace.

Explain how Protestant theology differed from Catholic theology and how Lutheran theology differed from Calvinist theology.

The passage offers an explanation of salvation and how it comes to some. The word "election" refers to God's decision to choose some souls for salvation. The passage doesn't say that all Protestants are saved or that non-Protestants are damned.

The passage does not mention previous lives. The passage states that God's judgement is not open to interpretation.

The passage doesn't say that finding a calling earns one salvation. The passage says nothing can save those who have been denied salvation. The passage doesn't say anything about consolation for the damned.

Protestant theology denied that good works could earn one's soul salvation and the doctrine of Scripture Alone differed from Catholic theology. The doctrine of Predestination was different between Calvinist theology and Lutheran theology.

The Catholic Church's claim that good works can earn one salvation is contrary to the Protestant doctrine of Faith Alone and Predestination.

According to Luther's doctrine of Faith Alone, anyone with true faith can be saved. Calvin's doctrine of Predestination states that no one can achieve salvation by not being elected by God.

The Christian Church was criticized for its KEY IDEA preoccupation with worldly matters. In Germany in 1517, Martin Luther accused the Church of straying from its mission. He claimed that salvation came from having faith alone, and that scripture alone was the source of all knowledge about salvation. Henry VIII created the Church of England after breaking with Rome and confiscating church lands. By the mid-century, the Protestant movement had diversified and fragmented, as second- generation Protestant theologians had to articulate the specific beliefs and structures of the new Church they were building.

The Counter-Reformation was a response to the Protestant movement. The Church carried out many internal reforms that addressed the grievances of the faithful, as well as enhancing the role of the Inquisition, which was meant to stamp out Protestantism.

European nations began to explore and exploit new areas of the globe, including Africa, the Americas, and the East, as a secular and ambitious culture emerged in the fifteenth century. The chapter describes the growth of global trade, the establishment of European colonies in new regions of the world, and the stress on the traditional economic and social organization of Europe caused by the new sources of wealth and power.

During the Renaissance, the importation of spices from Asia was revived. The great voyages of exploration of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were spurred by the need to find shorter, more efficient routes.

The large estates produced food and leather goods for the mining areas and urban centers of the Spanish Empire in the New World.

Foreign trade in Britain and France doubled in the 18th century.

African slaves were transported in brutal conditions across the Atlantic Ocean on European trade ships.

Sugar was exported to Europe from the large estates in the West Indies.

Money is the only form of wealth according to the economic theory. The economic control of colonized areas was left in the hands of the colonizer.

Key Idea, a series of disasters that destroyed much of the culture that characterized the High Middle Ages, began to recover around the middle of the fifteenth century. A more secular, ambitious culture began to explore and exploit new areas of the globe, including Africa, the Americas, and the East. Europe's traditional economic and social organization is under stress due to the influx of trade, wealth, and new cultural influences.

With the resources of the joint kingdoms at their disposal, the reconquista and unification of the Kingdom of Spain was done first, followed by the promotion of overseas exploration. They sponsored the voyages of the Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus, who, sailing west in 1492 in search of a shorter route to the spice markets of the Far East, reached the Caribbean, thereby "discovering" a "New World" for Europeans and setting in motion a chain of events

In the fifteenth century, Spain was not the only country sponsoring seafaring exploration. Portuguese exploration of the African coast was sponsored by Henry the Navigator. By the end of the fifteenth century, Portuguese trading ships were bringing in gold. The selling of spices from India that were used to preserve and flavor food was seen as gold by European powers. The search for gold and competition for the spice trade combined to inspire an era of daring exploration and discovery.

In 1498, Vasco da Gama extended Portuguese trade by reaching the coast of India and returning with a cargo that earned him 60 percent profit.

The Portuguese established trading colonies on India's Malabar Coast.

Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailing for Spain in 1499 and for Portugal in 1501, helped to show that the lands discovered by Columbus were not in the Far East.

The conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1519 was the beginning of more than 300 years of Spanish domination in the New World. In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by the Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellan sailed west in search of a new route to the Spice Islands of the East. The expedition sailed into the Pacific Ocean and arrived at the Spice Islands in 1521. The first circumnavigation of the globe was completed by the expedition in 1522, but they didn't have Magellan, who was killed in the Philippines.

Thanks to technological advances, exploration and colonization were possible. Until the development of the caravel, ships used for explora tion and trade were mostly a kind of barge that was difficult to control and limited in navigation prowess. The caravel incorporated more masts, used lateen sails to increase maneuverability, and made speed and power the elements by which the Spaniards and Portuguese were able to carry out trade and exploratory missions. The use of guns and horses in warfare gave European colonizers of the New World an advantage over cultures that did not.

The economic opportunities of the New World were exploited by the Spanish Empire. The process of exploitation began when Hernan Cortes landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519. The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was taken over by the Cortes. The Aztec Empire was declared New Spain in 1521 after they were defeated.

In 1531, Francisco Pizarro landed on the western coast of South America with 200 men and proceeded into the highlands of what is now Peru to conquer the Inka civilization. The Incas were subdued by 1533 By the late 1560s, effective control by the Spanish Crown was established after internal divisions within the conquering force made conquest difficult.

In both the mining and agriculture sectors, ownership was in the hands of Spanish born or -descended overlords, while labor was coerced from the native population. Native populations could not be enslaved unless taken as captives in a "just war" and this led to the importation of black workers.

Spain and the rest of Europe were affected by a steady rise in prices and inflation due to the increase in wealth and coinage. The formation of joint stock companies allowed private investment and investment by the Crown. These colonies flourished initially with help from others and later at the expense of the indigenous populations.

England and France were the main economic powers in Europe and in the New World in the 18th century.

The majority of the Triangular Trade Networks that connected Europe to Africa and the Americas were controlled by them. The phrase "Triangular Trade Networks" refers to a system of trade routes that doubled foreign trade in both Britain and France in the 18th century. Guns and gin were exported from Europe to Africa.

Slaves were exported to Europe to work in colonies in North America, South America, and the Caribbean.

Furs, timber, tobacco, rice, cotton, indigo dye, coffee, rum, and sugar were exported from the colonies to Europe in exchange for slaves and tur manufaced goods.

Before the 18th century, the primary destination of Africans taken into slavery by their rivals was either the Mediterranean basin or Asia. The slave trade to the West was reoriented in the 18th century due to increased demand for African slaves. The majority of slaves were destined for Brazil and the West Indies. The Middle Passage was a name for the transportation of African slaves across the Atlantic Ocean. The slaves were chained below deck in horrible conditions. Between 50,000 and 100,000 Africans were transported each year during the height of the slave trade.

The city of Tenochtitlan is located on the salt lake.

The chief was made aware that all the people. I came to teach them that Your Majesty, by the will ofDivine Providence, rules the universe and that they must submit themselves to the imperial yoke.

They were disadvantaged by the absence of Christianity in their culture.

He believed that he was chosen by God to conquer the people of Tenochtitlan.

He doubted the morality of his mission.

The Spanish had complete authority over the people of Tenochtitlan.

He wanted to be the God of the people of Tenochtitlan.

The laws of Christianity and Spain were supposed to be imposed on the people of Tenochtitlan.

The people of Tenochtitlan were intended to be wiped out.

C. Cortes wanted to educate the people of Tenochtitlan.

The people of Tenochtitlan needed to be converted to Christianity.

Spanish colonization changed life in the New World.

The passage does not indicate that the people of Tenochtitlan were ready to convert to Christianity.

There is nothing in the passage that indicates that Cortes believed that he was chosen by God.

There is nothing in the passage that indicates that Cortes doubted the moral correctness of his mission. The passage does not indicate that Cortes intended to be the God of the people of Tenochtitlan.

If you want to score high, you need to review the knowledge. There is no indication in the passage that Cortes intended to kill the people of Tenochtitlan.

"Teaching" the people of Tenochtitlan isn't correct; the pas sage makes it clear that Cortes's primary mission was to rule the people of Tenochtitlan.

D is incorrect because the passage doesn't give any information about the worship practices of the people of Tenochtitlan; rather, it gives information about the ways in which Cortes interpreted those practices.

Spanish colonization created a new agricultural system and shifted ownership of the mining sector away from local populations.

Spanish-born or Spanish-descended overlords were in charge of both the mining and agriculture sectors.

The KEY IDEA kingdom of Spain was used to promote overseas exploration in the fifteenth century. Other European kingdoms followed suit. The exploration and discovery of the New World led to the creation of a Spanish empire in the New World. Britain and France dominated the lucrative Triangular Trade Networks that imported raw materials from North America and the Caribbean to Europe in exchange for the sale of manufactured goods to colonies and for slaves acquired from Africa.

The social structure of European kingdoms came under pressure in the first half of the 17th century. This chapter describes the economic, social, and political changes as economies underwent a transformation from an agricultural base to a more complex economic system that included expanding the trade that had begun in the later Middle Ages, as well as the growth of a middle class of merchants.

The theory is that monarchs were given the right to rule by God.

A theory of government says that a ruler has absolute power over his or her subjects.

A right ful ruler's power is limited by an agreement with his or her subjects according to a theory of government.

An administrative bureaucrat in France of the seven teenth century was usually chosen from the middle class because he owed his position and loyalty to the state.

The end of France's Religious Wars was marked by a decree by King Henry IV of France.

European KEY IDEA society came under new pressures in the first half of the 17th century. A large class of poor agricultural laborers supported a small and wealthy class of elites in this structure. The economies and social structures of European societies were stretched to the breaking point as the monarchs of Europe fought wars to expand their kingdoms. A new class of people, made up of merchants and professionals, was created due to the increase in trade and the diversification of the economy.

The first half of the 1600s was characterized by an economic contraction. The amount of silver mined from Spanish mines in the Americas declined at the same time that new European nations began Atlantic exploration, colonization, and trade. Italy and Spain became less economi cally dominant due to the drop-off in the silver trade.

A series of harsh winters that characterized the "little ice age" of the 1600s led to a series of poor harvests, which led to malnutrition and disease. Members of the besieged agricultural class decided to have smaller families to cope with poverty. Over time, the smaller family unit would contribute to a higher standard of living. The decrease in population was caused by the combination of famine, poverty, and disease.

The problems of the European peasantry were worsened by demands from the nobility.

A more professional army was necessitated by new military tactics and equipment. The armies were formed through conscrip tion. As warfare took its toll, these military changes further decimated the agricultural population. Monarchs raised money through increased taxation. The peasantry bore the brunt of the new economic burden because the nobility was largely exempt from taxes.

The economic and social pressures strained the fabric of traditional society. Many peasants became beggars due to poverty. nobles resisted erosion of their position and privilege and peasants protested their extreme poverty in Europe. In many communities, religious, social and economic instability was found in a series of witch hunts. Economic and personal hardship were attributed to the devil through witches. The accusations caused a form of mass hysteria in which people feared both witchcraft and the accusation of witchcraft. The targets of these accusations were women, for whom the decline in typical forms of charity was most dire, and who were easy targets. Women were thought to be more vulnerable to evil influences than men, and confessions of "con sorting" with the devil were common, often elicited through torture.

The Thirty Years' War is the best example of the instability and upheaval of this period. The fires of religious conflict in Germany did not go away despite the Peace of Augsburg. The German Catholic and Lutheran principals were competing for power. The Calvinist sect was popular in some areas, but the Peace of Augsburg failed to recognize it. Ferdinand, a member of the powerful Catholic Habsburg family, became ruler of predominantly Calvinist Bohemia in 1617 and later emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Calvinist nobles threw out a few of Ferdinand's key advisers as he took measures to centralize royal power. Ferdinand sought help from other German Catholics, Spain and the papacy, while the Calvinist rebels appealed for help from other Protestant states. Spain gained access to a coveted trade route from Italy to the Netherlands thanks to the Catholic forces, solidifying the position of both the Catholics and the Habsburgs in Germany.

In 1625, Christian IV of the Danes came to the aid of the Protestant state of Saxony, fearing that the Holy Roman Empire would threaten his sovereignty. The leader of the imperial forces was a noble man named Albrecht von Wallenstein. It wasn't enough to get enough support from France and Britain. The Holy Roman Empire gained control of the Baltic ports and ended the supremacy of the Danes in that area after Wallenstein's army defeated the Danes.

King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, motivated by the same desires and fears as King Christian but with a stronger military ability, successfully invaded northern Germany and the Holy Roman Empire but was killed in battle. The Holy Roman Empire and Protestant German states began negotiations after the knowledge you need to score high was defeated. German princes were no longer able to negotiate alliances with other nations and the German armies were incorporated into one large force under the Holy Roman Empire.

The Bourbon regime in France was alarmed by this turn of events and worried about the strength of the Habsburgs in Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. They decided to ally with Sweden against Spain and the Holy Roman Empire in 1635 because of this. The tide turned in favor of the French and Swedes because Spain's attention was diverted by local rebellions which had been encouraged by France's Cardinal Richelieu. The end of the Thirty Years' War was marked by the signing of a series of agreements known as the Peace of Westphalia.

This conflict had a significant impact on Europe. International alignments and conflicts were marked by the end of religion. Power and authority were not centralized in German central Europe. German unification wouldn't happen for another two hundred years because of the reduced power of the Holy Roman Empire.

Calvinism is a legitimate option for German states. The papacy's power waned as the Dutch gained independence. The impact on German states was devastating. Estimates of population losses range from 20 percent to 50 percent in some areas, and the disruption to farming and commerce was incalculable.

The monarchs of the Stuart dynasty were at odds with the English Parliament. The English Parliament was an assembly of elites who advised the king. Its members were elected by the property-holding people of their county or district, which was different from the other European kingdoms.

Eligibility for election was based on property ownership, so its members included wealthy merchants and professional men.

The members voted individually, rather than as a group.

The English Parliament of the 17th century was an alliance of nobles and well-to-do members of a thriving merchant and professional class that saw itself as a voice of the "English people," and it clashed with the monarch it had invited to join.

The king of Scotland, known as James VI, decided to rule England in a way that was similar to the theory of absolutism. The theory says that monarchs were appointed by God. They were allowed to rule with absolute authority over their subjects.

James I's reign was characterized by a peaceful relationship with Parliament despite the tension between them.

James's son and successor, Charles I, married a sister of the Catholic king of France.

Charles I was forced to call on the English Parliament for more funds after he provoked the Scots into invading England. Parliament made funds contingent on the curb on monarchical power. The English Civil War began because of this stalemate. The power of the monarchy, the official Church of England, and the privileges and prerogatives of the nobility were defended by forces loyal to the king. The trial and execution of Charles I for treason was the result of the victory of the Parliamentary forces.

There were several key differences that allowed for a different outcome in France. The religious issue was settled firmly in favor of the Catholic majority in the kingdom that was created in the 16th century from a series of religious and dynastic wars. The lack of religious turmoil in the 17th century allowed the French monarchy to cement an alliance with both the Catholic clergy and the merchant class, and to use the great administrative expertise of both to begin to build a powerful centralized government. The consolidation of royal power by transferring local authority from provincial nobility to a bureaucracy that was both efficient and trustworthy was overseen by both Louis XIII and Louis XIV.

Cardinal Richelieu was the chief minister to Louis XIII and used the royal army to destroy the private armies of the French nobility.

The European kingdoms farther to the east had similar contests for power and sovereignty that resulted in compromises between monarchs and elites.

European kingdoms in eastern and central Europe, such as Brandenburg Prussia, the independent German states, Austria, and Poland, were less developed than their western counterparts. The economies of Britain and France in the 17th century were based on an agricultural system run by a free and mobile peas antry and supplemented by an increasingly prosperous middle class consisting of artisans and merchants in thriving towns. The nobility of the kingdoms in central and eastern Europe were able to retain control of vast estates worked by serfs, agricultural laborers who were bound by the land. They were able to avoid the erosion of wealth that happened in Britain and France by doing so.

The only way to build. This is more than consent, or Concord; it is a real unity of them all, in one and the same Person, made by Covenant of every man with every man, as if every man should say to every man, I authorize and give up my Right of Governing myself.

He was a democrat.

The establishment of the Commonwealth government in England was opposed to by him.

The centralization of power in government was opposed by C.

D was an advocate of the constitution.

There are similarities and differences between the English and French experience of political power in the 17th century.

The passage makes no mention of limits on the power of the government. The passage does not reference the collectivist principles of socialism. The passage doesn't mention the belief in the end of the world.

The covenant discussed in the passage is not conditioned in any way. The cov enant is not limited in any way. The passage does not reference any kind of democracy.

The passage does not mention any kind of democracy. The passage indicates the advantages of centralized power. The passage establishes Hobbes's opposition to any kind of constitution because it limits the power of the government.

The people of England and France experienced attempts to consolidate political power around the monarchy in the 17th century. The English effort was complicated by religious differences. In the case of France, the power of the Catholic Church was used to help the monarchy.

The monarchs of England and France tried to consolidate their power in the century II.

The monarchists tried to consolidate power in England.

The dynamics of the traditional, hierarchical social KEY IDEA structure of European kingdoms came under new pressures. As their economies underwent a transformation from a purely agricultural base to a more complex system that included expanding trade and the growth of a middle class of merchants and professionals, European monarchs attempted to solidify their claims to sovereignty.

The power struggle between the monarch and the elites was won in both Britain and France by the side who formed an alliance with the wealthy merchant and bourgeoisie. The European kingdoms farther east did not gain in wealth and numbers as their counterparts in Britain and France did. The stalemate between royal and aristocratic wealth and power remained more balanced as a result.

The last vestiges of feudalism were destroyed in the 18th century when the influx of capital generated by colonial trade in Great Britain and France led to changes in agricultural and manufacturing production. The social and political changes in Great Britain and France are described in this chapter.

After the victory of the Parliamentary forces in the English Civil War and the execution of Charles I, England was ruled without a monarch.

The period of English history after the Commonwealth was called the Glorious Revolution. The reigns of Charles II and James II were encompassed.

The quick, nearly bloodless uprising that co ordinated Parliament-led uprisings in England with the invasion of a Protestant fleet and army from the Netherlands and led to the expulsion of James II and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in England under William and Mary was the catalyst for the creation of

A right ful ruler's power is limited by an agreement with his or her subjects according to a theory of government.

The main argument for the establishment of natural limits to governmental authority was made by the Englishman John Locke.

The great palace of the French monarchs, located 11 miles outside of Paris, was the center of court life and political power in France from 1682 until the French Revolution in 1789.

The legal status of groups as varied as peasants and slaves was converted into that of a single class of serfs.

The traditional economic system of Europe was developed in the medieval period, in which landowning elites held vast estates divided into small plots of arable land.

During the Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century, crops were grown for sale and exported.

During the Agricultural Revolution of the eighteenth century, hedges, fences, and walls were built to deny the peasantry access to traditional farming plots and common lands, which had been converted to fields for cash crops.

Peas ants were engaged in small-scale textile manufacturing. Merchants were able to get around the guild system by using it.

The cottage industry in the 18th century broke the exclusive organizations that dominated the skilled trades in Europe from the medieval period.

A machine invented in 1733 by John Kay doubled the speed at which cloth could be woven on a loom, creating a need to find a way to produce greater amounts of thread faster.

The need to speed up the harvesting of cotton was created by the invention of a machine that increased the amount of thread a single spinner could produce.

Eli Whitney, an American, invented a machine in 1793 that could remove seed from cotton and send it to the spinners at a faster rate.

The shift in European alli ances was caused by the aims of Frederick II of Prussia. Prussia, fearful of being isolated by its enemies, formed an alliance with Great Britain in 1756, while Austria and France formed an alliance of their own.

Prussia, Great Britain, and the German state of Hanover were involved in a battle for control of the European Continent and the New World in North America.

In the second half of the 17th century and into the 18th century, Great Britain and France overtook Spain, Portugal, and Holland as the dominant economic and political powers in Europe. The political struggle among the elites reached their climaxes as they did.

The majority of the Triangular Trade Networks that connected Europe to Africa and the Americas were controlled by Great Britain and France. The resulting wealth and prosperity set in motion a series of innovations that changed European agricultural and manufacturing production. Competition between Great Britain and France led to innovations in diplomacy and war, the twin processes by which European rulers built and expanded their states.

The Commonwealth deteriorated into a fundamentalist Protestant dictator ship under the rule of Oliver Cromwell. The son of the king they executed to take the throne, Charles II, was invited to take the throne by the English Parliamentarians after Cromwell's death.

The peace of the Restoration period was broken when James II ascended the throne. To avenge his father, James was determined to establish religious freedom for Catholics. Parliament enlisted the help of the king's oldest daughter, Mary, to stop James's plans. The quick expulsion of James II in 1688 was the result of a Parliament-led uprising that began with the invasion of a Protestant fleet and army from the Netherlands. This is a revolution. The reign of William and Mary marks the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, a system by which the monarch rules within the limits of the laws passed by a legislative body.

The policies of Cardinal Richelieu were continued by his successor, Cardinal Jules Mazarin, when he took full control of the government. Louis added bribe to the intimidation tactics practiced by Richelieu and Mazarin. The nobility of France were given a choice: join Louis in building the great palace at Versailles, or face destruc tion and be part of the most lavish court in Europe. French nobles chose to spend most of their time at Versailles because they forfeited the advantages that made English Parliamentary counterparts so powerful: control of both the wealth and loyalty of their local provinces and districts. As the planets revolved around the sun, Louis XIV became known as the Sun King.

The Romanov tsars consolidated their power by buying the loyalty of the nobility. The Romanov tsars gave the nobility complete control over the classes below them in return for their loyalty. The Law Code of 1649 converted the legal status of groups as varied as peasants and slaves into that of a single class of serfs. The Russian nobility enjoyed new lands and wealth as a result of the expansion of the Russian empire into Asia.

With the nobility firmly tied to the tsar's power, opposition to the tsar's power only occasionally occurs in the form of revolts from coalitions of smaller landholders and peasants angered by the progressive loss of their wealth and rights. The revolts of the Cossacks in the 1660s and early 1670s were put down by the tsar's military forces. The Russian Orthodox Church taught that the traditional social hierarchy was mandated by God and that the creation of a state bureaucracy modeled on western Europe helped control the smaller landholders and peasants.

Pressure for social change was created by the huge wealth generated by the British and French colonies and the Triangular Trade Networks. The first phase of the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread eastward throughout Europe. The traditional cycle of population and productivity was broken by the Industrial Revolution.

Population and productivity rose together as the number of people working in an agricultural economy increased.

Given the land available and the methods in use, the agricultural yield reached the maximum amount that could be produced.

As the number of people grew, food became scarce and expensive.

The population decline was caused by high prices and scarcity.

The cycle began again when the population was below productivity.

This cycle was broken by several developments related to new wealth in the 18th century.

Increased demand resulted in technical innovation.

The shift from farming for local consumption to relying on imported food was created by the new market orientation of agriculture. The introduction of rural manufacturing put larger amounts of currency into the system and made the working population less dependent on land and agricultural cycles.

More mouths to feed were created by the increase in population. The merchant class of people who bought land from the landholding elites was affected by the colonial empire of trade. The manorial system in which landowning elites held vast estates divided into small plots of arable land for peasants to farm for local consumption was destroyed. Cash crops were grown for sale and export in a market-oriented approach.

The social structure of the countryside was reorganized after the shift to a cash-crop system. The landowning elites abandoned their feudal obligations to the peasantry in favor of the merchant class. There was a demand for larger fields. Landowners built hedges, fences, and walls to deny peasants access to the commons, which had been converted to fields for cash crops. After breaking traditional feudal agreements, the land owners extended enclosure into other arable lands, transforming much of the peasantry into wage labor. Three-quarters of the arable land in England was enclosed informally or "by agreement" by the middle of the 18th century, though the peasantry had not been given any choice.

The increase in population created more demand for other necessities of life. All aspects of textile production were under the control of guilds, which enjoyed the protection of town officials. A lengthy apprenticeship was required to gain membership in a guild. The guilds kept the supply of textiles under control so that they could make a decent living. The putting-out system was a system of rural manu facturing that existed in the 18th century because of the ever-expanding demand for textiles.

Merchants went into the countryside to produce small-scale textile production. A merchant would give raw mate rial and rent equipment to peasants. He would return at the end of the month and pay the family for whatever they had produced. Some peasant families pooled their resources to create small textile mills in the countryside after they supplemented their agricultural income in this way. As the system grew 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884 888-349-8884

If the cash flowing into the economy did not find its way into the hands of the rural people, the manorial system would not have been destroyed. The creation of cottage industries made it possible for rural families to buy food instead of having to grow it.

The social change that followed the destruction of both the manorial system and the guilds brought hardship. Thousands of small landholders, tenant farmers, and sharecroppers lost their land and their social status because of the enclosure movement. Forced to work for wages, their lives and those of their families were now at the mercy of the marketplace. The artisans whose livelihood was protected by the guilds and their families were traumatised by the destruction of the guilds.

The economic and social changes of the 18th century meant that the peasantry and artisans lost their traditional place and status in society.

Technical innovations always respond to newchal lenges. The people of earlier centuries did not fail to innovate because they were less intelligent, they simply had no need for the innovations. The ever-growing population and demand for food and goods in the eighteenth century created a series of related demands that eventually led to technical innovations in both agriculture and manufacturing. A need for further innovation in a different part of the process was created by single innovations.

The replacement of the old three-field system with new crops was the key technical innovation in the agricultural sector in the 18th century. The creation of products such as dairy and leather was influenced by more and healthier livestock.

In 1733, John Kay invented the flying shuttle, which doubled the speed at which cloth could be woven on a loom, creating a need to find a way to produce greater amounts.

The spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves in the 1760s, which increased the amount of thread a single spinner could produce from cotton, creating a need to speed up the harvesting of cotton.

Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793, which was able to remove seed from cotton and increase the speed with which it could be processed and sent to the spinners.

The textile industry was greatly improved by these technical innovations. The centralized textile mills replaced the scattered putting-out system at the end of the 18th century because of the need to supervise larger, faster machines.

The prosperity and power of Great Britain and France caused their eastern European rivals to try to strengthen their kingdoms.

Frederick William I built a strong centralized government in Prussia in which the military played a dominant role. Prussia was extended into lands con trolled by the Hapsburgs in 1740 by Frederick II. Frederick II marched troops into Silesia to challenge Maria Theresa's right to ascend the throne of Austria. In the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa was able to rally Austrian and Hungarian troops to fight Prussia and its allies.

The progress toward modernization and centralization made under Peter the Great was largely undone in the first half of the 18th century. Russia's borders were extended as far as the Black Sea and the Balkans under the leadership of Catherine the Great. Russia joined with Prussia and Austria to conquer Poland in the 18th century.

State-building in Europe in the 18th century was done through war and diplomacy. The desire to weaken one another led Great Britain and France to become entangled in land wars in Europe, as they battled for control of colonies in North America and the Caribbean.

Prussia forged an alliance with Great Britain in 1759 because it was afraid of being isolated by its enemies.

Austria and France forged an alliance of their own after being alarmed by the alliance of Prussia and Great Britain.

The Seven Years' War brought all of the great European powers into conflict. The knowledge you need to score high war is reviewed in step 4. The European hostilities ended in 1763 with a peace agreement. The fall of Quebec in 1759 shifted the balance of power in North America to the British. In India, the British had similar success.

The nature of European armies and wars changed in ways that would have profound implications for the ruling regimes.

The officer corps became full-time servants.

The troops consisted of conscripts, volunteers, mercenaries, and criminals.

Discipline and training became more extensive.

The weapons and tactics changed to accommodate the new armies.

Cannons became more mobile.

The wars were decided by a superior organization of resources.

Land battles were more important than naval ones.

The course of enclosure was determined by political power.

A typical round of enclosure began when several or even a single prominent landholder initiated it.

The interests of the urban industry were favored.

The interests of the landowning class were favored.

It was balanced and fair.

The cottage industry was promoted.

Discuss the rise of technical innovation in agriculture.

The passage states that Parliament and local justices of the peace looked out for the interests of the landowning classes, not the agricultural laborers. The passage does not refer to political innovation. The passage states that Parliament and local justices of the peace helped to bring about enclosure, which was an agricultural innovation.

The passage makes no reference to the urban industry.

The passage clearly shows that the process favored the land owning class. The passage makes no reference to the cottage industry.

The passage does not reference enclosure furthering economic opportunity. There is no reference to indus trialization in the passage.

The rise of technical innovation in eighteenth-century agriculture was a response to the rising demand for food and goods created by an increasing population. The process of innovation was spurred on by the fact that innovation in one sector created a demand for innovation in other sectors.

The population increased the demand for textile produc tion. There was a need for faster ways to process larger amounts of wool and cotton. The flying shuttle was developed in 1733 to increase the speed at which cloth could be woven, the spinning jenny was developed in the 1760s to increase the amount of thread that could be spun by a single spinner, and the cotton gin was developed in 1793 to increase.

The demand for inno vation in other aspects was created by the process of innovation in one aspect of textile production. The demand for more thread was created by the doubling of the speed at which cloth could be woven. That demand was met by the spinning jenny, which increased the amount of thread that could be produced by a single spinner, but that in turn created a demand for faster, more efficient harvesting of cotton.

The cotton gin met the demand.