INTRO TO ANATOMY & CELL HISTOLOGY
INTRO TO ANATOMY & CELL HISTOLOGY
Introduction to Anatomy (CH 1 and Atlas A)
Anatomy - study of structure
Physiology - study of function
Anatomical variation - variation in a specific structure
Models account for the average person but sometimes people have some structures absent while others have it present
Levels of organization
Organism
Organ systems
Organs
Tissue
Cells
Organelles
Macromolecule
Molecule
Atom
Homeostasis - organism maintains internal stability
Dynamic equilibrium - internal state of body best describe in which there is a certain set point value for a given variable (fluctuates around this point)
Negative feedback - process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it - key mechanism for maintaining health
Blood pressure - gravity pulls blood down from head, transmits signal to heart, heart pumps blood faster to raise blood pressure and return body back to homeostasis
3 components: receptor (structure senses change), integrating control center (process info), effector (cell/organ carries out final corrective action)
Positive feedback - amplifying cycle which physiological change leads to even greater change in same direction - normal way of producing rapid change
Woman giving birth - head pushes on cervix, signal sent to brain, brain releases oxytocin, oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions
Often harmful because of self-amplifying nature
Body planes
Sagittal - vertical through body (R L sides)
Frontal - perpendicular to sagittal, divides into front and back
Transverse - top and bottom
Directional terms
Ventral/anterior - front
Dorsal/posterior - back
Superior - above
Inferior - below
Medial - toward median plane
Lateral - away from median plane
Proximal - close to point of attachment
Distal - far from point of attachment
Superficial - surface
Deep - deep
Histology/Cell Transport (CH 3, CH 5)
Structure of plasma membrane
Function:
Define cell boundaries
Governs interactions with other cells
Controls passage of material in and out of cells
Phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophobic tail
Hydrophilic head
Drift laterally keeping membrane fluid
Most common
Cholesterol
Holds phospholipids still and stiffen membrane
Glycolipids
Phospholipids with short carbohydrate chains on extracellular face
Membrane proteins
Integral proteins - penetrate and pass completely through
Peripheral - do not pass all the way through, adhere to face of membrane
Function:
Receptor
Second messenger system
Enzyme channels
Carriers
Cell ID markers
Cell adhesion
Glycolax
Fuzzy coat to external plasma membrane
Functions:
Protection
Immunity to infection
Cell adhesion
Defense against cancer
Fertilization
Transplant capability
Embryonic development
Microvilli
Extensions of membrane that increase surface area
Absporton
Cillia
Hair like antenna detects surrounding
Help with balance in inner ear and light detection in retina
Membrane transport
Passive - no ATP
Filtration - particles driven through membrane by physical pressure
Water and small molecules
Diffusion - net movement of particles from high to low concentration
Factors that can affect:
Temperature
Molecular weight
Steepness of gradient
Membrane surface area
Membrane permeability
Osmosis - WATER ONLY
Hypotonic - cell absorbs more water and swell (higher concentration of solute outside)
Hypertonic - cell shrivels and loses water (higher concentration inside than outside)
Isotonic - no cell change volume
Active - consume ATP
Carrier-mediated mechanisms - use membrane protein to travel across membrane
Specificity - only binds to certain solutes
Uniport - one type of solute
Symport - two types of solute or more simultaneously
Antiport - two types or more in opposite directions
3 types:
Facilitated diffusion - moves down its concentration gradient, does not consume ATP
Primary active transport - moves up the concentration gradient, needs to consume ATP
Secondary active transport - carrier moves solute down gradient but uses ATP indirectly
Vesicular transport - moves large particles
Endocytosis -
Endocytosis—vesicular processes that bring material into cell
Phagocytosis—“cell eating,” engulfing large particles
Pseudopods; phagosomes; macrophages
Pinocytosis—“cell drinking,” taking in droplets of ECF containing molecules useful in the cell
Membrane caves in, then pinches off pinocytic vesicle
Receptor-mediated endocytosis—particles bind to specific receptors on plasma membrane
Clathrin-coated vesicle
Exocytosis—discharging material from the cell
Utilizes motor proteins energized by ATP
Categories of body tissue
Epithelial
Functions:
Protect deeper tissues from injury and infection
Produce and release chemical secretions
Excrete wastes
Absorb nutrients
Selective filtration
Sense stimuli
High rate of mitosis
Basement membrane - layer between epithelium and underlying connective tissue
Basal surface - surface of epithelial cell facing basement membrane
Apical surface - surface of epithelial cells facing away from basement membrane
Simple squamous - permit rapid diffusion or transport of substances (alveoli, serosa)
Simple cuboidal - absorption and secretion (liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands)
Simple columnar - absorption and secretion (lining of GI tract, uterus)
Pseudostratified - secretion (respiratory tract)
Stratified squamous - most common in body
Keratinized - found on skin surface, abrasion resistant (palms)
Nonkeratinized - lacks surface layer of dead cells, resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens (tongue, esophagus)
Stratified cuboidal - secrete sweat (sweat gland ducts)
Transitional - filling of urinary tract (ureter and bladder)
Connective - support, connect, and protect organs
Functions
Binding of organs
Support
Physical protection
Immune protection
Movement
Storage
Heat production
Transport
Cells
Macrophages
Fibroblasts
Leukocytes
Plasma cells
Mast cells
Adipocyte
Fiber types
Collagenous - tough and flexible, found in tendons and ligaments
Reticular - thin collagen fibers found on spleen
Elastic - allow stretch and recoil
Areolar - underlies epithelial, contains blood vessels
Reticular - supportive framework for lymphatic organs
Dense regular - tendons and ligaments
Dense irregular - withstand stress, deeper layer of skin
Adipose - stores energy, insulation, cushion
Hyaline cartilage - eases joint movement, larynx, fetal skeleton
Elastic cartilage - covered with pericardium, external ear
Fibrocartilage - resists compression, absorbs shock, pubic symphysis
Compact bone
Blood
Nervous
Muscular
Skeletal - voluntary
Cardiac muscle - striated and involuntary
Smooth - involuntary
Tissue repair
Healing cut in skin
Mast cells and damaged cells release histamine
Histamine dilates blood vessels and makes capillaries more permeable
Blood plasma carries antibodies and clotting proteins
Blood clot forms
Forms scab
Macrophages phagocytize and digest tissue debris
Macrophages remove blood clot
Fibroblasts deposit new collagen
Cells regenerate
Underlying tissue undergoes fibrosus
Steps of inflammation
Vasodilation - greater blood flow to area
Vascular permeability - cells become leaky
Exudation - fluid, proteins, RBC, WBC
Vascular stasis - slowing of blood in bloodstream
INTRO TO ANATOMY & CELL HISTOLOGY
Introduction to Anatomy (CH 1 and Atlas A)
Anatomy - study of structure
Physiology - study of function
Anatomical variation - variation in a specific structure
Models account for the average person but sometimes people have some structures absent while others have it present
Levels of organization
Organism
Organ systems
Organs
Tissue
Cells
Organelles
Macromolecule
Molecule
Atom
Homeostasis - organism maintains internal stability
Dynamic equilibrium - internal state of body best describe in which there is a certain set point value for a given variable (fluctuates around this point)
Negative feedback - process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it - key mechanism for maintaining health
Blood pressure - gravity pulls blood down from head, transmits signal to heart, heart pumps blood faster to raise blood pressure and return body back to homeostasis
3 components: receptor (structure senses change), integrating control center (process info), effector (cell/organ carries out final corrective action)
Positive feedback - amplifying cycle which physiological change leads to even greater change in same direction - normal way of producing rapid change
Woman giving birth - head pushes on cervix, signal sent to brain, brain releases oxytocin, oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions
Often harmful because of self-amplifying nature
Body planes
Sagittal - vertical through body (R L sides)
Frontal - perpendicular to sagittal, divides into front and back
Transverse - top and bottom
Directional terms
Ventral/anterior - front
Dorsal/posterior - back
Superior - above
Inferior - below
Medial - toward median plane
Lateral - away from median plane
Proximal - close to point of attachment
Distal - far from point of attachment
Superficial - surface
Deep - deep
Histology/Cell Transport (CH 3, CH 5)
Structure of plasma membrane
Function:
Define cell boundaries
Governs interactions with other cells
Controls passage of material in and out of cells
Phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophobic tail
Hydrophilic head
Drift laterally keeping membrane fluid
Most common
Cholesterol
Holds phospholipids still and stiffen membrane
Glycolipids
Phospholipids with short carbohydrate chains on extracellular face
Membrane proteins
Integral proteins - penetrate and pass completely through
Peripheral - do not pass all the way through, adhere to face of membrane
Function:
Receptor
Second messenger system
Enzyme channels
Carriers
Cell ID markers
Cell adhesion
Glycolax
Fuzzy coat to external plasma membrane
Functions:
Protection
Immunity to infection
Cell adhesion
Defense against cancer
Fertilization
Transplant capability
Embryonic development
Microvilli
Extensions of membrane that increase surface area
Absporton
Cillia
Hair like antenna detects surrounding
Help with balance in inner ear and light detection in retina
Membrane transport
Passive - no ATP
Filtration - particles driven through membrane by physical pressure
Water and small molecules
Diffusion - net movement of particles from high to low concentration
Factors that can affect:
Temperature
Molecular weight
Steepness of gradient
Membrane surface area
Membrane permeability
Osmosis - WATER ONLY
Hypotonic - cell absorbs more water and swell (higher concentration of solute outside)
Hypertonic - cell shrivels and loses water (higher concentration inside than outside)
Isotonic - no cell change volume
Active - consume ATP
Carrier-mediated mechanisms - use membrane protein to travel across membrane
Specificity - only binds to certain solutes
Uniport - one type of solute
Symport - two types of solute or more simultaneously
Antiport - two types or more in opposite directions
3 types:
Facilitated diffusion - moves down its concentration gradient, does not consume ATP
Primary active transport - moves up the concentration gradient, needs to consume ATP
Secondary active transport - carrier moves solute down gradient but uses ATP indirectly
Vesicular transport - moves large particles
Endocytosis -
Endocytosis—vesicular processes that bring material into cell
Phagocytosis—“cell eating,” engulfing large particles
Pseudopods; phagosomes; macrophages
Pinocytosis—“cell drinking,” taking in droplets of ECF containing molecules useful in the cell
Membrane caves in, then pinches off pinocytic vesicle
Receptor-mediated endocytosis—particles bind to specific receptors on plasma membrane
Clathrin-coated vesicle
Exocytosis—discharging material from the cell
Utilizes motor proteins energized by ATP
Categories of body tissue
Epithelial
Functions:
Protect deeper tissues from injury and infection
Produce and release chemical secretions
Excrete wastes
Absorb nutrients
Selective filtration
Sense stimuli
High rate of mitosis
Basement membrane - layer between epithelium and underlying connective tissue
Basal surface - surface of epithelial cell facing basement membrane
Apical surface - surface of epithelial cells facing away from basement membrane
Simple squamous - permit rapid diffusion or transport of substances (alveoli, serosa)
Simple cuboidal - absorption and secretion (liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands)
Simple columnar - absorption and secretion (lining of GI tract, uterus)
Pseudostratified - secretion (respiratory tract)
Stratified squamous - most common in body
Keratinized - found on skin surface, abrasion resistant (palms)
Nonkeratinized - lacks surface layer of dead cells, resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens (tongue, esophagus)
Stratified cuboidal - secrete sweat (sweat gland ducts)
Transitional - filling of urinary tract (ureter and bladder)
Connective - support, connect, and protect organs
Functions
Binding of organs
Support
Physical protection
Immune protection
Movement
Storage
Heat production
Transport
Cells
Macrophages
Fibroblasts
Leukocytes
Plasma cells
Mast cells
Adipocyte
Fiber types
Collagenous - tough and flexible, found in tendons and ligaments
Reticular - thin collagen fibers found on spleen
Elastic - allow stretch and recoil
Areolar - underlies epithelial, contains blood vessels
Reticular - supportive framework for lymphatic organs
Dense regular - tendons and ligaments
Dense irregular - withstand stress, deeper layer of skin
Adipose - stores energy, insulation, cushion
Hyaline cartilage - eases joint movement, larynx, fetal skeleton
Elastic cartilage - covered with pericardium, external ear
Fibrocartilage - resists compression, absorbs shock, pubic symphysis
Compact bone
Blood
Nervous
Muscular
Skeletal - voluntary
Cardiac muscle - striated and involuntary
Smooth - involuntary
Tissue repair
Healing cut in skin
Mast cells and damaged cells release histamine
Histamine dilates blood vessels and makes capillaries more permeable
Blood plasma carries antibodies and clotting proteins
Blood clot forms
Forms scab
Macrophages phagocytize and digest tissue debris
Macrophages remove blood clot
Fibroblasts deposit new collagen
Cells regenerate
Underlying tissue undergoes fibrosus
Steps of inflammation
Vasodilation - greater blood flow to area
Vascular permeability - cells become leaky
Exudation - fluid, proteins, RBC, WBC
Vascular stasis - slowing of blood in bloodstream