ChAPTER 29 Industrialization and Imperialism: The

• The gaps in the British force left by the flight of the African irregulars were quickly exploited by the Zulu fighters.

• Despite their superior weaponry, the Europeans were defeated by well-organized and determined African or Asian resistance forces.

• Most of the soldiers in the camp were killed or fled to a river to escape the impisments positioned to block their retreat.

• In the early 1800s, warriors and weapons provided the military power for an ambitious young leader named Shaka to forge a powerful kingdom centered on Natal in the southeastern portion of what would later become the union of South Africa.

• The most formidable force in resisting the advance of both the Dutch and British armies in southern Africa was the preindustrial military organization of the Zulus.

• The British defeat seemed implausible because of the huge disparity between the military might of the European colonial powers and the African and Asian peoples they had come to dominate.

• European states were able to supply advanced weaponry and other war materiel to large naval and land forces across the globe thanks to technological innovations.

• The British defeat at Isandhlwana was a short-lived exception to what had become a pervasive pattern of European political and military supremacy worldwide.

• Estimates range from two to three times those for British units and "native" levees combined.

• A force of 3000 Zulu warriors were decimated in the siege of a small outpost at nearby rorke's drift after the destruction of most of the main British column.

• A group of farm buildings were successfully defended by over a hundred British soldiers.

• Revenge for the defeat inflicted by the Zulus at Isandhlwana was swift and massive, as was the case in equally stunning massacres of the expeditionary forces of industrial powers in other colonial settings.

• More troops were drawn from throughout the British empire and, within months, a larger British force was moving towards the capital of the Zulu tribe.

• The coalition of Indian tribes that had joined to destroy Custer's units of the Seventh Cavalry dispersed soon after the first British invasion.

• The ruler of the Zulu tribe, Cetshwayo, was shipped into exile at Cape Town by late August.

• The last of the wars between the Euro peans and the Zulus exemplified many of the fundamental shifts in the balance of world power in the turn of the century.

• The rivalry between the European powers set the stage for World War I.

• Like their French, Dutch, Belgian, German, Russian, Japanese, and American competitors, the British went deep into Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.

• In contrast to the earlier centuries of overseas expansion, the European powers were driven by rivalries with each other, and in some instances with the Japanese and Americans, rather than fears of Muslim kingdoms in the Middle East and North Africa.

• The 1879 Anglo-Zulu war was precipitated by British demands, including the right to station a resident in the Zulu kingdom, that would have reduced Cetshwayo to the status of a vassal.

• Although the British and other colonizers would continue to govern through indigenous officials in many areas, their subordinates were increasingly recruited from new elites, both professional and commercial, who emerged from schools where the languages and customs of the imperial powers were taught to growing numbers of colonized peoples.

• The process was not in keeping with the interests of the climates and cultures of those in charge of European enterprises overseas.

• The directors who ran the lands went out to rule.

• The late 1700s marked a point of transition in both the contraction of colonial domination in the Americas and the expansion of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.

• There was a lot of latitude for commanders in the field.

• Java is the most populous of the hundreds of islands that make up Indonesia.

• It was a struggle just to survive as the Dutch consolidated their power on Java, the center of the Asian coast of the island in 1619.

• The Dutch empire grew rapidly from the late 17th century.

• The Indonesian archipelago is to the east.

• In the 1670s, the Dutch supported the side that won the war over the throne of Mataram.

• The Dutch demanded that the territories around Batavia be turned over to India Company in honor of them.

• The weakness of kingdom between the princes of Mataram was the subject of this episode.

• Dutch armies were mostly made up of troops recruited after 1670s, when Dutch took control of all of Java.

• The Dutch were an ally of whichever prince won them, because of their superior orga nization and discipline.

• The price the rulers paid was very high.

• More and more land was ceded to Europeans because of succession disputes and Dutch intervention.

• The south central parts of Java were controlled by the sultans of Mataram by the mid-18th century.

• The Dutch took control of the entire island after Sultan Mangkubumi's failed attempt to restore control over the Dutch.

• The core of an Asian empire would last for 200 years.

• The rise of British rule in India resembled the Dutch capture of Java.

• The directors of the British East India Company were hostile to expansion.

• The company's agents in India interfered in disputes between local princes.

• The troops were recruited from people throughout the region.

• The princes of British East India Company recruited the British to help them crush competitors from within and put down those who tried to seize their thrones.

• In Java, the European of India.

• There were important differences between the patterns of colonial conquest in India and Java, as well as between the global repercussions of each, because the struggle for India came later.

• The two powers fought five wars in the 18th century.

• The struggles were global.

• The two old adversaries fought on land and sea in Europe, North America, and the Caribbean, where each had valuable plantation colonies.

• British victories ended the struggles with the exception of the American War of Independence.

• The British loss of the American colonies was more than offset by earlier victories in the Caribbean and India.

• The British eventually took control of the entire South Asian region.

• Although the first victories of the British over the French and Indian princes came in the Madras region in the south in the late 1740s, their rise as a major land power in Asia hinges on victories in Bengal to the northeast.

• Control of the kingdom of Bengal was the prize.

• The process of empire building in Asia and Africa was discussed by Indian soldiers.

• The numbers on each side and the maneuvers on the field had by European officers and armed, uniformed, and drilled according to little to do with the outcome of a battle that in a sense was over European standards, troops such as those pictured here were recruited before it began.

• One of the main accounts of the divisions in Siraj ud-daula's ranks in the months of European colonial regimes was that Clive's Indian spies gave him detailed information from the colonized peoples.

• The main British spy was bribed by Siraj ud-daula, but the nawab's leading spy was on Clive's payroll.

• The rivalry between France and India meant that Clive's troops were paid more in India than in France.

• The British East India's fate was already sealed when the teenage ruler of Bengal rode into battle on June 23, 1757.

• His major Indian allies defected to the British or remained stationary on his Siraj ud-daula, ruler of Bengal.

• The rise of British advantage was marked by these defections, which wiped out the nawab's numerical victory.

• The architect of British victory at the global empire had laid the foundations.

• The British officials of the East India Company went to war with the princes of India multiple times in the decades after Plassey.

• The Mughal empire broke down more fully in the last decades of the century.

• Between the late 1700s and the 1850s, the British built an empire that encompassed most of South Asia.

• The British were able to advance inland from their three trading towns on the Indian coast: Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.

• The old hatreds and grudges ran deeper than the new threat of the British.

• Many ordinary Indians were allied with the British and eager to serve in the British armies, which had better weapons, brighter uniforms, and higher pay than the armies of the Indian rulers.

• By the mid-19th century, British officers and enlisted men in India outnumbered Indian soldiers at the rulers' courts, making up over one-third of the British Indian.

• India was the pivot of the great empire being built by Britain in the 19th century.

• The British were fond of calculating the total square miles of empire because of the large number of white settlers in older colonies.

• India had a larger share of colonized peoples.

• The armies of the Indian peoples were quickly becoming the police of the British Indian empire.

• In the 19th century, Indian soldiers were sent to punish the Chinese and Afghans and to begin the conquest of south and east Africa.

• British sea power east of the Cape of Good Hope was dependent on Indian ports.

• As the century progressed, India became the major outlet for British overseas investments and manufactured goods as well as a major source of key raw materials.

• The Dutch and British Empire were content to leave the social systems of the peoples they ruled, even though they eventually emerged as the political masters of Java and India.

• The small number of European traders and company officials who lived in the colonies for any length of time formed a new class atop the social hierarchy that already existed in Java and different parts of India.

• The old ruling families were preserved beneath them.

• The day-to-day administration was left in the hands of the very highest levels.

• The local rulers were placed with an agent of the imperial power.

• To survive in the hot tropical environments of south and southeast Asia, the Dutch and English had to adapt to the ancient and sophisticated host cultures of their Asian colonies.

• The Dutch initially tried to create a little Holland in Java.

• The houses they built were similar to the ones they left behind in Amsterdam and Rotterdam.

• The canals were found to be a great breeding ground for insects and microbes that were capable of carrying diseases such as malaria, dysentery, and typhoid.

• By the late 17th century, the prosperous merchants and officials of the city were moving away from the center of the city to villas in the suburbs.

• Their large dwellings were located in gardens and separated by rice paddies and palm groves.

• The tall houses of the inner city were replaced by low, scuplture dwellings with many open spaces.

• The porches were large enough to block the heat and glare of the sun.

• Most of the people who survived wore looser-fitting cotton clothing.

• The long skirt-like sarongs of the Javanese aristocracy were donned by Dutch gentlemen and their wives.

• British and Dutch officials learned that the Dutch would never lose and that the British would revive in the post- independence era.

• The Dutch and English worked hard in the cool of the morning, took a long lunch break, and then returned to the office for the afternoon and evening.

• Dutch and British traders and soldiers had liaisons with Asian women because they were mostly male until the mid-19th century.

• In some cases, these were only visits to the brothel.

• European men lived with Asian women and sometimes married them.

• Mixed marriages on the part of prominent traders were common in Java before the end of the 18th century.

• During the early decades of the European overseas empire, there were examples of racial discrimination against the subject peoples on the basis of their physical appearance.

• By the last half of the 19th century, the social distance between colonizers and colonized was marked in a variety of ways.

• The Dutch and British didn't want to change the social or cultural life of their Asian subjects until the 19th century.

• Both the British and the Dutch made it clear that they had little interest in spreading Christianity among the Indians or the Javanese.

• The British refused to allow Christian missionaries to preach in their territories until the second decade of the 19th century because they were afraid of offending Hindus and Muslims.

• The East India Company and its colonies were reformulated by the British parliament due to rampant corruption on the part of company officials.

• It was given to the British quickly.

• They made a lot of money by cheating the company and exploiting the East India peasants and artisans.

• The British parliament passed several acts that restructured the company and made it more accountable to the British government.

• The French saw the process of turning colonial subjects into British in India as a way to increase the number of French citizens.

• Germany and Great Britain were both involved in the debate over education in India.

• Both of these rivals and the United had higher birth rates in this period.

• The students in west Africa had fully absorbed the lessons.

• The Dutch didn't fully integrate to French culture until their sons of the Javanese elite were born, so they were able to become full citi European-language schools for the zens of France.

• By the early 20th century, policymakers realized that they needed administrative assistants from Vietnam and Tunisia, as well as postal clerks, because they couldn't get enough French voters.

• Western parliament was agreed to by all.

• The British and French approach to education was adopted by other European colonial powers.

• One of the advantages of having Western-educated Portuguese was that they pushed for smaller numbers of African and Asian subordinates because they were always below elite classes.

• European officials were paid less than Europeans were paid for doing the same work in the colonies because of their Western education.

• Europeans had no problem explaining this to black French citizens.

• It had effects on those who shaped it.

• The higher pay for the Europeans was justified because the compensation policy did not intend to affect the sacrifice involved in colonial service.

• The Europeans assumed that European employees would be more hard colonial dominance.

• The population of colonized areas is efficient.

• The British in India wanted the schools to spread their ideas and production techniques.

• In all European colonial societies, Western education led to teach the Indians Western literature and manners and to instill similar occupational opportunities: in government service, with in them a Western sense of morality.

• Macaulay said it was hoped that English-language schools would turn out brown journalists.

• Within a generation after their introduction, English gentlemen, who would in turn teach their countrymen Western-language schools, created a new middle class in the ways of the West.

• The idea of French nationalism as a social and economic niche in the middle of culture, rather than birth, made it important for Africans and other colonial students to master the French on one hand and the peasantry and urban on the other.

• The ways and teachings of their fathers were often at odds with the European masters.

• Finding that they would be fully admitted to landed gentry, who were often their fathers or grand neither world, they rejected the first and set about replacing fathers.

• The peasantry, whose beliefs and way of life were so different from the modern world, were not welcome by members of the new middle class.

• Europeans continued to provide Western-language resentful of their lower salaries and of European competition education for Africans and Asians because it was clear they were for scarce jobs.

• His measures limited their participation in governing the empire because of his distrust of Indians.

• Speech on Fox's East India Bill, which saw the spread of Methodism among the English working classes, spilled over into Britain's colonial domain.

• Utilitarian philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and James Mill supported the calls for reforms in India by evangelicals, who were in the forefront of the struggle to put an end to the slave trade.

• If decent living conditions were to be attained by people at all class levels, there were common principles by which human societies ought to be run.

• Mill and other Utilitarians believed that British society was more advanced than Indian society.

• They pushed for the introduction of British institutions and ways of thinking in India, as well as the eradication of Indian superstitions and social abuses.

• Western education is the key to revitalizing an ancient but decadent Indian civilization according to both Utilitarians and Evangelicals.

• In the 1830s, British historian Thomas Babington Macaulay said that one shelf of an English gentleman's library was worth all the writings of Asia.

• The introduction of English-language education for the children of the Indian elite was pushed for by the Evangelicals and Utilitarians.

• Major reforms in Indian society were pushed for by these officials.

• By the time of the Muslim invasions in the 11th and 12th centuries, this Speech on Parliamentary Reform practice had spread widely among upper-caste Hindu groups.

• The wives of Rajputs were encouraged to kill themselves rather than risk their husbands being captured and molested by Muslim invaders.

• The practice of sati was adopted by some brahman castes and lower-caste groups.

• One confrontation between the British and educated Indian leader, early those affected by their efforts to prevent widow burnings illustrates the confidence of the reformers 19th century; cooperated with in the righteousness of their cause and the sense of moral and social superiority over the Indians that British to outlaw sati.

• It's your custom to burn widows.

• The funeral pyre needs to be prepared.

• The range and magnitude of the reforms the British enacted in India in the early 19th century marked a landmark in global history.

• The British rulers of one of the oldest centers of civilization consciously began to transmit the ideas, inventions, modes of organization, and technology associated with Western Europe's scientific and industrial revolutions to the peoples of the non-Western world.

• The British tried to remake Indian society along Western lines with English education, social reforms, railways and telegraph lines.

• India's crop lands were measured and registered, its forests were set aside for "scientific" management, and its people were drawn more and more into the European-dominated global market economy.

• British officials believed that they could teach the Indian peasantry the virtues of thrift and hard work.

• The children of India's middle class were lectured by the British on the importance of emulating their European masters in matters as diverse as being punctual, exercising their bodies, and mastering the literature and scientific learning of the West.

• Europeans were left alone to dominate overseas trade and empire building.

• By the last decades of the century, Britain's industrial supremacy was challenged by foreign conquests, including Germany and the United States, as well as France and Belgium.

• colonies were seen as essential to states of the outbreak of World War I in order to become great powers.

• Colonies, particularly those in Africa and India, were seen in 1914.

• Europe's political leaders had both political and economic concerns.

• There were recurring economic depressions in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century.

• The lead ers of the industrialized nations did not have the experience to deal with the overproduction and unemployment that came with each of the economic crises.

• They were worried about the social unrest and what appeared to be revolution that each phase of depression created.

• White settlement colonies, such as Australia, could serve as safety valves to release the pressure built up in times of industrial slumps, according to some political theorists.

• In the first half of the 19th century, political leaders in Europe were more involved in decisions to annex overseas territories than they are now.

• This was due to improved communications.

• Telegraphs and railways made it possible to send orders from the capitals of Europe to their representatives in the tropics.

• Politicians were not the only ones involved in decisions to add to the empire.

• Although stalwart explorers might make treaties with local African or Asian potentates who assigned their lands to France or Germany, these annexations had to be approved by the home government.

• In most cases, parliamentary debates spilled over into press wars and popular demonstrations.

• Empires have become the pride of the nations of Europe and North America.

• The Europeans were far ahead of the other people in the capacity to wage war by the late 19th century.

• Europeans could exploit mineral resources that most people didn't know existed, and Euro pean chemists mixed even more deadly explosives.

• The mass production of light, mobile artillery pieces that rendered suicidal the massed cavalry or infantry charges that were the mainstay of Asian and African armies was made possible by advances in metallurgy.

• There were improvements in hand arms.

• The muzzle-loading muskets of the first phase of empire building were clumsy and unreliable.

• After decades of experimentation, the machine gun became an effective weapon.

• The ability to supply armies in the field for extended periods of time was given to the Europeans by railroads.

• After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, steam power replaced the sail, iron hull replaced wooden ones, and massive guns were introduced into the fleets of the great powers.

• The wars of colonial conquest were dominated by the dazzling array of new weaponry that the Europeans set out on their expeditions to the Indian frontiers or the African bush.

• The sleek majesty of the warships that were central to British success in building a global empire is captured in this striking painting.

• The late-19th century saw intense rivalries between the European powers and Africa, as reflected in the patchwork that partition made of the continent.

• The people of these areas were forced to fight European machine guns with spears, arrows, and leather shields because they were cut off from most preindustrial advances in technology.

• On Monday, we heard a shuddering like Leviathan, the voice of many cannon, and we heard the roar like waves on the rocks.

• We heard a crashing like elephants or monsters and our hearts melted at the number of shells.

• The guns were so loud that we could hear the battle of Pangani.

• Not even peoples with advanced preindustrial technology and sophisticated military organization, such as the Chinese and the Vietnamese, could stand against the Europeans.

• One of the officials who led the fight against the French invaders warned that nobody could resist them.

• The colonial possessions in the islands of the Pacific were smaller and less valuable than those of the united States.

• Most of the forces that conquered and controlled European empires overseas were from African and Asian peoples.

• By the middle of the 19th century, European overlords began to see military prowess as a racial attribute.

• The European colonizers preferred to recruit soldiers from ethnic and reli gious groups.

• African and Asian peoples were often against the rule of colonial rule.

• The European advance was held back by West African leaders.

• Local officials organized guerrilla resistance in defense of the indigenous regime when rulers such as the Vietnamese emperors refused to fight.

• Conventional resistance ended in defeat.

• In Vietnam, the British and Zulu armies ran the guerrillas to the ground.

• One of the few victories of the African kingdom fell under the control of the British.

• Western Europeans have advantages in conventional battles.

• The Maji Maji uprisings in German East Africa in 1907 and the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1898 were all fought by religious leaders.

• The Europeans' weapons were demoralizing and the only way to counteract them was with magic and divine help.

• The European colonial order was made up of two different colonies by the end of the 19th century.

• The lands and populations of non-Western peoples in these colonies are being transformed by small numbers of Europeans.

• They controlled a lot of people in the tropics.

• In India, Java, and African enclaves, the demand for Western learning dominance was worked out by the elite.

• European rule in middle classes of colonized the late 19th and early 20th century bought most of these colonies.

• There were different patterns of European occupation and indigenous response within this.

• The white settlers colonies accounted for a good portion of the land area, but only a small portion of the population of Britain.

• Colonies with substantial indigenous popula settlers made up most of the population in colonies in which relatively small numbers of native inhab tions that are ruled by small Euro itants had been decimated by diseases and wars of conquest.

• The United States was formed in the late 18th century because of the help of colonized areas in North America.

• There are some areas where large numbers of Europeans have migrated.

• In the 19th century, North America and Australia were the only countries where Europeans and Americans had begun to occupy.

• It was possible for tens or hundreds of thousands of Europeans to settle permanently in the areas that were hospitable to European invaders.

• In these settlement colonies, which had been brought under colonial rule for the most part in the age of industrialization, Europeans and decimated the indigenous peoples, land rights, resource control, social status, and cultural inhabitants became increasingly clashed over.

• In establishing America and Australia with growing administrative, legal, and educational systems, they drew heavily on precedents set in older colonies, particularly India.

• They used the peoples who followed animistic religions or who had converted to Christianity against the Muslim communities in most colonies in west and east Africa.

• It says a lot about general European attitudes toward the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa that the label itself is primitive ness and backwardness.

• In southeast Asia, the colonizers tried to use hill-dwel ing "tribal" minorities against the majority populations that lived in the lowlands.

• Favored minorities were recruited into the civil service and police in each colonial area.

• The majority of Europeans lived in the capital city and the major provincial towns.

• Many English schoolboys would go out as young whites and force all blacks to be administrators in the colonies because they said they were collecting taxes.

• The main character in the story is a marriageable age to carry large packages.

• They tried to justify their colonization.

• The whites are sheltered from the worst weather.

• Whites worry about mosquito bites after his struggle to stop a "native" uprising.

• They fear bees.

• They are afraid of the scorpion who lives, to take all the risks, to be reckless with his life, or to be content to find his reward in decaying roofs, under rubble, or in tunes.

• As if a man worthy of gift of responsibility, the power of being in a little way a king; the name would worry about everything which lives, crawls, or so long as we know this and practise it, we will rule not moves around him.

• American born in Martinique who was sensitive to the plight of the colonized in Africa.

• African leader named Batouala complains of the burdens of his subordinates.

• Some of the subordinates were Western educated.

• Village leaders, local notables, and regional lords were recruited from the indigenous elite groups.

• Thousands of Indian administrators and soldiers helped the British rule new areas in Asia and Africa.

• In contrast to Java and India, where schools were heavily state supported, Western-language education in Africa was left to Protestant and Catholic missionaries.

• Higher education was not promoted in Africa because of prejudice.

• College graduates in Africa were not as common as in India, the Dutch East Indies, or even smaller Asian colonies.

• The growth of the middle class in black Africa was hampered by this policy.

• The dangers posed by college graduates were warned against by colonial policymakers.

• According to this argument, those with advanced educations in the colonized were disgruntled when they couldn't find a job.

• The growing tensions between the colonizers and the rising African and Asian middle classes reflected a larger shift in European social interaction with subject peoples.

• The shift began long before the scramble for colonies in the 19th century.

• The growing size and changing makeup of European ties in the colonies were critical factors.

• It was possible to bring the wives and families of government officials and European military officers to the colonies, but not until the 20th century.

• European women looked disapprovingly on the sons of European men and Asian or African women.

• The importance of co-opting African and Asian rulers and elite social groups disapproval within the constricted world of for European empire building is vividly illustrated by this 1861 painting of Queen Victoria colonial communities and back home in Europe.

• The growing number of missionaries thought of native dress attire for such a personage.

• European women were once blamed for the growing social gap between colonizers and colonized.

• Research shows that male officials bore most of the responsibility.

• They established laws against interracial liaisons.

• They wanted to keep social contacts between European women and the colonized at a minimum.

• These measures limited European women in the colonies to a European world.

• There were many "native" servants and "native" nannies for their children.

• They did not come into contact with men or women of their own social standing from the colonized peoples.

• The occasions were very public and formal.

• Belief peaked in acceptance before World War I.

• It was thought that the mental, moral, and cul moral superiority of whites over the rest of humankind had been demonstrated by their skin color.

• The lack of motivation for Europeans to socialize doctrine of social Darwinists such as with the colonized was due to the fact that the non-Europeans' inferior intel igence and weak sense of morality War I was supported by social science.

• The colonizers' houses were filled with overstuffed furniture and bric-a-brac that the Burden loved so much.

• European social life in the colonies was centered around the clubs, where the only natives allowed were the servants.

• In the heat of the summer, most of the administrators and their families retreated to hill stations, where the cool air and quaint architecture made it seem almost as if they were home again, or at least in a Swiss mountain resort.

• The relationship between the colonizers and the colonized was the same it had been before.

• District officers with the help of many "native" subordinates continued to do their duty to settle disputes between peasants and vil agers.

• African or Asian overseers and brokers were still used to manage laborers and purchase crops in Europe.

• African and Asian peasants were instructed in scientific farming techniques in the late 19th century to make them work harder and more efficiently.

• Efforts were made to extend dependent status in the world economy.

• A wide range of incentives was put in place to increase export production.

• Cheap consumer goods that could be purchased with cash earned from producing crops or working on European plantations were some of the things that benefited colonized peoples.

• In many instances, colonized peoples were forced to produce for little or no pay, the crops or raw materials the Europeans wanted.

• The head and hut taxes were only paid in ivory, palm nuts, and wages earned on European estates.

• In the late 19th century, forced-labor schemes were used to flog and kill villagers in the Belgian Congo if they failed to meet production quota, and women and children were held hostage to ensure that the men would deliver the products.

• The political cartoon of a vicious snake with mies of most of Africa, India, and southeast Asia were reorganized to serve Leopold II's head squeezing the life out of a defenseless African the needs of the industrializing European economies.

• The international campaign was built to move farm produce and raw materials from the inte 1890s in opposition to the brutal forced-labor regime in which colonized areas to port centers from which they could be shipped had become the Belgian.

• Europe's technological advances helped the mining sectors after 1885.

• The Belgian government took over the administration of the colony in 1906.

• Cocoa, palm oil, rubber, and hemp were in great demand in the markets of Europe and the United States because of the conversion of areas that had previously been uncultivated or planted in food crops.

• European merchants and industrialists made the majority of the profits from the precious metals and minerals from Africa and Malaya.

• The raw materials were shipped to Europe to be processed and sold.

• The finished products were intended for Europeans.

• If they were paid at all, the African and Asian laborers would be poorly paid.

• The laborers and colonial economies were dependent on Europe.

• African and Asian peoples in a world order loaded with expansionist nations of western Europe were supported by economic dependence.

• Many of the patterns of political control and economic exploitation found in the tropical dependencies can be found in the settlement colonies where large numbers of Europeans migrated intending to make permanent homes.

• This type of society needs to be compared to other types of society.

• Past capitalism and colonialism in the century since the European powers divided up questions that follow on the connections between capitalism of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific into their colonial fief and colonialism.

• For each Western society and colonized area, various patterns suggest that colonized areas were more important in terms of economic interaction than independent nations.

• Consumer products ranged from Algeria to Argentina.

• The early centuries of European overseas expansion in North and South America were different from those established in the 19th century.

• The effects of diseases transmitted by incoming Euro pean migrants had a devastating effect on the indigenous peoples of these early colonies.

• The United States, Canada, and Australia imported so many people, institutions, and beliefs from Europe that they became a part of Western history.

• In most of the colonies established in the 19th century, the indigenous peoples were plentiful and the colonizers carried diseases with them.

• Even Pacific islands, such as New Zealand and Hawaii, which had been largely isolated until their first sustained contacts with the Europeans in the late-18th century, were densely populated by people who were able over time to build up immunities to the diseases the Europeans transmitted.

• The history of the newer settler colonies that were formed as a result of large-scale migrations from industrializing societies has been dominated by enduring competition and differing degrees of conflict between European settlers and indigenous peoples.

• The settlers clashed with local representatives of the European powers as the divisions were hardened by ethnic, racial, and national identities.

• The settlers tried to gain independence from colonial officials by force.

• The first Dutch colony in South Africa was established to provide a way station for ships to take water and food in the middle of their long journey from Europe to the East Indies.

• Dutch settlers stayed near the coast for decades.

• The descendants of the Dutch immigrants in South Africa began to move into the vast interior regions of the continent.

• They found a climate in which they could grow crops and raise animals that they were used to in Europe.

• They encountered a disease that they could survive.

• The areas where the Boers moved in this early period of colonization were similar to those in North America and Australia.

• The large "colored" population that exists in South Africa today is a result of theegenation between the Boers and Khoikhoi.

• The coloreds have been seen as different from the black Africans.

• The arrival of the British overlords in South Africa in the early 19th century changed the nature of the settlement colony in the region.

• Cape Town was captured by the British in the wars that followed the French Revolution in the 1790s.

• The colony was annexed by the British in 1814 as a vital sea link to their prize colony, India.

• The Dutch and French Protestant community of the Boer differed from the British newcomers in many ways.

• The British society and attitudes were changed by the scientific, industrial, and urban revolutions of the 20th century.

• The evangelical missionaries who entered South Africa under the protection of the new British overlords were committed to ending slavery.

• The domestic pattern of enslavement that had developed in Boer homesteads and communities was not an exception.

• Many of the remaining Boers fled the Cape Colony because of missionary pressure and increasing British interference in their lives.

• In the decades after the Great Trek, tens of thousands of Boers migrated in covered wagons pulled by oxen, first east across the Great Fish River and then over the mountains into the veld--the rolling grassy plains that make up much of the South African interior.

• The Bantu peoples built well-organized African states such as the Zulus and the Xhosa in these areas.

• Trans formed the society in South Africa from one where the indigenous peoples were marginalized, like those that were established in the early centuries of expansion, into a deeply contested colonial realm.

• The Bantu peoples were determined to resist the seizure of the lands where they pastured their great herds of cattle and grew their own food, and they clashed with the migrat ing Boers again and again throughout the 19th century.

• The British colony in South Africa remained high, but the imperial overlords were drawn into frontier wars against the developed after the Boer trek north from Bantu peoples.

• The British were kept out of the affairs of the Boers for more than a decade.

• The brief war in which the Boers were government in Cape Colony in 1850s was a result of these tensions.

• After the discovery of diamonds and precious metals, British immigration into the republics rose even higher.

• British entrepreneurs are trying to curb their civil rights.

• British efforts to protect these interlop in South Africa around 1900 led to the republics' declaration of war against the British in 1899.

• British guilt over their treatment of the Boers.

• The source of so much misery and violence in South 1899 and 1902 was the result of a fight between the black African majority and the whites.

• The territories the Europeans, Americans, and Japanese claimed throughout the South Pacific in the 19th century were in some cases outposts of true empire.

• The demographic disasters and social dis ruptions of a magnitude that had not been seen since the first century of European expansion into the Americas were caused by the coming of colonial rule.

• The peoples of the South Pacific were like the Native American peoples of the New World.

• The Native Americans had no immunity to many of the diseases European explorers and later merchants, missionaries, and settlers carried to their island homes from the 1760s onward.

• Their cultures were vulnerable to the corrosive effects of outside influences, such as new religions, different sexual mores, more lethal weapons, and sudden influxes of cheap consumer goods.

• The contacts the Europeans and Americans had with the people of the Pacific islands led to periods of social disintegration and widespread human suffering.

• The confrontations in New Zealand and Hawaii are among the most informative because of the long-isolated island cultures of the South Pacific.

• In each of these areas, sophisticated cultures and fairly complex societies have developed.

• The two island groups contained some of the largest populations in the Pacific region at the time of the European explorers' arrival.

• European influences were carried by a variety of agents, from whalers and merchants to missionaries and colonial administrators.

• The people of New Zealand and Hawaii experienced a period of crisis so severe that their continued survival was in doubt.

• The cultures and peoples that were threatened rebounded and found enduring solutions to the challenges from overseas.

• Large numbers of European settlers living in their midst, with revivals of traditional beliefs and practices, are usually represented by the large numbers of European settlers living in their midst.

• There were two periods of profound disruption and danger for the Maori of New Zealand.

• In the 1790s, timber merchants and whalers established small settlements on the New Zealand coast.

• People living near these settlements were afflicted with alcoholism and prostitution.

• In addition, they traded wood and food for European firearms, which made warfare more deadly and upset the balance between different tribes.

• By the time of the 1840s, the population had fallen to as low as 80,000 to 90,000.

The Maori were 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217

• They grazed cattle that were purchased from European traders.

• They built windmil s and traded with merchants who visited their shores.

• The first station of the missionaries was established in 1814.

• The British decision to claim the islands as part of their global empire and the arrival of British farmers and herders in the early 1850s brought misery and despair to the people.

• Some of the most fertile areas of the north island were occupied by settlers.

• The warlike Maori fought back and were driven back into the interior of the island.

• Desperate to drive out the invaders in the 1860s and 1870s, they turned to religious prophets who promised them magic and supernatural help.

• The Maori seemed to be facing extinction when the prophets failed them.

• British writers predicted that the Maori would die out.

• The resilience displayed by the Maori was surprising.

• As they built up immunity to new diseases, they learned to use European laws and political institutions to defend themselves and preserve what was left of their ancestral lands.

• Because the British turned the internal administration of the islands over to the settlers' representatives, the Maori's main struggle was with invaders who had come to stay.

• The Maori were able to hold their own in their legal contests and daily exchanges with the settlers thanks to Western education and a growing ability to win over British colonial officials.

• Although New Zealand was included in the White Dominions of the British empire, it was in fact a multiracial society in which a reasonable level of European and Maori accommodation and interaction has been achieved.

• Much of the value in the precontact culture of the Maori has been preserved over time.

• The conversion of Hawaii to a colony of settlers followed familiar imperialist patterns.

• From 1777 to 1779, Hawaii was under increasing Western influence due to the British's control of the islands and the opening of the West to the United States.

• The Cook expedition and later British visits convinced a young Hawaiian prince, Kamehameha, that he could lead a unified kingdom, replacing the small and war ring regional units that had previously prevailed.

• Kamehameha's kingdom was won by a series of vigorous wars.

• Increasing revenues to the royal treasury is what the Hawaiian goods are for.

• In some cases royalty traveled to Britain and built Western-style palaces.

• One of the most famous, but ultimately tragic, cross-cultural encounters of the process of change was between Captain James Cook and the crew of the ship he commanded and the peoples of Hawaii.

• Cook, a subordinating women be abandoned in this painting.

• enowned English explorer is welcomed enthusiastically by the hawaiians.

• When Cook was killed due to misunderstandings with the hawaiians, he was England and he was one of the great lost heroes of his age.

• The religious change that took place during the Dawn of the Industrial Age had wide implications.

• The muumuu, a new garment made from homespun American nightgowns with the sleeves cut off, was made after Missionaries railed against traditional Hawaiian costumes.

• 50,000 students from a culture that had not previously developed writing were served by the school system established by the mis sionaries.

• Creative political and cultural changes were produced by the combination of the political and social objectives of Hawaiian rulers and the demands and imports of Western settlers.

• The effects of demographic and economic trends were more subtle.

• Tuberculosis, sexually transmitted diseases, and other Western imported diseases had tragic consequences for previously isolated people.

• About 80,000 Hawaiians remained from a prior population of half a mil ion by 1850.

• Asian workers were needed to staff the estates because of the decline in the Hawaiian population.

• Before 1800, the first Chinese contract workers were brought in, and after 1868, a larger current of Japanese arrived.

• The systemati cally began to exploit the Hawaiian economy.

• The seaport towns were created by whalers.

• Many missionary families were impatient with Hawaiian commoners and decided to lease or buy land.

• Many families who came to Hawaii to do good ended up doing well, despite the fact that most settlers forgot their religious motives for moving to the islands.

• Formal colonization was an anticlimax.

• After 1872, the abilities of Hawaiian monarchs declined due to disease and alcoholism.

• Powerful planter interests pressed for special treaties with the United States that would promote their sugar exports and the American government claimed naval rights at the Pearl Harbor base.

• As the last Hawaiian monarchs turned to promoting culture, writing a number of lasting Hawai ian songs but also spending money on luxurious living, American planters concluded that their economic interests required U.S. control.

• American naval officers were persuaded to protect American lives and property by posting troops around Honolulu in 1893.

• The U.S. Congress took over the islands in 1898 after the Hawaiian ruler was deposed.

• Western control was combined with respect for Polynesian culture.

• Because Hawaiians were not enslaved and soon ceased to threaten those present, Americans in Hawaii did not apply the same degree of racism found in earlier relations with African slaves or Native Americans.

• The arrival of many Asian immigrants complicated Hawaii's status as a colony.

• Western cultural and economic influence extended steadily, and the political seizure of the islands only reinforced the colonization of the islands.

• The means for Americans to this era were provided by them.

• The agents of the first civilization dominated the entire European conquest and colonization.

• By the end of the 19th century, the European colonizers assumed that their God had colonized most of Asia and Africa and that they were in control of the remaining areas.

• In pushing for change within colonized societies that the threat of military interventions or the manipulation of local had ancient, deep-seeded cultures and patterns of civilized life, elites.

• The Europeans were able to use their power to build a global to colonial rule because of political power.

• The colonizers put economic order in their industrial societies.

• In the four or five decades to their rule, there were more enduring and successful challenges that came from their social before the outbreak of World War I.

• Commercial networks undergirded the European colonial ture because of the communications reforms and Western-language schools.

• The reworked European order made possible an unprecedented flow of foods and min ideas and resurrected the cultures of Asian and African nationalists.

• European techniques were used in America.

• The Europeans used investment capital tion systems and common language to run the mines, plantations, and processing plants in colonized areas.

• European dominance made it possible for him to get cheap labor and administrative services in the 20th century.

• A good overview of the literature and conflict ing arguments can be found in further readings.

• There is a lot of literature on European imperialism.

• C.A.
• is the best history of British involvement in South Europe on European attitudes toward the colonized.

• The overview from Indian perspectives was dated.

What were the differences between the two?

• The story of his fall is strange.

• He lost the support of the conservatives.

• Juarez warned other nations that Mexico would remain independent if they spared his life.

• Europe's shock was reflected in the painting of the execution of Maximilian, shown here flanked by his two loyal generals facing the firing squad.

• Both Carlota and Maximilian were well educated.

• They had tried to bring reforms to their adopted country and had even invited Juarez and other political opponents to join in the new government, an offer that was refused.

• Maximilian and Carlota were misled as to the attitude of the Mexican people towards their new rulers.

• The majority of Mexicans were determined to maintain the political independence they had won after a long and bitter struggle, and they saw the presence of foreign bayonets as an insult.

• They could not have been more different.

There were two different visions of what Latin America should become, one of which was represented by the diminutive Zapotec Indian who rose from poverty and obscurity to become Mexico's leading liberal politician, and the other by the foreign-backed emperor who had blood ties to every royal house in europe

• The fate of Mexico was determined by their clash, as well as an example and a warning to other foreign states with imperialist designs.

• Carlota traveled all over Europe to plead her husband's case, and many calls for clemency had reached Juarez's desk.

• For the good of his country, Juarez refused to spare Maximilian, even though he could not bring himself to meet the man for fear that his determination would change.

His last words were "long live Mexico, long live independence"

• Carlota was in seclusion for 60 years.

• The independence of the United States was the result of the same winds of change that swept Spain and Portugal in the late 18th century.

• The political culture of Latin America was formed in the 18th century by the ideas of the Western Enlightenment.

• Both Juarez and Maximilian shared liberal ideals.

• In the early 19th century, the various regions of Latin America fought for their political indepen dence and created new nations.

• Each of the new countries had to define the form of government, the kind of society, the role of religion, and the nature of the economy in order to create bitter political struggles.

• From the old colonial powers to the new imperialist regimes, there was always a shadow of interference.

• Latin America in the 19th century was shaped by its internal struggles over these questions and by the international forces of the day.

• Most 19th-century Latin American leaders shared a belief in the virtues of progress, reform, representational and constitutional government, and private property rights with Western political figures.

• Latin American leaders faced problems that were different from those of Europe and the United States.

• The colonial heritage did not leave much for the government to do.

• A highly centralized colonial state created dependence on central authority and resentment of it, as it interfered in many aspects of life.

• The new nations were divided by class and regional interests.

• The economic situation of the new nations was often placed in a weak or dependent position as a result of the economic situation created by the European industrial capitalism.

• Problems and tensions are the focus of our examination of Latin America in the 19th century.

• The elites were joined by the majority of the population in resenting the heavy hand of government, as demonstrated by the new taxes and administrative reforms of the 18th century.

• The class conflicts and divisions were not overcome by the shared resentment.

• The American Indian, mestizo, and mulatto mass were thought to be too difficult to control by the colonial upper classes, so early movements for independence failed.

• The movements were set in motion by events in Europe.

• Latin American political independence was achieved as a result of the general Atlantic revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and Latin American leaders were moved by the same ideas as those seeking political change elsewhere in the Atlantic world.

• The model of how colonies could break away from the mother country was provided by the American Revolution.

• The slogan "liberty, equality, and Fraternity" of the French Revolution appealed to some sectors of the population in Latin America.

• The revolution was rejected by the Creole elites because they could not support regicide, the church's authority, and the social leveling implied by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

• In the regimes where slaves were a large part of the population, this was especially true.

• The French Revolution was partially an extension of the third external event.

• St. Domingue, France's great sugar colony in the Caribbean, became divided due to internal political conflict.

• The leader to subdue the island was defeated and the independent republic of Haiti was proclaimed.

• Cuba and Puerto Rico, which had plantations and slaves, were among the last of Spain's colonies to gain independence.

• The Spanish king's name was used in opposition to Napoleon's brother, who had been appointed king.

• The crisis in the colo nies was caused by the confusion in Spain.

• In places such as Venezuela and Mexico, local elites pretended to be loyal to the deposed king Ferdinand and set up juntas to rule on their own.

• The movements for independence were opposed by the more conservative elements of the population.

• There was a crisis of legitimacy in the American colonies.

• There are three major theaters of operation for the independence movements.

• The Mexican priest lost the support of the Creoles, who were afraid of social rebellion more than they were of independence.

• The insurgency smoldered in various parts of American Indians and mestizos despite the capture and execution of Hidalgo.

• Despite early victories, conservative Creoles in Mexico were willing to unite with the captured and executed in order to move toward independence.

• Iturbide was proclaimed emperor of Mexico with the support of the Conservative Creole of the army.

• The new nation of Mexico was born as a monarchy and little agreement was given to the social programs of the movement.

• The Mexican empire was briefly attached to the combined forces of America.

• Mexico City was entered in 1821 and later became a republic, and the Central American states split into two in 1824.

• The old colonial center in Sentiments of the Nation was one of the last places to break with Spain.

• Rico was loyal until the end of the 19th century, even though there were plots for independence in that period and Cuba had a bloody ten-year civil war.

• The leader of the revolt against Spain was a Creole officer.

• Between 1817 and 1822, he won a series of victories in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador, thanks to his military skill and passion for independence.

• There were political differences that led to the break up of Gran Colombia.

• The man became fearful of anarchy.

• He remained firmly committed to the cause of independence and republican government despite all the attempts to crown him as king.

• They tried to keep the outlying areas under their control even though they wanted freedom of trade.

• The myth of independence was preserved for a while.

• The independence of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata was proclaimed in 1816.

• The Upper Peru was under Spanish control and the Banda Oriental resisted the authority of Buenos Aires.

• San Martin was willing to speak and act for independence.

• His armies crossed the Andes to help the revolutionaries.

• The patriot forces looked northward after winning there.

• The country was still under Spanish control.

• The movement for independence was not attractive to the upper class.

• The battle of Ayacucho in 1824 resulted in the defeat of the royalist forces, but Creole adherence was slowly won after that.

• The struggle for independence was led by Simon Bolivar.

• There are plans to create a form of monarchy in northern South America.

• He became an ardent supporter of independence representative governments after his father's many new states emerged as independent republics.

• The nations of Spanish America believe in the republican form of government.

• The wars of deathbed and independence became the foundation of their heroic birth, but other writings.

• The aide disobeyed the order because he knew how valuable these papers would be to the challenge of deciding what kind of governments they would have.

• By the end of the 18th century, Brazil had grown in population and economic importance.

• The growth of European demand for colonial products, such as sugar, cotton, and cacao, military success led to the creation of contributed to the increase in slave imports to the colony.

• The military successes of Simon 1798 resulted in the creation of the state of Bahia in South America as a result of incipient movements for independence in Minas Gerais.

• The battle of Maipu sealed the fate of the royalist forces.

• Jose de San Martin was the leader of the combined forces that led to the independence of Chile.

• The new nations had to confront the personal and institutional power of the former commanders as the rebel forces were slowly mobilized into effective armies.

• The leader of the struggle functions of the royal government was set up in the colony.

• As a partial concession to England and for independence in southern to colonial interests, the ports of Brazil were opened to world commerce.

• The main desires of the Brazilian elites were born in Argentina.

• Unlike Spanish America, where the Napoleonic invasions provoked a crisis of authority and led Spanish Americans to consider ruling in their own name, but joined in the movement for independence, he led the revolution in Brazil, where the transfer of the court brought royal government closer and reinforced the colonial ary.

• In the 19th century, Rio de Janeiro was transformed into an imperial city with a public library, botanical gardens, and Peru.

• He went other improvements for political reasons.

• The colony had its first printing presses in 1823.

• After Napoleon's defeat in Europe and a liberal Iberian peninsula, Brazil became the seat of revolution in Portugal and a parliament was formed.

• Joao VI realized that he had a capital at rio de Brazil.

• Pedro declared Brazilian independence in 1822 after he refused to return to Europe as demanded by the prince regent.

• Brazil aided America by avoiding the long wars of the Spanish successor of Joao VI in Brazil.

• The existing social organization based on slavery was not upset by Brazil's independence or the declaration of Brazilian.

• Brazil became a monarchy under a member of the became constitutional emperor of the Portuguese ruling house after independence from Portugal in 1822.

• 20 million people looked forward to the future.

• Some of the problems that led to political pendence had the same ideals: representative government, careers open to talent, freedom of commerce, the right to private property, and a belief in the individual as the basis of society.

• There were leaders who had strong personal followings and represented a general belief that the new nations should be independent and large enough to be economically viable and integrated with a common set of laws.

• There was less agreement on the issue of freedom of religion and the position of the church.

• The only religion allowed by the Spanish crown was Roman Catholicism.

• While most leaders tried to keep Catholicism as the official religion of the new states, some tried to end the exclusion of other faiths.

• The defense of the church became a cry for conservatives.

• The ideals of the early leaders of independence were not always equal.

• He promised to abolish slavery in the areas he liberated after receiving aid from Haiti.

• Cuba and Puerto Rico were the only places where the economy was based on slavery by 1854.

• Despite early promises, an end to American Indian tribute and taxes on people of mixed origin came more slowly because the new nations still needed the revenue such policies produced.

• Fears that the mass of the population was not prepared for democracy and self-rule were counterbalanced byitarian sentiment.

• Property or literacy restrictions were tried to balance order and popular representation in early constitutions.

• Voting rights were usually reserved for men.

• The old color distinctions did not disappear easily.

• After breaking away from the Mexican monarchy, Central America formed a union, but regional resentments eventually led to the dissolution of the union.

• Some unities were provided despite its size and traditions.

• After resisting France and Spain, the Dominican Republic became divided into coalitions, which were eventually divided because of its neighbor Haiti.

• Gran Colom bia, the large new state created by Bolivar in South America, was based on the old viceroyalty of New Granada.

• The union was made possible by his personal reputation and leadership, but as his own standing declined, it ended in 1830, the year of his death.

• The viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata was the basis for a state that the people of Argentina hoped to lead.

• Some parts of the region resisted.

• Under a number of dictators, Paraguay maintained its independence.

Argentina and Brazil were 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217

• It was an independent buffer between the two nations.

• The opening of trade in the Pacific led to the establishment of union by a general in the country.

• Attempts at consolidation and union failed.

• The roads and transportation were poor.

• Political divisions were too strong to overcome.

• The mass of the population was outside the political process.

• The problems of national integration were difficult to deal with.

• Spanish America did not separate into more than 18 separate nations.

• There were many problems confronting the new nations.

• More than a decade of warfare in places such as Venezuela, Mexico, and Colombia had disrupted the economies and devastated wide areas.

• In times of intense division, a powerful regional army commander became the arbiter of power, and areas by force in defiance of national, thus the army sometimes made and unmade governments.

• Keeping the army in the barracks became a policy and the amount of money spent on the military far exceeded the needs.

• Military commanders were interested in power for their own sake, but they could represent or mobilize different groups in society.

• The Latin American Revolution, 1865, which was ruled by the conservative Rafael Carrera, took the interest of the American Indian majority to heart, but other personalist leaders ignored the normal workings of an open political system and the rule of law.

• Politician depended on loyalty to help them personally.

• Many of the new nations faced the same issues.

• The basic form of government for most political leaders was the republic, but they couldn't agree on what kind of republic it should be.

• Tensions developed between liberals and conservatives.

• Liberals strong, centralized national stressed the rights of the individual and attacked the corporate structure of colonial society based on membership in a group governments with broad powers.

• They dreamed of a secular society that was supported by politicians in the United States and France.

• They wanted a federalist form of govern who described themselves as ment.

• Conservatives believed in a strong centralized state.

• Latin American Indians, artisan guilds, or institutions provided the most equitable basis of social politicians who wanted policies, action should be recognized in law.

• To the conservatives, society was not based on open competition but on individualism and regionalism, and each group was linked to the others like parts of a body whose governments rather than centralized health depended on the proper functioning of each part.

• Not all conservatives were against change and national administrations, but some of them were skeptical of the economic and commercial reforms that the politicians supported.

• The church's role in politics became important.

• Conservatives were divided by the more secular liberals.

• In Mexico, the church played a major role in education, the economy, and politics.

• Liberals tried to limit its role in civil life.

• The papacy's power allowed the church to fight back with the help of its pro-clerical supporters.

• Liberal or Conservative political parties sprang up throughout Latin America.

• They tried to impose their vision of the future on society.

• Their leaders were usually drawn from the same social class of landlords and bourgeoisie, with little to differentiate them except their position in the church or on the question of federalism versus centralization.

• In the first 50 years of gauchos, there was political turmoil and insecurity in much of Latin America.

• Seized power in Mexico with a change in government because of a small margin for interpretation of the constitution.

• The seized power in 1835 was the worst part of instability.

• The political system that allowed compromise was established after the president's broad powers were lost in the war for Chile.

• Despite being defeated by cal rule in 1836, Brazil was able to maintain a political system of united States in Mexican-American compromise, although it was dominated by the conservatives who were favored by the emperor.

• The war was defeated by a liberal rebellion in 1854.

• The 1824 constitution was in force until 1889.

• After 1870, the issue of slavery gnawed at the nation's conscience.

• The basic questions of government and society remained unresolved in a lot of Latin America after independence.

• There are problems attributed to personal ism, a lack of civic responsibility, and other defects in the "Latin" character.

• The experience of later emerging nations in the 20th century suggests that these problems were typical of former colonial dependencies searching for order and economic security in a world in which their options were constrained by their own potential and by external conditions.

• The world of diplomatic relations began when Spain and Portugal found national commerce.

• Security and diplomatic recognition were sought by the new nations.

• Europe was undergoing a post-Napoleonic conservative reaction and monarchies were being that allowed liberal governments restored, which led to various plans to help Spain recolonize Latin America.

• Great Britain started social and political erally opposed those ideas because it was the dominant power at sea.

• The United States felt an affinity for the new nations to the south.

• British support of the Latin American independence declaration in 1823 provided needed protection.

• He was talking about the economic and commercial advantages that Britain gave to the new nations.

• In the 18th century, Britain had legal means of opening Latin American to illegal trade.

• It could offer its diplomatic recognition in exchange for trade.

• Latin American governments used to turn to foreign governments and banks for loans.

• Britain became a major consumer of Latin American products.

• Half of the PS5 million worth of manufactured goods Britain sold to the new nations each year went to Brazil.

• It was important for Latin America because it was a small portion of Britain's overseas trade.

• Britain replaced Spain as a dominant economic force in the area.

• Britain was the main trading partner with Latin America before 1860.

• The port cities that controlled customhouses and the large landowners whose hides, sugar, and other products were exported benefited from open ports and the influx of foreign goods.

• Local industries that specialized in producing for internal markets were damaged by these policies.

• Latin America became increasingly dependent on foreign markets and foreign imports and this reinforced the old colonial economic heritage in which land was the basis of wealth and prestige.

• Latin America's economy was stagnant from 1820 to 1850.

• Many industries were destroyed, roads were poor, and money was still tied up in land.

• Cuba's sugar economy expanded, but it was still a colony of Spain.

• Expansion of the European economy created new demands for Latin American products after 1850.

• Coffee in Brazil, hides and beef in Argentina, and minerals and grains in Chile provided the basis of growth and allowed some Latin American governments to address social issues.

• Bird droppings were used off the coast.

• In the 19th century, the government of Peru earned more than PS10 million from the exports of thisfertilizer, which allowed them to end American Indian tribute and abolish slavery.

• Income from trade Latin American cities began to grow and provide good internal markets, and the introduction allowed end to American Indian steamships and railroads began to overcome the old problems of transportation.

• In the colonial era, the economies of the region were characterized by large land holdings and exports.

• Latin America's vulnerability to the world economy increased as the levels of exports and dependence on them increased.

• A few general patterns can be discerned without detailing the complex changes within the Latin American nations during the 19th century.

After the turmoil of independence, liberal reform ers tried to institute a series of programs in the 1820s and 1830s to break the patterns of the colonial heritage and to follow the main social and economic trends of western Europe by improving primary education, promoting individualism and private property, and supporting small

• These ideas were often imposed on societies and econo mies that were not prepared for drastic change because of the strength of the church and the army.

• Conservatives returned to power in many places to slow or stop the reform measures.

• The American Indians wanted to see the paternal aspects of the old colonial state reimposed to protect them from the reforms of the liberals.

• The peasantry and French philosophy were against the changes suggested by the middle-class, based on observation and scientific approach to problems of society.

• By the last quarter of the century, as the world economy entered a phase of rapid expansion, there was a shift in attitude and possibilities in Latin America.

• In Latin America, the founder of positivism and the liberals returned to power in many places.

• The observa cal basis of the new liberal surge was changing the ideologi philosophy.

• The shift was caused by the economic expansion of the second industrial revolution.

• New demands for Latin American products, such as copper and rubber, were created because of the application of science to industry.

• Between 1820 and 1880, the population of Latin America doubled to more than 43 million.

• After 1850, economies grew rapidly, but the timing varied greatly, but the expansion of exports in places such as Argentina and Brazil stimulated prosperity for some and a general belief in the advantages of the liberal pro grams.

• Latin American leaders wanted to participate in the expansion of the Western economy.

• Liberal programs in Latin America were supported by foreign entrepreneurs and bankers because of the increased revenues generated by exports.

• The leaders of the post-1860 governments were a new generation of politicians who had grown up during the chaotic years of post independence politics.

• England, France, and the United States inspired them.

• They were firm believers in progress, education, and free competition within a secular society, but they were sometimes distrustful of the mass of their own people, who seemed to represent an ancient "barbarism" in contrast to the "civilization" of progress.

• The application of foreign models to a very different reality in their own countries prevented many from achieving the progress they so ardently desired.

• Economic growth and progress were costly.

• Landowners increased their holdings in response to international demand, often aided by the governments they controlled.

• Peasant lands were taken away by the government in a number of countries.

• Immigrants from Europe flooded into Argentina and Brazil, and in other countries new forms of tenancy, peonage, and dis enslavement developed.

• The Mexican republic was established after the short monarchical experiment.

• Basic civil rights were guaranteed in its 1824 constitution, which was based on the examples of France, the United States, and Spain.

• The constitution did not address the nation's continuing social problems and needs, such as the maldistribution of land, the status of the American Indians, the problems of education, and the large number of poor people in Mexico.

• Politics became more complicated because of jockeying for advantage by commercial agents of Great Britain and the United States.

• The liberals tried to institute a series of sweeping social and economic reforms, but their attack on the church led to violent reaction and the assumption of power by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna.

• The maker of Mexican politics was Santa Anna.

• He was a typical leader.

• Mexico's instability was caused by more than his personality.

• Santa Anna was a symptom of deeper problems.

• Mexico's financial difficulties made it a target for foreign interventions.

• Texas, the vast area of Mexico's northern frontier, was occupied by Anglo-American settlers.

• They brought their language, customs, and religion despite restrictions.

Belief of the as had been done in Yucatan and other Mexican provinces, ethnic and religious differences as well as the government of the united States that it was destined to rule the Santa Anna's attempts to suppress the Texans in 1836 led to widespread fighting and the declaration of continent from coast to coast

• When Santa Anna was captured by the Texans, the question of annexation of Texas and politics became acute, but it was not until 1845 that the United States had a Mexican-American War.

• It voted to annex Texas because of its belief that it was destined to rule from coast to coast.

• Santa Anna, who had been in exile, returned to lead the Mexican forces.

• Less than 5 percent of Mexico's national territory was acquired by the United States.

• The loss of Texas and California to the economic potential of the US left Mexico with a legacy of distrust of nationalism and a desire to confront the nation's serious internal problems.

• Politics couldn't go back to the prewar situation.

• Santa Anna returned to office for a while, more between Mexico and the united unstable and despotic than ever, but now he was opposed by a new generation of liberals, many of them from the middle.

• The basis for the liberals' vision of society was set in motion by a series of leader of liberal rebellion against laws integrated into a new constitution.

• Military and clerical privileges were reduced and church property was put up for sale.

• The Indian com was defeated by the French and the government forced the sale of the lands to the indigenous people.

• The goal was to create a nation of France and establish Mexican small independent farmers.

• The peasants and American Indians lost their land when speculators bought up the lands under Maximilian.

• Mexico's rural population was landless.

• Good intentions resulted in disastrous results.

• The conservative reaction was expected.

• The church threatened to excommunicate those who supported the new constitution.

• Juarez, now Santa Anna, erupted in a civil war.

• A Zapotec Indian from southern Mexico became the president and began a series of reforms.

• He was a symbol of Mexican sovereignty and independence because of his uncompromising resistance to foreign intervention.

• Napoleon III of France was persuaded to intervene by conservatives who lost ground in the war.

• The capital of France was taken by French forces in the late 19th century.

• Emperor Maximilian tried to get the support of Juarez and the liberals and even kept many of France in 1862, despite the fact that he was ruled until the laws of the Reforma were in place.

• The idea of a foreign prince ruling Mexico was rejected by Juarez.

• The United States and French troops were involved in the Civil War that allowed Emperor Maximilian and his wife Carlota to rule.

• In 1867, Maximilian and his loyal Gen erals were captured and executed.

• Europeans were shocked by Maximilian's death.

• After a long period of instability, the administration of Juarez became increasingly autocratic and he felt it was unavoidable.

• Juarez was made a symbol of the nation by his death in 1872 because of his personality, concern for the poor, and nationalist position against foreign intervention.

• Mexico was on the edge of a period of strong central government by the year 1884.

• One of Juarez's generals became president and then a virtual dictator.

• Rapid economic growth was witnessed by his government.

• Foreign companies began to invest in the exploitation of Mexican resources.

• There was a seemingly stable environment for this growth, but the seeds of revolution were also being planted.

• Mexico and its silver had been the core of Spain's empire in America, while the rolling plains of the Rio de la Plata in southern South America had been a colonial backwater until the 18th century.

• The Rio de la Plata had its own interests and resented the power and growth of the port city and its surrounding countryside.

• The United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, which declared their independence in 1816, split apart and local caudillos were able to call on the support of gauchos.

• In Buenos Argentina, the liberals instituted a series of reforms in education, finance, agriculture, and immigration.

• The program of public land sales stimulated the growth of cattle ranches and the power of the rancher class.

• In Mexico, liberal reforms including freedom of religion caused a negative reaction from conservatives and the church.

• The main sin of the liberals was centralism.

• The federalist program of a weak central government and local autonomy was in fact in favor of the ranchers and merchants of the great port.

• He wanted to open new lands to the cattle ranchers.

• The revenues collected at the port were not shared with the other provinces.

• His politics drove liberal opponents into exile, where they plotted to overthrow him.

• The liberal exiles joined forces with the caudillos who were jealous of the advantages of federalism.

• The coalition defeated Rosas and drove him from power.

• There was a confused decade of rival governments because of the unresolved questions of federalism.

• Juan Bautista Alberdi, an able and progressive journalist who was also a strong believer in the need to encourage immigration, was responsible for the creation of the new constitution.

• The programs of the federalists were incorporated in the constitution, but the power of the presidency over the provincial governors guaranteed national unity.

• The liberals were in full swing.

• The liberal reformers of the mid-century had an example of sarmiento.

• They were aided by a number of factors.

• Investment was more attractive to foreign banks and merchants because of political stability.

• The expansion of the Argentine economy, especially exports of beef, hides, and wool, created the basis for prosperity.

• Foreign trade was five times better in 1890 than it was in 1860.

• "The liberator" was a man of determination and perception from independence to consolidation.

• He did not despair despite his campaigns for independence being defeated on several occasions.

• Although Americans by birth derive our rights while in exile on the island of Jamaica, we have to assert these rights against the rights newspaper that gave his evaluation of Latin America's situation of the natives.

• This places us in a form of government that is republican and rejects monarchy.

• The role of the inhabitants of the American hemisphere has been passive for hundreds of years.

• They didn't acquire the political virtues that distinguish us.

• States are slaves because of either nature or Spain had left America unprepared, and in this letter Bolivar summarized many of the complaints of Latin Americans against the government.

• We found that America was denied not only its freedom but also its political, social, and economic.

• One of the most candid writings by a leader of Latin is Jamaica.

• The excerpts suggest that it deprived us of our rights but kept us in a sort of perma and content.

• Before, who live within the Spanish system occupy a position in those dispersed parts later reestablished their ancient nations, society no better than that of serfs destined to labor, or at best subject to the changes imposed by circumstances or extent.

• They have the same status as consumers.

• The montoneras are legitimate off even in articles of prime necessity, and the barriers between the spring of the tavern and the field are hostile to the city and the American provinces.

• We understand as events succeed.

Do you want to know what will happen to the provincial montoneras headed by their chiefs?

• I can't find anything like it in any civilized society.

• Latin American political leaders sprang from the same source, namely, the cating "progress" and attempting to bring Latin America closer to progress of European ideas, by the mid-century.

• Europe set the standards of life for South America.

• All other nations were pursuing it for liberals such as Argentine sol.

• The "barbarism" of rural life and the movement to France was what caused South America to take part in his nation's task.

• Africa shows the ancient hostility of "civilized" urban courts, laws, statues, education, all points of contact and union dwellers to the nomadic way of life.

• As a result of the persistence in the cities and the manipulation of the gauchos, Juan Manuel deRosas was found to be a dictatorship of the people of Europe.

• Outside the cities, the revolution shows his admiration for European culture and his desire to model his nation after Spain.

• It was acceptable to shake off judicial authority.

• The pastoral program might involve economic and cultural dependency, so districts only had to consider the question from this point of view.

• Liberty, responsibility of power, and all the questions that the revolution was to solve were foreign to them.

• The cause of the war in Argentina was a revolution in the cities, but it was also a war against the impulse that set the cities against Spain.

• The cities overcame the Spaniards.

• The first shot of the Argentine Revolution was a form worse than a thousand and the last is still to be heard.

• The population tripled to more than 3 million as the agricultural expansion, high wages, and oppor tunities for mobility attracted large numbers of European immigrants.

• Buenos Aires became a large city.

• With increased revenues, the government could initiate reforms in education, transportation, and other areas, often turning to foreign models and foreign investors.

• The feeling of national unity was increased.

The 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217 800-273-3217

• More land was opened to ranching and agriculture as a result of the final defeat of the Indians south of Buenos Aires.

• At the same time as in the United States, the railroad, telegraph, and repeating rifle brought an end to the Indians' resistance and opened their lands to settlement.

• The native peoples who were pushed far to the south and the gauchos who were displaced by immigrants received little sympathy from the liberals.

• Argentina seemed to represent the achievement of a liberal program for Latin America by 1890.

• Coffee estates that spread within interior of Brazil between 1840 and 1860 created major export South America in the 19th century.

• It seemed that Brazil avoided much of the politi commodity for Brazilian trade, which led to instability and turmoil in other countries, and that through the mediation of slavery in Brazil.

• Beneath the facade was Spanish America.

• Dom Pedro I, the young Brazilian monarch, issued a liberal con stitution in 1824 despite resistance from those who wanted a weak constitutional monarchy.

• Dom Pedro was an autocrat.

• He was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Pedro, but the boy was too young to rule, and a series of regents directed the country in his name.

• Although the facade of monarchy was maintained, what followed was an experiment in republican government.

• In Spanish America, the next decade was tumultuous.

• The existence of monarchist and antimonarchist groups in Brazil made the conflict between liberalism and conservatism more complicated.

• Some of the revolts took on aspects of social wars as people of all classes were involved in the fighting.

• These movements were suppressed by the army.

• Dom Pedro II began to rule in his own name by 1840.

• Coffee has brought about an economic transformation in Brazil.

• Coffee provided a new source of income for southern Brazil.

• Coffee made up more than 40 percent of Brazil's exports by the year 1840.

• Slavery, Brazil's primary form of labor, came along with the expansion of coffee growing.

• Brazil was pressured by Great Britain to end the slave trade from Africa in the 19th century, but the trade continued on an enormous scale up to 1850.

• Africans were imported to Brazil more than one million times in the last 50 years of the trans-Atlantic slave trade.

• About one-fourth of Brazil's population was enslaved in the mid-century.

• The real abolitionist movement in Brazil was not developed until after 1870.

• Slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888.

• The years after 1850 saw a lot of growth and prosperity in Brazil.

• Dom Pedro II, an enlightened man of class habits who was anxious to reign over a tranquil and progressive nation, even if middle-class habits who were anxious to reign over that tranquility were based on slave labor.

• The trappings of a monarchy, a court, and tranquil and progressive nation despite the role that noble titles kept the elite attached to the regime.

• Slavery continued to play a role in its social and economic life.

• Foreign companies invested in these projects.

• Merchants, lawyers, a middle class, and an urban working class began to exert pressure on the government in growing cities.

• Even though the right to vote was very limited, these new groups were a catalyst for change because they were less wedded to landholding and slavery.

• The nature of the labor force was changing.

• The tide of immigrants from Italy and Portugal began to reach Brazil's shores after 1850.

• More than 300,000 immigrants arrived in Brazil between 1850 and 1875, and most of them went to work in the coffee estates of southern Brazil.

• The dependence on slavery was lessened by their presence.

• The end of slavery in Brazil was brought about by a series of laws freeing children and the aged, the sympathy of Dom Pedro II, and the efforts of the slaves, who began to resist and run away in large numbers.

• The support for the monarchy began to decline.

• The War of the Triple Alliance against Para guay became unpopular and the military began to take an active role in politics.

• The planters started modernizing their operations as they turned more to immigrants.

• Many intellectuals and key members of the army were attracted to the ideas of posi tivism, which attempted to bring about material progress by applying the scientific principles of logic and rationality to government and society.

• The Republican party began to gather support in urban areas from a wide spectrum of the population.

• The abolition of slavery made it impossible for the Brazilian monarchy to survive.

• In 1889 a military coup deposed the emperor and established a republic that was heavily influenced by Republican politicians.

• There were certain costs to progress in Latin America.

• In the back lands of northeastern Brazil, the change to a republic and economic hardship caused peasant unrest.

• Among the dispossessed peasantry, Antonio Conselheiro began to gather followers in the 1890s.

• The Canudos community contained thousands of followers of this messianic leader.

• Thousands of people were killed in the fighting.

• They put up a guerrilla defense of their town and their view of the world.

• This resistance was seen as a struggle between civilization and barbarism by him.

• da Cunha sympathized with the followers of Conselheiro and argued that civilization could not be spread in the flash of a cannon.

• The need to integrate the ex-slaves into the nation is a legacy of slavery.

• The end of colonial rule in Latin America gave rise to direct influences from the rest of Europe.

• Scientific observers, travelers, and the just plain curious came very slowly for American see and record, and while doing so introduced new ideas and fashions.

• Latin American governments brought Indians, blacks, and women from Europe for artistic and cultural missions.

• The tastes and fashions of Europe were adopted by the elites of the new nations.

• The battles and the resurgence of independence were celebrated with paintings, hymns, odes, and theatrical pieces.

• Europe followed the lead of Latin Americans.

• The architecture of the early 19th century was similar to the neoclassical tradition.

• The generation that came of age after independence turned to romanticism and found the basis of a new nationality in historical images, the American Indian and local customs.

• The generation had a romantic view of liberty.

• The exotic as well as the distinctive aspects of American society were emphasized.

• The American Indian is a symbol of Brazil and America.

• By the mid-century, sympathetic novels to slaves began to appear in Cuba.

• The pampas and its open spaces were celebrated by writers in Argentina.

• Studying the past became a way of organizing the present as a political act.

• The creation of the nation was the theme of many Latin America's leading politicians' writing.

• By the 1870s, a new realism emerged in the arts and literature in line with the modernization of the new nations.

• As the economies of Latin America surged forward, novelists appeared who were unafraid to deal with human frailties such as corruption, prejudice, and greed.

• The social mores of their countries were written about by the two authors.

• The culture of the mass of the population was unaffected by the tastes of the elite.

• Popular arts, folk music, and dance flourished in traditional settings, demonstrating a vitality and adaptability to new situations that was often lacking in the more imita tive fine arts.

• Sometimes authors in the romantic tradition or poets such asHernandez turn to traditional themes for their subject and inspiration, and in that way they bring these traditions to the greater attention of their class and the world.

• The traditional elites, the modernizing urban bourgeoisie, and the new immigrants didn't appreciate popular artistic works.

• It is necessary to recognize the persistence of old patterns and sometimes their reinforcement in order to deal with the 19th century as an era of great change and transformation in Latin America.

• Changes did take place, but they were not felt equally by all classes or groups in society, nor were all groups attracted by the promises of the new political regimes.

• Most of the century, women gained little.

• They were involved in the independence movements.

• Some had taken up arms or aided the insurgency, and some had paid for their activities on the gallows.

• There was no change in the attitudes towards women's role after independence.

• Women are not allowed to vote, hold public office, become lawyers, or testify in a court of law because they are expected to be wives and mothers.

• Although there were a few exceptions, unmarried women younger than 25 were still under the authority of their fathers.

• They couldn't work, enter into contracts or control their own estates without their husbands' permission.

• As in the colonial era, marriage, politics, and the creation of kinship links were essential elements in elite control of land and political power, and thus women remained a crucial resource in family strategies.

• Lower-class women had more economic freedom than elite women under the constraints of powerful families.

• Their situation was worse in legal terms than that of their sisters.

• Women were an important part of the workforce by the 1870s.

• The situation of women began to change in public educa tion.

• There was a movement in this direction in the colonial era.

• The idea of education for girls and women was that they should be educated so that the proper values could be passed on to the next generation.

• The first girls' school in Mexico was created in 1869, after Mexico City required girls and boys to attend school.

• Liberals in Mexico wanted secular public education to prepare women for an enlightened role within the home, and similar sentiment was expressed by liberal regimes elsewhere.

• The impact of public schools was limited.

• Brazil had a population of 10 million in 1873, but only about 1 million men and half of the women were literate.

• New opportunities for women were created by the rise of secular public education.

• The need for teachers at the primary level created the need for schools to train them.

• The teacher training schools gave women access to advanced education because most teachers were women.

• Although the curriculum often emphasized traditional female roles, an increasing number of edu cated women began to emerge who were dissatisfied with the legal and social constraints of their lives.

• By the end of the 19th century, these women were becoming more active in advocating for women's rights.

• The new nations legally ended the old society of castes in which legal status and definition depended on color and ethnicity, but in reality much of that system continued.

• Barriers to advancement are created by the stigma of skin color and former slave status.

• Poor conditions and the effects of govern ment failures were the main causes of labor for Indigenous peoples in Mexico.

• The Maya revolted against the central government and the whites in the 19th and 20th century.

• The indigenous peoples were willing to defend their traditional ways despite the intentions of the government.

• The century presented opportunities for advancement in the army, professions, and commerce for some mestizos and others of mixed origin.

• While legal equality came with abolition, the economic condition of the former slaves remained the same.

• Expansion of the export economy perpetuated old patterns.

• Liberalism became more restrictive after the program of secularization, rationalism, and property rights was made law.

• Positivists at the end of the century still hoped for economic growth, but they were willing to sacrifice individual freedom for it.

• Large landholdings increased in many areas at the expense of small farms and Indian communal lands as a result of the benefits of international trade for Latin America.

• A smal, white Creole, landed upper class controlled the economies and politics in most places, and they were sometimes joined in the political and economic functions by a group of urban middle-class merchants, bureaucrats, and other bourgeois types.

• In most places, the landed and mercantile elite merged to create a single group that controlled the government.

• New social forces were working.

• The social composition of places like Argentina, Brazil, and a few other nations began to change as a result of the flood of immigration.

• These societies were changed by rapid urbanization.

• Latin America began in the 1880s as a group of mostly agricultural nations with a dependency on the world market.

• Latin America experienced a tremen dous spurt of economic growth between 1880 and 1920, stimulated by the increasing demand in Europe and the United States for tropical crops.

• Mexico and Argentina are two excellent examples of the effects of these changes, but not all groups shared the benefits of economic growth.

• The United States began to intervene directly in Latin American affairs by the end of the 19th century.

• Latin America was prepared for economic expansion.

• The liberal ideology of individual freedoms, an open market, and limited government intervention in the operation of the economy had triumphed in many places.

• In Latin America, this ideology was adopted not only by the small urban middle class but also by the large landowners, miners, and export merchants linked to the rural economy and the traditional patterns of wealth and land owning.

• In a number of countries, a political alliance was forged between the old aristocracy of wealth and the new urban elements.

• They imposed a business-as-usual approach to government at the expense of peasants and a newly emerging working class.

• Latin American economies expanded due to exports.

• Coffee from Brazil, hennequen (a fiber for making rope), copper, and silver from Mexico, and wool, wheat, and beef from Argentina are some of the items from the Industrial Age.

• These nations made high profits in this era of good prices and strong demand.

• They were able to import large quantities of foreign goods and use the funds for government projects.

• The world market prices of Latin American commodities ultimately were determined by conditions outside the region, so export-led expan sion was always risky.

• These economies were vulnerable and dependent in that sense.

• Expansion of exports could lead to war between neighboring countries.

• The War of the Pacific took place when a dispute over control of nitrates in the area led to a fight between the countries.

• Thousands of troops were mobilized after all were unprepared for a war.

• The treaty on Peru was imposed by the Chileans.

• Bolivia lost its access to the Pacific Ocean and became a landlocked nation.

• After the war, the economy boomed and the country increased its size by a third.

• The expansion of trade in Latin America was remarkable.

• One of the highest rates of growth ever recorded for a national economy was recorded by Argentina during this period.

• Marxism provided powerful economic and social problems in the 20th century.

• At the time of Latin American independence, the per capita income in both regions was roughly the same as that in Europe.

• Latin America's population offered great hope by 1940.

• The economic situation of republican forms of liberalism was worse than that of the United States.

• Observers were interested in why disparity perity and social harmony began to arise.

• The economic and political explanations of the Latin American character and their continuing problems were the first steps in solving them.

• They believed that there had been a Marxist critique of colonialism and that the development and growth of some areas, such as western imperialism, but the modern Latin American analysis of under Europe and the United States, were achieved at the expense of, development grew from different origins.

• Latin America was developed by a number of European and North American scholars because of the under development of dependent regions.

• They believed that the world economic system was at a disadvantage in dealing with the historical experience of western Europe because they believed that the industrial nations of the center would become poorer as they got richer.

• As development took place, various kinds of nations would continue to draw products, profits, and cheap labor.

• The basic economic relationship of depend modern a society became, the more social change and improve ency meant that external forces determined production, capital ment and class relations in a dependent country.

• Latin America and other distribution of material goods were argued to be the means by which the Third World would be culturally dependent.

• Some scholars believed that it was the consumption of ideas and concepts.

• Mickey Mouse was seen as the agent of a cultural domi more democratic forms of government and popular participation in the process of modernization.

• These ideas, which dominated Latin American intellectual through gradual rather than radical or revolutionary change, life, were appealing to other areas of Asia and Africa that were politically conservative.

• It emerged recently from colonial control.

• In the 1960's, forms of dependency to ignore cultural differences, internal class conflicts, and analysis became popular in many areas of the world.

• dependency theory lost its appeal in the 1980s because military regimes believed imposing order was its appeal.

• As an explanation of what had happened historically the best way to promote the economic changes necessary for Latin America, it was useful, but a theory that could predict modernization.

• It was difficult for the proponents of modernization theory to argue that the circulation of goods was more important than the production of things in the underdeveloped world.

• With the rise of multinational corporations, and early attempts to develop industry were faced with competition balization, capitalism itself was changing and was becoming less from the cheaper and better products of already industrialized countries.

• An analysis based on trade rela nations such as England and France became outdated.

• Critics argued that each nation did not can development as modernization theory operate individually but was part of a world system that argued, or is the under development of some countries at the expense of others.

• There is a tilt to the left in Latin America.

• The United Nations established an American electoral politics after World War II, which is evidence of the Economic Commission for Latin America.

• The ECLA position in the global economy and with the misdistribution began to analyze the Latin American economies because of the regional unhappiness.

• The benefits of economic growth were argued by Prebisch.

• Since 2005, when the center of the world economy was established, there has been an equal exchange between the developed nations and those like Latin America.

• The ECLA was suggested by its past.

• In Mexico, a dictatorship which maintained all the outward attributes of democracy but imposed "law and order" created the conditions for unfettered profits.

• Between 1877 and 1900, Mexican exports doubled.

• There are similar figures for Costa Rica.

• The rapid expansion of commerce attracted the attention of foreign investors.

• British, French, German, and North American businesses and entrepreneurs invested in mining, railroads, public utilities, and banking.

• More than half of the foreign investments in Latin America were British in 1913.

• Germany and the United States provided competition as Brit ish leadership was no longer unquestioned.

• After World War I, the United States became more active in the Caribbean and Mexico.

• Foreign investments gave Latin America needed capital and services, but they tended to put key industries in foreign hands.

• Latin American governments were constrained in their social, commercial, and diplomatic policies by foreign investments.

• Two large Latin American nations can be used as examples of different responses within the same Calderon.

• In Mexico, the liberal triumph of Juarez had set the stage for economic growth and America: Its Rise and Progress constitutional government.

• In 1876, one of Juarez's generals was elected president, and for the next 35 years he dominated politics.

• The strong centralized government was imposed by Diaz.

• Financed by foreign capital, the railroad system grew rapidly, providing a new way to integrate Mexican regional economies, move goods to the ports for export, and keep order.

• Industrialization began to happen.

• Financial policies were changed to promote investments in mining, transportation, and other sectors of the economy.

• The United States investments went from 30 million pesos in the year 1884 to more than $1 billion in the year 1911.

• The forms of liberal democracy were subverted to keep him in power and give him an open track.

• A number of advisors who were influenced by positivist ideas and who wanted to impose a scientific approach on the national economy were behind these policies.

• The image of Mexico was projected to be of a strong Europeanized elite who profited from the economic growth and imposed order under the influence of positivist ideas.

• Unlike Argentina and Brazil, Mexico had not received many immigrants.

• They did not participate in the prosperity of export-led growth.

• Economic expansion at the expense of peasants and American Indian communal lands created a volatile situation.

• Railroad workers, miners, and textile workers were the most affected by strikes and labor unrest.

• In the countryside, the national police force, the Rurales, and the army were there to maintain order.

• The votes were delivered in rigged elections at the regional level.

• The transformation of the Mexican economy was overseen by Diaz for 35 years.

• The small middle class and foreign investors celebrated the progress of Mexico after his opponents were arrested or exiled.

• In 1910, a middle-class movement with limited political goals seeking electoral reform began to mushroom into a more general uprising in which the frustrations of the poor, the workers, the peasants, and nationalist intellectuals of various political persuasions erupted in a bloody 10-year civil war.

• Argentina followed an alternative path of economic development.

• New tracts of land were opened to ranching after the American Indians conquered the southern pampas.

• The relationship between Buenos Aires and the rest of the nation was solved when the city became a federal district.

• Argentines want to be a modern nation.

• About one-fourth of the national population lived in Buenos Aires by 1914.

• Although the united states fought a war with Mexico in the 1840s, the real push for expansion in Latin America came in 1898 with the Spanish-American War.

• The U.S. motives for the war were both altruistic and commercial.

• The popular press in the United States mobilized a lot of popular support because they emphasized the oppression suffered by people still under Spain's rule.

• The Cubans had fought a bloody rebellion in the 19th century.

• The U.S. press portrayed Latin Americans as unruly children and emphasized their "racial" difference, which was typical for the period.

• During the war, Teddy Roosevelt's heroic feats and the American victories stimulated national pride, but the element of altruism was always part of the mix.

• The concept of a "white man's bur den" could not be separated from the drive for empire.

• The high levels of income the expanding economy generated allowed the Dawn of the Industrial Age to create their programs.

• Argentine prosperity can be attributed to technological changes.

• Fresh beef was sent directly to Europe from refrigerated ships along with wool and wheat.

• Immigrants provided labor.

• Almost 3.5 million immigrants stayed in Argentina between 1858 and 1930, and unlike the Mexican population, about one-third of the Argentine population was foreign born.

• Italians, Germans, Russians, and Jews came to America to make it.

• The folkways and ideologies of the European rural and working classes were introduced in Argen tina.

• The result was a fusion of cultures that produced a radical workers' movement but also the distinctive music of the tango, which combined Spanish, African, and other musical elements in the cafe and red-light districts of Buenos Argentina.

• The Argentine urban working class used to listen to the tango.

• Workers began to seek political expression as the immigrant flood increased.

• The Socialist party formed in the 1890s and tried to get elected representatives.

• Anarchists wanted to smash the political system and called for strikes.

• The struggle spilled into the streets because of European ideological battles.

• The decade after 1910 was characterized by violent strikes and government oppression.

• The social costs of devel opment were unknown.

• The Argentine tycoon was capable of internal reform.

• A new party representing the emerging middle class began to organize, aided by an electoral law in 1912 that called for secret bal ots, universal male suffrage, and compulsory voting.

• The Radical party came to power in 1916, promising political reform and more liberal policies for workers, but faced with labor unrest it acted as repressively as its predecessors.

• Argentina's economy remained tied to the international market for its exports despite the fact that the problems of Argentina's expanding labor force remained unresolved.

• The new political climate favored the calls for equality for women, and a number of feminist organizations began to emerge.

• A rising tide of labor unrest or rural rebellion can be seen elsewhere in Latin America.

• Some sectors of society did not like modernization.

• Religious movements in Brazil, American Indian resistance to the loss of lands in Colombia, and banditry in Mexico were all reactions to the changes being forced on the societies by national governments.

• In Mexico and Central America, investments began to expand rapidly.

• The growing population of the United States created a demand for Latin American products, while the American industry was looking for new markets and raw materials.

• Inter-American cooperation was attempted.

• The outbreak of war between Spain and the United States in 1898 was a turning point in the history of western Europe.

• Cuba and Puerto Rico are Spain's last colonies in the Americas.

• The Cuban economy boomed in the 19th century because of its exports of sugar and tobacco.

• The 10-year civil war for independence that began in 1868 had failed in its main objective but had won the island some independence.

• A number of Cuban nationalists went into exile to continue the struggle.

• The United States and Spain fought a war in 1898 in which the United States occupied Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.

• Cuba and the Philippines were invaded by the U.S.

• When the occupation of Cuba ended in 1902, a series of conditions imposed on independent Cuba made it almost an American dependency, which was legal in Puerto Rico.

• Latin America, particularly the Caribbean and Mexico, began to attract American interest at the turn of the century.

• The drive to build a canal across Central America would shorten the route between the Atlantic and Pacific.

• The canal was opened to traffic in 1914 and was a major force behind President Theodore Roosevelt's American intervention in Latin.

• The Panama Canal was a fitting symbol of the technological support for a Panamanian indepen and industrial strength of the United States.

• North Americans were proud of these achievements and dence movement in return for a grant to exclusive rights to a canal hoped to demonstrate the superiority of the "American way".

• Latin Americans were wary of American power and had a short route between Atlantic and tions.

• The designs of the United States Pacific oceans were cautioned against by many intellectuals.

• The united States supported the creation of the Panama Canal because of the drive for opening a sea route from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

• The canal was a major engineering feat.

• States supported an independence movement for Panama.

• International maritime commerce was changed by the Panama Canal.

• The major excavation on the canal was the gatlin cut.

• Other people in Latin America offered similar criticisms.

• nationalism, a Catholic defense of traditional values, and some socialist attacks on capitalism were some of the origins of Latin American criticism.

• Latin America, which had achieved its political independence in the 19th century and had been part of European developments, was able to articulate the fears and reactions of the areas that had become the colonies and semicolonies of western Europe and the United States in the age of empire.

• The nations of Latin America remained the same during the 19th century.

• colonies were considered to be independent nation-states.

• The pro frequent, but revolutions that changed the structure of society cess was sometimes exhilarating and painful, but during the distribution of land and wealth were few, and the reforms course of the century were unsuccessful.

• There are many social and economic problems.

• A growing but still problems were inherited from the colonial era and were intensified by small urban sector but either remained internal political and ideological conflicts and foreign intervention.

• Latin America had a distinctive civilization, culturally and within the world economic system as suppliers of agricultural products politically sharing much of the Western tradition yet economically ucts and minerals and consumers of manufactured goods.

• Those are similar to areas of Asia and Africa.

• The first non-Western area to face the problems of decoloniza tion, erosion, and pol ution was Latin America.

• Latin America ran against the currents of global decolonization and nation-building in the 19th century.

• The previous colonial controls were removed by Latin America.

• The winds of change that had transformed Europe's society and cultural ties with the West were part of the Latin America's global connections.

• Latin American countries struggled with the problems of like soccer because of the attempts to imitate the West's economy.

• Growing influence and intervention from the United nation-building while, like China and Russia, holding off colonial States was another outside force.

• Efforts to define a Latin Europe but also now from Asia brought additional connections.

• Latin America's most significant global link continued to involve lated in the world at large.

• Latin America was heavily affected by the heritage of the past.

• Regional studies are presented in the movements for independence and the major leaders.

• The rise of 5 was caused by the secularization of society.