ChAPTER 4 Unification and the Consolidation

• The artifacts were found among the bricks taken from the mounds.

• When Cunningham was appointed head of the Indian Archeological Survey, he ordered the fullscale excavation of what was soon recognized as one of the earliest and most highly developed of all ancient human civilization.

• The evidence shows that Harappan civilization developed rapidly in the 3rd millennium b.c.e.
• It was very different from the village cultures that preceded it.
• The capital cities of the civilization were Harappa, in the north, and Mohenjo Daro, 400 miles to the south.

• The way in which a complex and populous society developed in ancient China has been reconstructed using archeological excavations in east Asia.
• Chinese civilization had its beginnings along a river.
• South of a great bend in the Huang he or Yellow river, large farming communities were often protected by high walls of stamped earth.
• As Harappan civilization was declining in India in the mid-2nd millennium b.c.e., the nomadic dynasty of the Shang was laying the basis of a kingdom that was powerful enough to demand tribute and exert some degree of control over large numbers of people.

• The foundations for the longest lived, continuous civilization ever developed were provided by the combination of military prowess and irrigation networks.
• Painstaking archeological work at ancient Chinese sites led to the discovery of a writing system that was initially as puzzling as that found on the seals.

• The first civilizations that developed in south Asia and China will be traced in this chapter.
• The Harappan civilization spread across Pakistan and a part of northwest India.
• The core areas and institutions of Chinese civilization evolved far to the east.
• They were ruled by neighboring pastoral peoples in the early and formulative centuries.
• The emergence of a distinct Chinese ethno linguistic population that would build the great empires and sophisticated sociocultural system that have supported 20 percent of humanity for most of recorded history was the result of the cohabitation and often intermarriage among these herding peoples and the agrarian peoples of the Shang-Zhou

• The collapse of Harappan civilization was similar to that of the Shang culture.

• The ruins of the cities and towns of the Harappan civilization were excavated in the 19th century.

• The different trajectory of early civilization in India and China differ from the patterns in the Middle East and North Africa discussed in Chapter 2.

• As in the Fertile Crescent, the rapidly running mountain streams branched out environmental change, natural calamities, and successive into seven great rivers, of which six remain today.
• The Indus River runs for hundreds of miles to the southwest and empties into the Arabian Sea.

• The streams in the Himalayas are fed by monsoon rains.
• There were rain clouds in the 2nd millennium b.c.e.

• They release their life-giving waters across the lowlands to the mountains.

• The monsoons that blow toward central Asia from the sea provide a critical source of water for the plains and valleys before they reach the mountains.
• The site of the Aryan settlements that formed small kingdoms or warrior republics can be found in the plains of the mountains.

• During the summer season, winds crossing the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia bring rains.

• Over time, the characters on the Chinese oracle bones became written Chinese.

• The first civilization in India was created by the melting snow and monsoon rains of the Indus river system.

• The lower plains were different in the 3rd millennium b.c.e.
• The region is now arid and desolate.
• It was green and forested in the past.
• There were a lot of game and pasturage animals.
• Before the first settlements associated with the Harappan complex appeared, the plains were dotted with farm settlements.
• The pre-Harappan peoples had developed sophisticated agricultural implements and crop-growing techniques.

• A major source of food was N.

• The layout and construction of Harappa and other urban centers were remarkably similar to those hundreds of miles away.

• It is half a mile from north to south.

• The Aryan invasions center on times of peace, despite the fact that South and Asia's first civilization was located in the northwest.
• The Dravidian civilization in the Deccan and Tamilland may have been a palace because of the large building migrations that took place after the citadel at from southwest Asia.

• Many small rooms may have housed priests or sheltered bathers as a result of the cloister surrounding the elaborately decorated bath at Mohenjo Daro.
• Grain was stored for ceremonial purposes, times of shortage, and possibly the regulation of grain production and sale prices, according to large granaries near each of the citadels.

• The lanes and paths in the city's quarters were narrow and twisting, despite the main avenues being straight and 30 feet wide.
• At the height of Harappan civilization, there must have been a lot of people in these areas.
• Each of the houses had a courtyard surrounded by rooms for sleeping, cooking, and receiving visitors, and they all had the same layout.
• A long passageway from the street to the houses may indicate a concern for security.
• Harappans, like many other peoples in the world, were washed standing up by pouring jugs of water over their bodies in the bathing area of each home.

• Many houses had a toilet that was connected by a drainage pipe to the city's sewage system, which was among the best in the ancient world.

• The great cities and many towns of the Harappan complex were supported by an advanced agricultural system based on wheat, peas, and possibly rice.
• Cotton was cultivated and many animals were reared.

• It is likely that irrigation systems were built to catch and control water from the monsoon and the rivers and that fish caught in the rivers were a staple.

• The major trading centers were the cities of Harappa.
• Jade and jewels from China have been found at various sites.
• The seals have realistic depictions of animals and human figures, as well as a complex writing system that no one has ever deciphered.

• The fact that Harappan merchants used large numbers of seals to make sure that crates and urns were not opened during transport suggests that trade was very developed in the Indus valley civilization.

• Harappan peoples seem to have been conservative and resistant to innovations introduced from the outside.
• The tools and weapons they cast in bronze were used by the Mesopotamian people.
• Their weapons were even more primitive and would have made them vulnerable to invasions.

• The citadel of each urban capital may have been ruled by a powerful priestly class.
• The Harappan populace and a number of gods and goddesses had control over fertility.
• A naked male figure with a horned head is one of the recurring figures.
• He is pictured in a lotus position on some of the seals.
• The main mode of land transport used in south Asia's first civilization may have been a wheeled model clay cart.
• In the Harappan era, similar models were found in almost all of the Indus.
• Many figurines of women, valley settlements, and in some respects they resemble the ox-drawn, nearly nude except for a great deal of jewelry, have been found.

• Large quantities of various commodities were traded in the region stretching from Mesopotamia to the Indus River valley, according to the presence of these seals in Sumer and other urban sites in the Persian Gulf region.

• The worship of sacred animals and phalic-shaped objects at Harappan sites reflected the obsession with fertility.
• Along with a few superbly carved figurines of male notables, statuettes of women, and seal carvings of humped buls and other animals, these religious objects represent the height of artistic expression for the apparently practical-minded peoples of Harappa.

• Fine jewelry is still a craft that Harappans excel at.

• Without an extensive administrative class ruling, the Harap pan culture would not have been possible.
• The large two- and three-story houses are likely where members of this class and possibly wealthy mercantile families lived.
• The dwellings set off from those of artisans, laborers, and slaves.

• It was once accepted that Harappan and trading centers from the Middle east to China were found in a sample of the soft stone seals.
• The Harappan script was written and read from right to left, like some modern languages.
• Harappan writing seems to have been pictographic, but no one has found a pastureland for their cattle.
• A consistent pattern would tell us what the symbols meant.

• Archeological investigations show that Harappa declined in the 2nd millennium b.c.e.

• The causes of that decline are not well understood by both historians and archeol ogists.

• Harappa's demise is likely to be the result of a combination of factors.
• There is evidence of severe flooding.
• The adverse effects of long-term climatic changes may have been compounded by short-term natural disasters.
• The process of desertification may have begun when the monsoon pattern shifted and the temperature changed.
• sudden waves of migrants are suggested by rapid changes in pottery types.
• It is possible that the Harappans were too weak to stop the incoming peoples from taking over their towns and cities.
• Many of the centers of urban life have already been abandoned due to flooding.
• The elites may have lost control over the artisans and laborers due to a decline in the quality of building and town planning.

• Some of the migrants were bands of herders from Europe who entered the region over a long period of time.
• The Harappan peoples used to depend on the canals and dikes for their agricultural life.
• The economic basis of the civilization would be undermined by cattle breeding.
• There was a lot of violent conflict in this transition.
• Groups of skeletons with skulls smashed or in postures of flight from floods or foreign invaders have been found on the stairways.
• Administrative decline and environmental changes may have combined to undermine the first civilization of south Asia.

• A linguistic one is by the last to enter South Asia.
• These people were centuries b.c.e., the Aryans had originally herders who spoke one variant of a group of related Indo-European languages and had settled down in agrarian societies and kingdoms, which provided formerly lived in the area between the Caspian and Black Seas.
• They migrated in large numbers from their new civilization in south Asia in the 3rd and 2nd century B.C.E.
• due to the rise of a splendid matic shifts and conflicts over grazing lands.
• The emergence of two of Europe and Asia Minor were the first migrations.
• The second wave was headed toward Iran.

• The extent of the area affected by their expansion is illustrated by the great variety and prominence of modern languages.
• The ancient invaders of north India have left society.

• After spreading across the plains, the Europeans moved in waves to the southeast.
• Map 3.1 shows that they entered the rich plains and valleys formed by the Ganges River system.

• The combination of monsoon rains and great river systems made civilized life possible.
• The level of civilization achieved by the Harappan peoples took many centuries to reach.
• The potential for agriculture was so obvious that herding bands began to settle down and cultivate lands that had been cleared from the forests.

• The Indians who migrated into South Asia did not start writing until after they arrived.
• We can learn a lot about their way of life from the hymns they composed for religious-based animal sacrifice, entertainment, and historical chronicles.

• The tribes and kingdoms fought in the 6th century.

• He was depicted as a warrior with a huge pot belly, and a hard drinker.
• Indra was considered the smasher of dams warrior.

• The nomadic peoples used chariots in their wars.
• The bows and arrows and metal-tipped spears were more effective than the weapons of the indigenous peoples.
• The Vedas describe the Indians as a rowdy crew who loved to gamble, race horses, and make war.

• The Aryan material culture was a marked decline from the level reached during the Harappan period.
• Stone and brick cities and towns were replaced by wood and thatch villages.
• It is unlikely that great works of art were produced because there is little interest in sculpture or painting.
• The Hindus were fond of music.
• If the Vedic hymns are to be believed, they were very addicted to gambling.

• The dice have hooks and are hot.

• They are like children who give and take again.

• They are sweetened with honey when they work on a gambler.

• Gambling is a recurring theme in Indian religious and philosophical discourse.
• There is allusion to fate as the throw of the dice.
• The great epics that later represented and shaped the civilizations built by the descendants of the early pastoral invaders featured dice games.

• The Aryan Society had three main social groups: warriors, priests and commoners.
• Conflict with and the conquest of indigenous peoples added serfs to the group.
• The social differences between the first three groups were pronounced, but the dividing line between the freeborn and enslaved groups was rigid.
• There was a physical aspect to the sharp division between the free and enslaved.

• Attempts were made to prohibit the king of the universe.

• Indra was given a lower status and was slimmed down by the men and women who had sexual relations with him.

• The god of rain and thunder and ruler of the skies became more complex as the pastoral peoples settled down.

• There is a tendency in early south priests and herders.
• Social distinctions were further complicated by the widespread mis Asian religions.

• The descendants of the Dasas were beneath them.

• The culture of the pastoral invaders focused on physical strength and martial arts.
• Aryan name for indigenous dominated authority within the household, although their mothers and wives could influence people in the region.
• When brides left their homes and families to marry, they were seen as inferior to their husbands.

• Sizable dowries, or marriage payments, in the form of cattle, food, or precious objects were commonly given to the husband's family.
• In some cases, a prospective husband paid a bride-price contact to his future wife's family.
• Female children have not yet become the eco colonial cultures according to this practice.

• The men's important family ritual functions and their in Aryan society were some of the reasons why daughters were preferred to sons.
• These positions were never held by women, nor were women allowed to be the chiefs of tribal bands or rulers of the kingdoms that developed in the early merchants and peasants.

• The male line traced the religion inheritance.

• polytheists worshiped a wide range of deities that resembled humans and had human emotions and needs.
• Each god and goddess had the power to assist supplicants in a particular aspect which one husband had several of their lives.
• Devotees offered sacrifice for success wives in Aryan society.

• Marriage practices elephant-headed god, and the good fortune to have several female deities in one woman.
• The Aryan epics recount that the widespread worship of female deities represented carryover husbands.

• Like the human society that worshiped these deities, the Aryan pantheon was dominated by males.
• Animals were sacrificed and ritual offerings of food were meant to win favors from individual deities.
• The role of the priests was to perform critical sacrifice, which allowed them to amass great power.

• The early pastoral settlers seem to have had little introduction to each other.
• Songs, some beautiful, praising the various deities and giving incredibly detailed formulas for sacrifice are some of the things in the oldest Vedas.
• The purpose of creation, the fate of the dead, and the nature of the soul are some of the issues that would preoccupy Indian priests and philosophers.
• There wasn't a concept of rein carnation or the transmigration of the soul.
• The ancient Greeks believed that evildoers went to the House of Clay after they died and were rewarded with good fortune in the World of the Fathers.

• The gods were gathered all together as the waters received that germ primeval.

• It rested on the unborn's navel, that one would abide all things existing.

• He only knows if he surveys it in the highest heaven or not.

• He fights against thousands, and no one can resist him.

• Spurning the dust and champing at it.

How does it convey the nomads' ideals of manliness, heroism, and Stirs up the dust to fall on his brows?

• Civilization disappeared from India during the early 1500 b.c.e.
• years of the Indo-European migrations.
• With the fleeing Harappan peoples, pastoralism dominated Indian economic life.
• A more centralized elite was replaced by feisty chieftains who were popular with their warrior followers.
• A complex division of labor and responsibility led to tribal societies that dominated the subject populations.
• State control and standardization were replaced by fractious warrior bands.

• After the fall of Harappa, the basis for civilization emerged as a result of the spread of cultivation among the invading tribes.
• The ingredients for India's great classical civilization were found in the foothills of the Himalayas and the upper Ganges plains.
• These civilizations gave rise to two major religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as a variety of lesser-known faiths, and produced splendid art, architecture, philosophy, and literature.
• The new patterns of civilized life were developed in the last centuries b.c.e.
• Although some Harappan symbols and beliefs were adopted by the Aryans and other invaders, Harappan civilization became little more than a memory.

• The campsites along the Fen River have been there for nearly 400,000 years, and the existing irrigation systems are from the 2nd millennium b.c.

• Over the course of thousands of years, this extremely fertile soil had built up to depths of over 300 feet.
• The soil is washed into the river.
• The southern portion of the Ordos bulge and the region of fertile soil were made due to the rich soil and abundant water in the areas on the Yellow river.

• Human communities supported by sedentary agriculture were spread across fertile lands.
• These communities were built into cultural complexes that created agricultural communities.

• Hunting and fishing were the main sources of food in the Yangshao period.
• The Longshan period made it possible for the inhabitants of the Yellow River region to support large, permanent villages with extensive farming.

• Irrigation systems were important to the expanding base of society.

• The shallow bed of the river after it empties onto the plains of north China makes it particularly dangerous in the spring.
• The melting snows of the Tibetan plateau and Kunlun mountains turn the river into a raging torrent capable of flooding large por tions of the plains.
• From ancient times, controlling the river has been a major preoccupation of peasants and the ruling classes.

• Anyang their own times, men such as Yu came to mind.

• It is possible that the kingdom was devoted to later writers.

• This region of different ethnic and lin correspond to China from the last centuries b.c.e.

• The domestica ruler of China relied on cracked animal bones for divination and its cooking vessels were possibly mythical.
• Chinese culture was already patrilineal according to the construction of an effective system form of ancestor worship.

• There is an extensive exca kingdom, but no archeological sites have been connected to it.

• The Aryans were the first Chinese dynasty to conquer northern India.
• The Shang were like the Aryans in that they were warlike nomads.
• They fought from chariots with deadly bronze capital located in ordos bulge of weapons.
• The foot soldiers that made up the bulk of the Huanghe were provided by non-Shang subject peoples.
• The battles of the Shang were similar to those of Aryan India and Homeric Greece.

• The Shang warriors were ruled by strong kings who used their power to build an extensive empire.

• The supreme being, Shangdi, and ordinary mortals were connected by the Shang monarch.
• His kingdom was seen as the center of the world.
• The affairs of state were directed by the rulers and they bore ritual responsibilities for the well-being of their subjects.
• In the springtime, they participated in special ceremonies that included a symbolic mating with female fertility spirits.

• The importance of horses and mobility throughout the ancient eurasian world is underscored by this beautiful reproduction of a chariot.
• The chariot was a key weapon of the nomadic invaders who established the Shang empire in north China in the middle centuries of the second millennium b.c.e.

• The dancer was burned alive to appease the spirits who had caused the natural disasters.

• There was a large bureaucracy in the capital city at Anyang.
• Most of the peasant and artisan populations of the kingdom were governed by leaders who were bound to the king and the great lords.
• The officials were recruited from the former ruling families.
• The vassals depended on the produce and labor of the com moners in these areas to support their families and military forces.
• The monarch and his court were supported by the tribute collected by warrior aristocrats in the form of cultural produce.
• In times of war, they supplied soldiers for the king's armies, and they kept the peace.

• In Aryan India, the family life was dominated by the older men in the household.
• A family matriarch's sons and grandsons went to live with her husband's family.
• Both women and men with their wives and children were expected to obey.
• Their own households and family spheres are where they exercise their own Shang China elites.

• From mother-in-law to young wife, their commands were carried down the family hierarchy.

• The extended family pattern was only widespread among elite groups who had the resources to support large households with many servants.

• It is likely that the peasant families were male-dominated and patrilocal like the elite.

• The servants of the nobles were Peasants.
• Their staple foods were millet, wheat, beans, and rice and they were growing a wide range of crops.

• They made offerings to local gods of A Bronze Axe Head from the Shang Dynasty through the sunken houses of stamped earth.

• The peasants had limited opportunities for social and economic advancement, but they were better off than most of the slaves.
• Many of the artisans were slaves, but some were free and prosperous.
• Highly skil ed crafts, such as weaving silk textiles and casting bronze, may have been done by this group.
• Outside of the wal s of Shang towns, there were some large and elaborate artisan dwel ings.

• Like the elites of many early civilizations, the rulers and nobility of the Shang were focused on rituals.
• In addition to the fertility functions of the ruler, the elite was involved in persuading spirits to give good crops and large families.

• The ornately carved and cast bronze vessels were used to make these offerings.
• Offerings included fine grain, incense, wine, and animals, but also records of water festivals in which rival boats tried to sink each other.
• The deities responsible vessel from the Shang era shows the sophisticated for fertility and good harvests, and they were offered up to them after this elaborately decorated bronze ing craft drowned.

• It shows a high level of War captives and servants buried with dead rulers and major offi metalworking ability.
• The kings of Shang went to the otherworld to use their weapons and tools.
• Although the design was accompanied by their wives, servants, and loyal retainers as well as their favorite horses, the vessels were often abstract, mythical hunting dogs, war chariots, and weapons.
• The cult of the creatures such as dragons and sacred birds grew into a royal clan that sacrificed war captives, mass burials, and the construction of bronzes that remain some of the tombs for the emperors.

• The future could be predicted by shamans or priests.
• Warriors about to go future through interpretations into battle, officials embarking on long journeys, or families negotiating marriage alliances routinely of animal bones cracked by heat, consulted these oracles to ensure that their efforts would turn out well.
• The reliance on the inscriptions on bones led to strong influences on beliefs and behavior.

• The procedures followed by the shamans who presided over these rituals gave rise to the most important element in Chinese culture--writing.

• A bone or shell was fired with a red-hot iron poker.
• The patterns of the cracks were interpreted by a shaman or priest.
• The painted designs on the bones and shells became part of the patterns the shamans read.
• The basis of a written Chinese language can be found in these designs.

• Like the ancient Egyptians, early Chinese characters were pictographic.

• They easily conveyed the ideas they were intended to express.
• The original character for the sun was a circle with a dot in the center, the character for a tree was a single tree, and the forest was a set of three trees.
• The Chinese elite were able to convey more complex ideas because of the combination of characters.

• By the end of the Shang period, there were an estimated 3000 characters.
• A scholar in the modern era would need to write in Chinese.

• The way they are written has changed.
• Many characters were simplified and stylized so that they are not as pictographic.
• The bones or bronze vessels on which the characters were originally carved gradually gave way to bamboo slips, silk scrolls, and wooden plates.
• The characters became a major mode of artistic expression after the development of fine brushes and ink.

• The growth of civilization in China can be traced back to writing and Chinese identity.
• The peoples of the loess region and the north China plain spoke a lot of different languages.
• They were surrounded by nomadic herders to the north and had contacts with and movements into the loess zone.
• The use of writ ten characters gave the loess zone peoples a common identity.
• The elite groups dominated the use of the characters, but eventually it trickled down to the cultivating and artisan classes.
• The Chinese people entered history for the first time with the persis tence and growth of this identity.

• The Zhou rulers exercised more power than their rivals in the north.
• The Zhou rulers were able to control a Chinese civilization that was much larger than the one under the Shang because of a hierarchy of vassals.
• The valley and vast were home to many of the most powerful vassals, including relatives, fellow clansmen, and long-standing allies of the Zhou household.

• The lesser vassals were often their own subordinates or relatives.

• The Shang vassal system will be transformed into a feudal order.
• As in later political recognized as king, here, in 1122 b.c.e.

• A clump Classical era was given to the new fief-holder during the ceremony.

• The social organization of his duties to his ruler and his rights as a fief-holder was presented to the court.

• Zhou monarchs had no control over the fiefdoms beyond the central core.
• If a vassal stopped sending tribute to the capital or refused requests to muster troops for and promises of loyal service, he was in effect declaring war and risking annihilation.

• In return for military service, the dynasty provided protection and aid to lesser lords.

• The feudal system was disrupted by two developments.
• The Zhou rulers used an ideology to legitimize their rule.
• The divine was deserving of their loyalty.
• The Zhou monarchs used the Mandate of Heaven as a source of political legitimacy to try to control authority.

• Zhou had the moral fiber and leadership potential to inherit the throne and justify the overthrow of Shang.

• This appeal to a supernatural source of power was a common feature of preindustrial monar chies throughout the world, and it became a pillar of the political system in China.
• This claim would greatly improve A Jade Scepter from Zhou China's ability to rule as an authori tarian monarch.
• It contained a check on their powers that was to be explored by Chinese social thinkers in the late Zhou era.
• It was possible for a monarch and royal house to fail in their duties and lose their mandate if they were governed by virtue of the Mandate of Heaven.
• It was legitimate for their subjects to replace them with a new imperial house.

• The emergence of an alternative to the military retainers who ruled most of the empire was the second development working against feudalism.
• The small corps of professional bureaucrats who had once served the Shang rulers began to grow in size and expertise during the early Zhou era.
• Their literacy and willingness to serve as administrators won them jobs at the court and in the palaces of the fief-holders.
• Some of these administrators were supported by grants of villages, but others were paid regular salaries out of the imperial treasury.
• The shi performed a wide range of services that could be embarrassingly menial; some even had to cultivate small plots of land to supplement their meager salaries.
• This ritual vessel suggests that from running particular departments, such as public works or war, to organizing palace very early times, but certainly by the Shang era, rituals and ceremonies.
• The most favored of these administrators had polishing jade images as well as mirrors, jewelry, begun to amass considerable influence, and there is some evidence that even before the end of the early century b.c.e., the Chinese had mastered the art of carving.

• The division seems to confirm the supposition that the Zhou were here before.

• The peoples of the loess soil region and along the north China plain wereTurkic with lighter hair and eye coloring.

• The knowledge of writing was common in each town.

• The garrison towns were home to servants, arti sans, and slaves.
• Most of the empire's population resided in the villages and tilled fields of the serfs.
• Rice was cultivated in the eastern and southern parts of the Zhou domain.

• The introduction of better farm implements and the extension of the irrigation system tributed to higher levels of productivity.
• The increase went to the lords and the Zhou court rather than to the peasants.
• The peasants were put to work on road, building, and irrigation projects.
• They had to feed and house the lords' retainers when they traveled from the garrison towns.
• In times of war, the peasants walked with the cavalry and chariots of the lords' army.

• The lords' demands grew more oppressive as time went on.

• The rise of the earliest human civilization was mapped in regions with similar terrain and features.

• The main entry routes are shown.

• I will find my place.

• You give me no comfort after three years.

• Peasants at a distance seem to have been the best off.

• Local lords were content to leave peasant communities alone if they regularly supplied tribute and gifts on special occasions because of the poor communications in many parts of the empire.

• The peasants in theoutlying villages were free.
• The peasant lament captures the reality of life for most peasants in the Zhou period.

• The main direction is shown.

• The major trading axes are shown on the map.

• During the centuries of Zhou rule, steady growth occurred in both the area controlled by its vassals and the lands occupied by people who identified themselves as Chinese.
• New agricultural tools and techniques of production stimulated population growth and led to the creation of new areas along the north China plain and along the coast.

• Chinese peasant migrants were pushed to the south and east by periodic nomadic raids and conquests.

• In the Zhou era hundreds of thousands of Chinese people moved down the Yellow River into the Shandong peninsula and then south across the flatlands to the great Yangzi River basins.
• The non- Chinese peoples fell back into the hills to the west of the great plains as they advanced.
• By the end of the Zhou era, Chinese civilization straddled the two great river systems that have been the heart of Chinese civilization for thousands of years.
• Despite the nomadic threat, the basin of the Yellow River was Chinese.
• The enormous agricultural potential of the rice-growing, monsoon-watered south had begun to be tapped.

• The nomadic peoples who took hold of the north China plain became the center of a continuous civilization that control of their homelands because of the skills of the loess Harappan.
• The Harappan penchant for stand was to last into the 20th century.
• Some of the regions farther south would in some way be considered masters of the Indian subcontinent.

• The civilization of millet and wheat cul lasted for more than a thousand years because of the irrigation and valley.
• The plains of the Indus were bypassed subsequent dynasties because of the innovations and expansion of when Harappa collapsed.
• The more lush and extensive lands in the basin of lages surrounded with stamped earth walls have persisted as the Ganges River network to the east.
• The pattern of settlement throughout Chinese history was dominated by the Indus.

• The difference between the fates of the original geographic ship of heaven and their veneration of ancestors is paralleled by the central to Chinese religious belief and practice for thousands of legacies of the civilizations themselves.
• Harappa was destroyed for a long time.
• The concept of the Mandate of Heaven disappeared from history for thousands of years.

• The god of fertility and the god of yoga were at odds with the god of dess.

• The swastika and the lingam are two of the symbols that emerged as the dominant force in Chinese artistic cul and religious.
• The central feature of Indian cities is the Chinese characters that were used for the ponds or tanks.
• Through thousands of years of invasions, their techniques of growing rice and cotton civilization together were preserved.

• There are differing legacies of Harappan and early migrants.

• Chinese civilization are numerous and complex, but critical to nearly everything else was lost.
• In contrast to the civiliza the disappearance of the first and the resilience of the second were tions of Mesopotamia, which fell but were replaced by new different patterns of interaction between the sedentary peoples that preserved and built on the achievements of who built early civilizations.
• The nomadic threat in India had to be changed by later civilized peoples.
• The cities of the Harappan peoples were not as good as those of the Indus civilization.
• The Harappan peoples were unable to develop a culture that was receptive to outside influences due to constant interaction with the nomads.
• There is a gap between the nomads' herding culture, social structures, and political systems.
• The Harappan civilization was too revived and enriched the kingdoms of the Shang and the great to be bridged.
• India proved catastrophic for fatal to a civilization long in decline due to conflict between them.

• The nomads posed a constant threat.

Is the sense of identity changed by these factors?

• The key roles played by males in ancestor veneration were tributed to their increased authority.
• The centers of religious worship were the cults of royal and family ancestors.
• As more and more elaborate rituals and ceremonies developed around the worship of deceased members of the family, clan, and dynasty, philosophical speculation remained minimal.

• The elite's more male ancestors were the result of an obsession with correctly performed rites.
• The nomads had a dynasty.

• Zhou power was in decline by the 8th century b.c.
• Several of the vassals' domains had grown powerful enough to openly challenge the overlordship of the dynasty.
• The allied group of northern nobles attacked the city.
• In the months that followed the death of the Zhou ruler, most of the western part of the kingdom was lost to the leaders of the vassal alliance or nomadic invaders.
• Retainers loyal to the Zhou saved a young prince and took him to the other side of the country.
• The Zhou era ended with the shift to the eastern capital.

• Zhou vassals used the defense of the royal house to justify their attacks and conquests.
• The fiefdoms that existed in the early Zhou era were replaced by rival kingdoms.
• The growing chaos and widespread suffering that resulted prompted a reaction on the part of the shi bureaucrats, a reaction that would produce some of China's greatest thinkers and change the course of Chinese civilization.

• One of the great sources of civilizing influences in human history is the ancient civilization of China, which is one of the oldest in the world.

• The area affected by ideas developed in China was less extensive planning and advanced sewage systems, which have had no discernable impact on the development of city living in other regions.
• Writing and political organization are two things that were not altered by areas in which the earliest Chinese civilization imports from the Indus region.

• The growth of civilized life change, as well as the presence of large numbers of nomadic throughout the world, was influenced by the fact that Harappa proved more vulnerable than other modes of cultural expression.

• The Chinese devised a remarkable share of humankind's basic also suggest to other peoples that borrowing might enhance their machines and engineering principles.
• Silk manufacturing was one of the key processes pioneered by the Zhou and Shang eras.

• The most connected of these civilizations was 2.

• During the early phases of human history, there were no regular contacts among the major population centers.
• Many similar features were not prevented by separate developments.

• Many of the same functions were developed by early civilizations as they introduced formal governments, writing systems, and significant cities.
• The development of patriarchal family structures was the result of similar needs, not because people in different regions learned from one another.
• The system of government and gender relations in Egypt differed from those in Mesopotamia or China.

• There were three types of contacts during the early phases of human history.
• Their results were significant.
• Knowledge of new developments or products could be spread by local or long-distance trade.
• There are innovations in the region next door.
• Local exchanges of products or symbolic gifts are designed to keep the peace.
• This was the mechanism through which the knowledge of agriculture grad technology, plants, or other was spread from the areas where it was first developed to neighboring regions.
• New technologies spread the same way.
• Across cultures and regions.

• The most important contacts in early human history were these kinds of diffusion.
• Sometimes we don't know the precise processes involved.
• An Indian ocean trade system involving timber and perfumes led to southeast Asian migrations to the island of Madagascar.
• We don't know much about this process.
• The Phoenician voyages to southern england to get tin do not seem to have produced wider dissemination of products or technologies.

• migration and invasion resulted in a second type of contact.
• Changes in ruling dynasties, language, and the spread of new technologies have been caused by this combination frequently in the Middle east.
• A migrant group brought the wheel to the Middle east.
• When the Indo-europeans moved into India, it was disruptive.
• Immigrants and local populations could be exposed to new knowledge and technologies.

• Direct trade, diplomatic relations, and military activity took place between two major early civilization centers.
• There were periods of invasion from one direction or another, as well as some trade and cultural exchange.
• There is a need for direct translations of the text on the tablets that were found.

• As part of early agriculture, a clay tablet was used to record the number of sheep and goats.

• There was some trade between Mesopotamia, China, and the Indus valley.

• Contacts changed the people involved in these early periods.

• Basic shifts in economic and social systems were caused by Diffusion.

• Most contact was brief and did not lead to much more than that.
• The emphasis on separate patterns of development is valid here.

• There is a lot of variety in the early period of human history.
• It is important to remember that hunting and gathering societies continued in many places even after the Neolithic revolution and the emergence of several early civilizations.
• Several regions were dominated by nomadic herding economies.

• Huge differences in the timing of key changes were generated by the separation of major regions.
• There are at least three separate dates for the advent of agriculture in the Middle east, east Asia and the Americas.
• The region had a different initial foundation of civilization.
• The emergence of a complex culture in the Andes is almost 3000 years older than the emergence of the Sumerian civilization.
• Comparison of patterns across a wide stretch of time is required for analysis of the early period.

• By 600, some of the early civilizations seemed to be losing steam.
• The flourishing period of olmec civilization had ended, and Harappan civilization had essentially disappeared.
• The religious changes among Aryan peoples in India that would eventually lead to Hinduism were beginning to emerge in these same areas.

• The zhou dynasty formed around 1100 BCe and continued until 600, when important cultural innovations took shape.
• The heyday of the major early empires has passed in the Middle east and North Africa.
• There are many different situations around 600 BCe.

• There were two or three changes on the way.
• The legacy of the early civilizations helped to create some new centers of activity.
• The olmec achievements were built on by the yams.
• Both egyptian and Mesopotamian heritage would be used by city states in and around Greece.
• A number of areas were about to introduce new cultural patterns that would provide new regional links.
• In India and Persia, important religious developments took shape in the centuries after 600.
• In the Middle east, in China and other parts of Asia, and in the Mediterranean world, political, military and economic changes would be generated by growing knowledge of iron technology.

• The advent of agriculture was an unfortunate development according to some historians.

• 600 b.c.e.
• is part of the classical period.

• The Empire expanded as Chinese styles spread.

• Large regional civilizations in China, India, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and the Americas formed during the classical period of world history.
• The maps show these developments.
• The location of the different civilizations in these areas is shown on the map on the top.
• In China and the Mediterranean, a set of small states had been replaced by two giant empires.
• In the classical centuries, India developed substantial empires.
• There were many new and more extensive civilizations in the Americas.

• The largest concentrations of population were found in the areas that were the main areas of civilization.
• The influence of these civilizations extended into surrounding regions outside of their control.
• There were important relationships with nomadic groups from central Asia who traded with Classical civilizations.

• The main civilizations did not share borders.
• The establishment of distinctive cultural and institutional patterns was a key legacy of this period.
• Contacts were more direct at times.
• The 6th and 5th centuries saw a lot of interaction between Persia and Greece.
• This empire brought into direct contact Mediterranean, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian societies, an encounter that yielded interesting results, some of which are clearly visible in art of the period.
• An Indian artist sculpted a statue of the Buddha in Greek clothes.
• It can have long-term consequences.
• The classical period did not have the most common feature of syncretism.
• The exchanges between India and China intensified at the end of the period.

• Several striking features were involved in the formation of the classical societies.
• Expansion was a key theme of each major civilization.
• Each society worked hard to integrate its new territory.
• Economic integration was a key issue, as societies from China to the Mediterranean developed internal trade routes and other mechanisms to take advantage of different specialties through commercial expansion.
• Cultural integration was important as well.
• Intellectual and artistic leaders, sometimes with encouragement from the state, developed core ideas and styles that were then widely disseminated, particularly among elites but with some spillover to wider populations.
• The establishment of unifying empires was one of the ways each society worked on political and social integration.
• The contacts that developed among different regions spurred trade and communication.

• After the classical period had ended, all of these features would affect world history.

• The classical civilizations emerged about 600 b.c.e.
• despite the lack of a clear transition.

• The military was attracted to the centers of civilization as immigrants because of the spread of iron tools and weap diers.
• Some people are nomadic.
• These developments led to further developments intended to integrate the time and had implications for later patterns in world history.

• The decline of each of the classical societies allowed for later nomadic migrations into the classical societies.

• The western Roman Empire collapsed because of the achievements of the major classical civilizations.
• The classical period ended by 600 c.e.
• because politics, art, and philosophy did not happen at the same time.

• Confucianism, for example, would influence other Asian societies besides China, and a number of societies, including those in Europe and the Middle East, would be influenced by Greek science.

• The classical civilizations had their own social structure, religion, political system, system of science, and styles of art.

• The differences left a lasting legacy.

• The introduction of iron helped bring about the classi century, but the Chinese government did not force drastic changes in birth rates.
• The indians are in charge of manufacturing technology.
• Most peasants tried to follow the same regulations.

• An important reason for China's success was its rural culture, while India's failure was due to its population policy.
• Many rural people in each country retained their traditional festivals and polytheistic religious roles in order to be monitored by the government.

• The classi Patriarchal arrangements prevailed in each of the major cal periods.
• Civilizational styles set in the classical period are not the same as those of the classical period.
• Each culture has its own way of defining women's roles and obligations.

• The basic idea of patriarchal superiority had already left legacies, as the first major change different styles of patriarchy would affect family life and even was the development of reasonably well-defined societies that art.
• Major civilization promoted a been established.
• The patriar common cultural system was linked to the particular cultures and social and family customs of the civilizations.

• The classical civilizations might involve more than one component.
• There were significant innovations beyond their river valley predecessors, although usually peaceful, competition between them also retained and built on key achievements of the ear Buddhism and Hinduism in India.
• The idea of erful beliefs and their spread within each civilization was codes of law or scientific interests.
• The heritage that was shaped by the classical civilizations had a lasting impact.

• The classical period in world history was more powerful than any that preceded it.

• The achievement of old age won achievements and monuments in all the classical civilizations.
• It was seen as a sign of good rounding areas.
• Habit and wisdom were included in some trade with other regions.
• In groups where literacy was common.
• India had the widest commercial reach, extending uncommon, the elderly could be vital sources of information and all the way into southeast Asia and west to the Mediterranean, cultural memory, which was transmitted in stories that helped but Rome also traded with parts of Africa and Asia outside its shape the identity of families In all the classical societies, elderly nomadic peoples were a sign of good manners.

• A wide area of partially shared cultures was created by the spread of Roman styles.

• The emphasis on venerating the elderly was placed by Chinese Confucianism.
• Even older women, if they and Hebrews affects policy and outlook in the West, while in were mothers (and especially if they were widows and mothers contrast some east Asian systems write respect for the elderly of sons) had considerable status, although officially their sons into their constitutions.

• There was ambivalence about older people in Mediterranean cultures.
• The themes of wisdom and respect were more visible to men than to women.
• As their capacities declined, the elderly were depicted as greedy and laughable.

• The section describes developments in each of the fun of old misers or men who lusted after younger women.
• In the classical period, more attention was given to the physical and China in Chapter 4, Persia and Greece in Chapter 5, and India in Chapter 6.
• The societies that placed empha river valley patterns in Afro-Eurasia were more likely to be harsh on opments.

• The rise of Christianity is one of the innovations here.
• The story of the decline of each civilization was different than the story of the classical value systems.
• It is clear that this ambivalence toward change had some important features.