Unit 1: The Chemistry of Life

• Properties of water: Water is a polar molecule, allowing it to form hydrogen bonds and exhibit unique properties such as high heat capacity, cohesion, and adhesion.

• Macromolecules:

  • Carbohydrates: Composed of monosaccharides, they serve as a source of energy and structural support in cells.

  • Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules that include fats, phospholipids, and steroids, playing roles in energy storage, insulation, and cell membrane structure.

  • Proteins: Made up of amino acids, they have diverse functions including enzymatic activity, structural support, and cell signaling.

  • Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA, which store and transmit genetic information.

• Enzymes: Catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur.

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

• Cell theory: States that all living organisms are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function, and cells arise from pre-existing cells.

• Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells: Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

• Cell organelles:

  • Nucleus: Contains DNA and controls cell activities.

  • Mitochondria: Site of cellular respiration and ATP production.

  • Endoplasmic reticulum: Involved in protein and lipid synthesis.

  • Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport.

  • Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for intracellular digestion.

• Cell membrane: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer, it regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell through various transport mechanisms.

Unit 3: Cellular Energetics

• Photosynthesis:

  • Light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes and convert light energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).

  • Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) occur in the stroma and use ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 into glucose.

• Cellular respiration:

  • Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.

  • Krebs cycle takes place in the