ChAPTER 21 The World Economy

• The global currency of the Early Modern period was silver.

• Japanese mines traded with Europe and China.

• The engraving shows a view of a mountain.

• Latin American silver was great for Europeans.
• This was its main gain from the American colonies.

• Spain wants to build huge armies and new public buildings.
• Most of the silver was sent to Europe based on control of the seas, including the Atlantic and Pacific.
• They used silver to buy national exchange of foods, diseases, Asian goods that had been sought, such as indian spices and Chinese porcelain.

• Spanish sent silver to the Philippines, where it was traded for Chinese products sent to elites in the Americas and Europe.
• Europeans were able to buy Asian imports that they could not have otherwise.

• China and India were the largest recipients of new World silver.
• Economic growth in Asia was supported by silver.
• Silver was required for purchases of food.
• The tax payments were made in silver.

• In the early 19th century, China's standard of living was superior to that of western Europe.

• There were also concerns.
• The poor had to struggle to find the silver they needed to pay their taxes because many Chinese thought that silver was creating a wider gap between rich and poor.
• Most Europeans agreed that the new consumer goods were worth the trouble, even though a few mused that they would only be able to get silver in Asia.
• Many ordinary Latin Americans are worried about the working conditions in the mines.

• The voyages of Columbus and other explorers and the empires built by European con querors and missionaries are some of the consequences that this chapter deals with.
• The redefinition of interchanges among major societies in the world resulted from the power shift in world affairs.

• The story isn't just the familiar one.
• The huge shifts affecting the Americas and Africa were caused by European countries.
• African and Asian contributions were active as well.

• The knowledge of the Islamic world's superior economy was brought about by the Crusades.

• The fall of the khans disrupted this interchange, as China became once again a land of mys tery to Europeans.

• The goods were loaded onto vessels from Genoa and Venice in Italy and transported to the Middle East in Arab ships.

• Europeans entered into this era with many disadvantages.
• They were ignorant of the world as a whole.
• The vikings crossed the Atlantic in the 10th century and named it Vinland.
• They lost interest in establishing settlements on the other side of the world because they encountered indigenous warriors who could cause serious problems.

• Europeans were afraid that distant voyages would fall off the world's edge.

• Europeans were worried about the strength of the Ottoman empire and the lack of gold to pay for Asian imports as they launched a more consistent effort at expansion.
• Initial settlements in the south Atlantic gave hope for further gains.
• The first expeditions were limited by the small, oar-propelled ships used in the Mediterranean trade.

• A series of technological improvements began to change the equation in the 15th century.
• Europeans developed deep-draft, round-hul ed sailing ships that could carry heavy weaponry.

• They were using a compass.
• Mapmaking and other navigation devices improved.
• There are new combinations of sails on European ships to take advantage of different wind directions.
• European ships owe these innovations to being able to navigate in mid-ocean, no longer dependent on coastal waters, and having greater speed and flexibility in the Indian Ocean.

• European knowledge of explosives, a Chinese invention, was adapted into a gunnery.

• The first guns and cannons were designed by Western metalsmiths.
• Although not very accurate, these weapons were awesome by the standards of the time and terrifying to many Europeans, who had reason to fear the new destructive power of their own armies.
• The West began to have a military advantage over all other civilizations of the world in the first half of the 20th century.
• western Europe was ready for its big push because of its ability to kill and intimidate from a distance.

• Portugal's location in the Atlantic made it a good location for new initiatives.
• Portugal's rulers were drawn by the excitement of discovery, the harm they might cause to the Muslim world, and a thirst for wealth.
• The Portuguese began to press down the African coast in 1434.
• They brought back slaves, spices, and stories of gold that had not been found before.

• Exhausted sailors forced the expedition back before it could reach India.
• Portugal tried to stave off the new Spanish competition after learning of Columbus's dis covery of America.
• In 1498, a Hindu pilot picked up four ships in Africa and brought them to India.
• The Indians were thought to be Christians by the Portuguese.
• The Muslim merchants who dominated trade in this part of the world were hostile and they brought only crude goods for sale.
• They had some gold as well.
• They had a small load of spices.
• Europeans substitute force for their lack of attractive items for world trade.
• Da Gama used ships' guns to intimidate, and his forces killed or tortured many Indian mer chants to set an example.

• An annual series of Portuguese voyages to the Indian Ocean began after Da Gama's success was outlined in Map 21.1.
• One expedition blew off course and reached Brazil.
• By 1514 the Portuguese established trade with Africa and found the fabled Christian reached the islands of Indonesia, the center of spice production and the kingdom of prester John.

• The Portuguese expedition that arrived in Japan in 1542 met with success for several decades.

• The country was reconquered from Muslim rule and was full of zeal and missionary zeal.
• The Spanish traveled into the Atlantic during the 14th century.

• Genoese believed the round earth would make his quest possible.
• The captain in service of the king and queen failed to reach the Americas and instead named them "Indians"

• Amerigo Vespucci led an expedition that gave the New World its name.
• Spain wants to claim in the Americas.

• The first trip around the world was the basis of Spain's claim to the Philippines.

• Spanish captain who in 1519 initi and in the Indian port of Goa, a lease on the Chinese port of Macao, short-lived interests in trade ated first circumnavigation of the with Japan and finally the claim on Brazil.
• Spain held onto the Philippines, various Pacific globe, and the bulk of the Americas.
• Spain was allowed to claim the Philippines during the 16th century.

• The Spanish sent expedi tions northward from Mexico into California and other parts of the southwestern United States.

• The lead in exploration was passed to northern Europe in the 16th century as newly strong monarchies, such as France and England, got into the act.
• It was because Spain and Portugal were busy absorbing the gains they had already made that the shift in dynamism occurred.
• In 1588, Britain defeated the Spanish Armada in a sea battle.
• The British, the Dutch, and the French vied for control of the seas northward because they could not challenge the Spanish and Portuguese colonies.
• In the West Indies, northern Europe seized islands originally claimed by Spain.

• The economic potential of such voyages was appreciated by the new explorers.
• European Catholics emphasized religious inter ests more than Britain and Holland did.
• Two 16th-century English explorers were told to keep an eye out for native populations along the way because they would provide a perfect market for English woolens.
• It could be used as a source of fish for Britain if the territory was unpopu late.
• A quest for profit has become a dominant policy motive.

• In 1534, French explorers crossed the Atlantic to reach Canada.
• In the 17th century, expeditions from Canada went into the Great Lakes region and the Mississippi valley.

• The Early Modern Period, 1450-1750: The World Shrinks it was done by an unknown German artist who had never been to America but based his drawing on the testimony of those who had.
• The people are naked, handsome, brown.

• The British started looking at North America as early as 1497.
• During the 16th century, the English explored the Hudson Bay area of Canada, but they did not find a northwest passage to India.
• The east coast of North America was colonized by England in the 17th century.
• For a time, Holland had holdings in Brazil.

• After winning independence from Spain, the Dutch became a major competitor with Portugal in southeast Asia.
• The Portuguese were ousted from the Indonesian islands by the Dutch in the early 17th century.
• The Netherlands explored the coast of Australia.

• Holland established a settlement on the southern tip of Africa in the 17th century to provide a relay station for its ships bound for the East Indies.

• These companies were given government monopolies of trade in stock company that obtained the regions, but they were not supervised by their own states.
• They had the right to raise armies and coin money on their own.
• Semiprivate companies, amassing great commercial Asia, acted as virtually independent fortunes and acted like independent governments in the regions they claimed.
• For a while, it claimed, government in regions.

• The stock company that obtained companies traded in furs.

• It claimed that the work was tiring and uncertain, with voyages lasting many months or years.

• One expedition did not accept married men because they would miss their families too much.

• Causation and the West's Expansion because of their interest in social change is easier to prove.
• What are the factors that explain agriculture in Asia and the Americas?

• Scientists can gain a fairly precise understanding of the surge if political causation is not the cause.
• In the 16th century, rivalries factors that produce a phenomenon: Remove an ingredient, for between the nation-states motivated a continuing quest for new example, and the product changes.
• There are more trade routes and colonies in the past.

• There is room for a simpler, technologically determin that never happens the same way twice.
• Knowledge of advances is impossible to benefit from.
• Historians in China and the Middle East disagree about causality.
• Naval cannons were introduced.

• It helps us explore a phenomenon itself by probing causa.
• Europeans advanced in areas they could reach the nature of Western expansion in the 15th and 16th centuries by sea and dominated by ships' guns.

• Europe gained because historians and other social scientists looked to a few technological edges.

• anthropologists are cultural determinists They judge it on how many questions it answers.
• Chinese did other societies that were aware of Europe's innovations, such as Greeks, respond differently to emotional stimuli as China, deliberately decide not to imitate Western naval tech because of their different cultural conditioning.
• A different culture determined a different reaction is a technological or economic determinism.
• The Chinese learned how to benefit from technological change in the West.
• Technology and culture argue that economic arrangements went hand in hand.
• The economy is structured and what groups control it is needed in this case.

• Historians used to claim that great men were the prime movers in his causation, but we can't expect a uniform agreement.
• We can expect a lot of debate.
• The causes of change became the topic of a debate that has moved our understanding beyond the surface.

• There is room for an analysis of a great man.

• Cultural causation can be used.

• The range and significance of developing from the 1490s exchange began to increase steadily.
• Including onward.
• The Americas made exchanges global, affecting almost all major regions.

• The impact was visible quickly.
• Millions of Native Americans were victims.

• They died in large numbers during the 16th and 17th centuries.
• In North and South America, more than half the native population would die.
• The entire island population in the West Indies was wiped out.
• The blow to earlier civilizations in the Americas as well as an opportunity for Europeans to forge a partially new population of their own citizens and slaves imported from Africa was caused by this.
• In some areas it was more rapid than in others.
• The same terrible pattern played out when Europeans made contact with Polynesians and Pacific Coast peoples in the 18th century.

• Other exchanges were not as bad.
• Western merchants spread new World crops quickly.

• Large population increases were triggered by pro ductive new crops and local agricultural improvements.

• China experienced long-term population growth in the 17th century due to new crops.
• Major population upheaval occurred when Europeans introduced the potato.

• The world system created during the Early Modern period relied on food.
• 30 percent of the world's food comes from plants of American origin.
• Corn was a staple in the African diet.
• Europeans were more conservative.
• There were rumors that American foods spread disease.
• French fries were being sold on the streets of Paris by the 1680s, despite the fact that it took more than a century for the potato to gain ground.

• The environmental impact of The Columbian Exchange was substantial.
• Europeans ignored the mental experience of local populations in the Americas, bent on introducing European products and expanding output.
• Increased soil erosion is an obvious result of the introduction of sheep, which devastated local vegetation in many parts of the Americas.
• In the Americas, the desire to expand exports led to an increase in deforestation.
• 25 percent of the world's forests were cut down by 1700, and by 1850 the percent age had risen to 50.
• Between 1650 and 1750, forest clearances in Latin America increased five-fold.
• Fishing and hunting have expanded.
• The fur trade resulted in the loss of many species.
• New forms of deep-sea whaling developed in the 16th century and began to provide cheap food for slaves in order to cut into supplies of cod.

• New trading opportunities and population changes resulted in new labor.
• Europeans sought alternatives to sugar because of market demand and the lack of local workers in the Americas.
• Experiments with workers brought from Europe under tight contracts that controlled their labor for many years had some success, but failed to recruit enough labor.
• The slave trade with Africa proved to be a more important response, with millions forcibly shipped across the Atlantic.
• Atlantic slavery was not an imitation of earlier slave systems.
• Plantation owners worked to increase production and discipline.
• The global effort to increase human labor during the Early Modern period was led by the Columbian Exchange.

• The Indian Ocean is completely dominated by them.
• While growing European bases were established along the east African coast, Muslim traders remained active and commerce continued to grow in India.

• Western Europe used war ships to muscle in on trade between other societies, as between India and southeast Asia.
• disproportionate control by merchant companies increased the European ability to determine the framework for international trade and greatly increased Europe's overall profits.
• The Turks rebuilt their fleet and continued Spanish and Ottoman activity in the eastern Mediterranean, but they could not challenge the Europeans on the larger, leading to a Spanish victory in 1571.

• Although western Europe did not conquer much inland territory in Africa or Asia, it did seek a limited network of secure harbors.
• European ports spread along the west coast of Africa, as well as parts of India and southeast Asia, by the 17th century.
• In China, where strong governments limited the Europeans' ability to seize harbors, the Portuguese were able to control the island port of Macao.
• European-controlled ports provided access to inland goods not directly within the reach of the West, as well as being areas for contact with overland traders.

• European influence led to the creation of special western enclaves in existing cities.
• In the Ottoman empire, Western merchants were allowed to form limited self-governing communities with other foreign merchants, and in Russia, Western shipping agents were allowed to set up shop in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
• Dutch traders were given special access to the port of Nagasaki after a firm isolationist policy was launched in Japan about 1600.
• The point was that international trade increased in importance.
• Merchants from western Europe gained access to East Asian markets, even though Chinese traders were still dominant.

• European nations were the most active in world trade.
• Spain imported silver from the Americas.
• It did not have a good banking system and could not support a full commercial surge.
• England, France, and Holland were the first countries to make a lot of money from world trade.
• Western Europe expanded its manufacturing operations so that it could export finished goods, such as guns and cloth, in return for raw materials, such as silver and sugar.
• This was a profit margin.

• Home-based manufacturing was stimulated by the policies of the tariffs.

• The exchange of human labor was important.
• Parts of sub-Saharan Africa entered the new world economy as suppliers of slaves.
• The earlier west promotion of limitation of imports African patterns of trade across the Sahara yielded to a dominant focus on the Atlantic and therefore from other nations and internal economies in order to improve tax to activities organized by Western shippers.
• Europeans made a lot of money during the 17th century by trading their manufactured items, including guns, for slaves and unprocessed goods.

• The new world economic relationships were very strong.
• The areas established as depen dent by the 17th century still have some special burdens in world trade today.
• Not all people in Latin America and Africa were poor.

• Slave traders and princes might make a lot of money.
• Regional merchants and farmers were required to provide food for the silver mines and commercial estates in Latin America.
• Many peasants in Latin America and even more in Africa were not involved in a market economy at all, but rather produced for local subsistence with traditional motives and methods.
• Significant minorities were involved in production.
• Most African and Latin American landlords did not fully control their own terms of trade.
• Their wealth did not help local manufacturing or the economy as a whole.
• They imported European-made goods, including art objects and luxury items.

• The trends of the sort indicated in this table raise more questions about cause and effect.
• What are the trends?

• Spice production in the Dutch East Indies and the British of forced labor came about because peasants were forced into labor without the legal freedom areas colonized by Spain.

• Early in the 15th century, the Chinese government abandoned large-scale interna of the Dutch Trading Company and avoided involvement with international trade on someone else's terms.
• Some firearms manufacturing from the Europeans was copied, but at a low level.
• It depended on extensive government regulation and a coastal navy to keep European activities in check.
• Most of the limited trade was done through Macao.
• Europeans hated China's disdain for military advances.
• The military was written about by a Jesuit.
• The Chinese were criticized for adhering to tradition.
• The Chinese could not be persuaded to use new instruments and leave their old ones without an order from the Emperor, according to a Western missionary in the 17th century.

• China avoided trying to keep up with European developments while avoiding subservience to European merchants.
• Europeans sent a lot of American silver to China to pay for the goods they wanted because of Chinese manufacturing gains.
• At the end of the 18th century, a famous British mission tried to get the government to open the country to more trade.
• The British envoy was told by the imperial court that the Chinese didn't need outside goods.
• European eagerness for Chinese goods was not matched by Chinese enthusiasm, but a trickle of trade continued.
• The early Industrial Revolu tion, particularly in Britain, was a result of Westerners developing their own porcelain industry by the 18th century.
• There were still hopes for commercial entry to China.

• Japan was attracted by Western expeditions in the 16th century.
• Korea did the same.
• The Japanese were interested in Western advances in shipping and gunnery.
• The interest in exotic was captured by artists.
• There was no disdain for military life in Japan, so guns were relevant to the ongoing feudal wars.
• Japanese leaders worried about the impact of Western influence on internal divisions among warring lords, as well as the threat guns posed to samurai military dominance.
• They encouraged a local gunmaking industry that matched existing European muskets and small cannon fairly readily, but having achieved this, they cut off most contact with any world trade.
• Most Japanese were forbidden to travel or trade abroad, the small Christian minority was suppressed, and from the 17th until the 19th centuries Japan entered a period of almost complete isolation except for some Chinese contact and trading concessions to the small Dutch enclave near Nagasaki.

• Other societies were involved in world trade.
• The rulers of India's new Mughal empire were interested in Western traders and even encouraged the establishment of small port enclaves.
• In return for New World silver, India manufactured cottons textiles and other items.
• Most of the attention was on internal development and land-based expansion and commerce.
• Despite the presence of small European enclaves in key cities, the same held true for the Ottoman and Safavid empires in the Middle East through the 17th century.
• Until the 18th century, Russia was partially outside the world economic circle.
• Russia's trade with nomadic peoples in central Asia insulated it from west European demands.

• The world economy gained ground over time as the center of the process of globalization.
• The formation of new kinds of empire is linked to the process.
• South America, the West Indies, a part of North America, and some regions in west Africa were first staked out as colonies in the 16th century.
• The parts of southeast Asia that produced for world markets were brought into the spotlight by the 17th century.

• The Mughal empire began to fall apart as Western traders advanced in India.
• The British and French East India Companies had increasing roles in internal trade and administration.
• In order to protect their own cotton industry, Britain passed tariffs against the import of cot ton cloth made in India.
• The British wanted to use India as a market for British-processed goods and a source of gold by the late 18th century.
• Observers in India were aware of the shifting balance.

• The British show little regard to the people of this kingdom, and their apathy and indifference for their welfare, that the people under their control are reduced to poverty and distress.

• India had a complex regional economy with a lot of internal manufacturing and trade.
• The position outside the world economy was changing to disadvantage India.
• The turing began to decline.

• The world economy and the west European core were brought into a relationship with Eastern Europe.
• The market for imported grains was created by the growth of cities in the West.
• Much of the demand was met by growers in Prussia and Poland.
• serfs who were subjected to long periods of labor service produced most of the export grains.
• Outside of Poland, east European governments were much stronger than their Latin American counterparts.

• Many openings were provided because of the help of the Columbian exchange.

• Spain was the first to move.
• After Columbus's first voyage, the Spanish colonized several West Indian islands, starting with Hispaniola and moving into Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico.
• They began settlement on the mainland in search of gold in 1509.
• The Spanish con settlement on the mainland quest of the Aztecs in Mexico was launched by a separate expedition from Cuba.
• Hard fighting was needed before the ultimate victory before another expedition headed toward the Inka realm in the Andes in 1531.
• The Aztec and inca empires spread from this base to other parts of the world.

• Pizarro settled on the island of Hispaniola in 1502.

• The Spanish learned of wealth in possessions.

• Two expeditions that failed were mounted by him with an uneducated soldier and a priest.
• The Early Modern Period, 1450-1750: The World Shrinks, he returned to Spain to gain the support of the king and also his agreement that he would be the governor of the new province.
• He attacked the divided empire with the help of about 180 men.
• He killed Emperor Atahuallpa after accepting a large ransom.
• During Pizarro's rule, there were several revolts.
• Pizarro was ennobled by the Spanish king.

• Pizarro was killed at a dinner by a group of rebels.

• Early colonies in the Americas were often developed by small bands of gold-hungry Europeans who were sometimes controlled by colonial administrations back home.
• At first, colonial rulers established onlylim ited controls over native populations, often leaving leaders in place.
• As agricultural settlements were established and official colonial systems took shape, more formal administration spread.

• Another layer of detailed administration was added to the Spanish holdings in North and South America as a result of active missionary efforts.

• France, Britain, and Holland staked out colonial settlements in the Americas.

• The Lawrence River in Canada led to small colonies around Quebec and explorations in the Mississippi River basin.
• Dutch and English settlers moved into parts of the Atlantic coast in the 17th century.
• The slave trade grew in the 17th century after the three countries seized and colonized several West Indian islands.

• Calvinists who fled religious tensions in Britain to settle in New England were among the religious refugees that English colonies received.

• Government grants of land to major proprietors such as William Penn led to explicit efforts to recruit settlers.
• New York was taken over by an English expedition in 1664.

• The French government launched the first substantial European settlements in Canada.
• The plan was to set up manorial estates under great lords whose rights were restricted by the state.
• It proved difficult to develop an adequate labor force for French peasants.
• As it spread around the north America, the French colonies were extended from the fortress of Quebec.
• A partial replica of the French St. Lawrence River was completed by the Catholic Church.
• Britain attacked the French strongholds as part of a worldwide colonial and down Mississippi River valley struggle between the two powers.

• Britain took control of Canada, continental Europe, and the Mississippi basin, as well as the Indian sugar islands.
• Relations between British officials and the French Canadian community were strained as British settlements developed in eastern Canada and in Ontario.
• The flight of Ameri 1763 resulted in the seizure of land from Austria by the prussians, and the English seized can loyalists after the 1776 revolution in Canada.

• In the 17th and 18th centuries, colonial holdings along the Atlantic and in Canada were of little interest to the West.
• Following the Seven Years War, Asian colonies were granted.
• The French and British valued their West Indian holdings more than the colonies of North America.
• The value of North American products, such as timber and furs, was not for return of French sugar islands in nearly as good a shape as profits from the Caribbean or Latin America.

• There were some merchant and manufacturing activities among the new Americans.

• I will give them all the gold they need, if they will give me only a small amount of assistance, the brother of Francisco Pizarro, the Spanish as much as they want, will be shipped.

• Our illustrious Sir, believing that you will take pleasure in hearing of the great King and Queen and their kingdoms, which have acquired great success which our Lord has granted me in my voyage, I write fame by an event of such high importance.

• The mountains and plains are so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing that the Governor was asked to send a Chris ing, and rearing cattle of all kinds.
• The number and size of the harbours on the coast would not be known.
• The Governor sent a Christian, and pres and wholesomeness of the rivers, most of them bearing gold, leaving the armed men behind him.

• He didn't see many of the Indians he took with him.

• Indians in liveries, cleaning straws from the road and singing are some of the things I have found on this and other islands.

• The cotton was made for that purpose by a Dominican friar.
• On the part of the Governor, they have neither iron, nor steel, and they are not competent to use them, not that they are for him in his lodgings, and that he was sent to speak with him.

• He showed the man a book.
• I am not able to express atahuallpa wealth.

• When a sign was given, the king took pride in calling me his brother, and all the troops should come forth, because he had established the greatest friendship with him.
• The Indians changed their intentions towards us and became hostile, they were defeated without danger to any Christian.
• Those who car do not know what arms are the most timid people in the world, because they don't know what arms are.
• If they only know how to conduct a Christian in the hand, they will not be in danger if the Governor came out and seized left.
• The troops continued their pursuit.

• The Governor told him that the interaction with another foreign culture from that land, and all other lands, belonged to the Emperor.
• He must acknowledge him as his Lord.
• He said he was the adventurer that may or may not have been present.

• British naval power allowed the light infantry to scale the French fort and capture Quebec in 1759.
• The beginning of the end of French rule in Canada was marked by the battle.

• The colonies that would become the United States had a population of less than 3 million.
• Tobacco and cotton were important in the southern colonies.
• There were similar patterns to those of Latin America, with large estates based on imported slave labor, a wealthy planter class and weak formal governments.
• In world historical terms, the Atlantic colonies in North America were of limited value because of the larger colonial holdings staked out in the Early Modern centuries.

• European settlers arrived.
• The Atlantic coastal region was colonized by Europe due to religious dissent, ambition, and other motives.
• The British colonies had a society that was closer to west European forms than to Latin America.
• The people in the colonies had political experience.
• The governing power was given to groups of elders.
• Europeans have a sense of the importance of representative institutions and self-government.

• Colonists were fond of the parliamentary ideas of John Locke.
• There was a wide discussion of Enlightenment materials.
• Hundreds of North Ameri cans contributed scientific findings to the British Royal Society.
• The colonies were modest in certain areas.
• Many of the styles of art came from Europe.
• In formal culture, North American leaders saw themselves as part of a larger Western world.

• By the late 18th century, some American merchants were trading with China, their ships picking up herbs along the Pacific coast and exchanging them for Chinese artifacts and tea.
• After the Seven Years War, Great Britain tried to impose tighter limits on the local economy.
• It hoped to win greater tax revenues and to guarantee markets for British goods and traders, but the effort came too late and helped encourage rebellion in key colonies.
• Unusual among the colonies, North America developed a merchant class and had a stake in manufacturing.

• The spread of Western values in the Atlantic colonies and in Brit ish and French settlements in Canada was aided by the small impact of Native Americans.
• The native population of this part of North America has always been less dense than in other parts of the world.
• European colonizers found it easy to remove Native American groups from large stretches of territory because they didn't practice settled agriculture.
• The indigenous population was reduced by the ravages of European-imported disease.
• The forest peoples were moved to the west ward.
• The horse was brought to Mexico by the Spaniards and some abandoned agriculture and turned to a new horse-based hunting economy.
• Territorial wars distracted the Native American groups.
• The natives were feared and mistreated by the colonists, but they did not combine the American settlement of Secoton, virginia.
• In what is now north Carolina, White was the governor of with them, they were trying to create new cultural groups.
• He went back to England to get supplies for Latin America.

• African culture was different from European culture.
• African origin made up 23 percent of the population of the English colonies by the 18th century.

• Most white settlers wanted to change their Western habits into their new setting.
• Family patterns were similar.
• American colonists were able to marry earlier because they had larger families and the land was more plentiful.

• The primary emphasis on the nuclear unit is still reproduced by them.
• The new Americans were worried about children because they depended so much on their work.
• Europeans commented on the child-centeredness of American families and the freedom of children to speak up.
• The new emphasis on family affection is one of the variations that are visible in Europe.

• The colonies moved in the name of Western political ideas and economic goals against the British when they rebelled against European control.
• They created a government that responded to the new political theories of the Western world.

• Europeans in Africa did not try to claim large territories of their own, instead preferring to negotiate with African kings and merchants.
• In return for slaves, they sold Asian products, like cotton and guns.
• Climate, disease, and non-navigable rivers deterred Europeans from trying to reach the interior.
• They dealt with West African governments.
• Two important exceptions were not present.
• In search of slaves, Portugal sent expeditions from initial coastal settlements.

• The impact of these expeditions was more disruptive in this part of southwestern Africa than in the Atlantic coast.
• The intent was to establish another coastal station to supply Dutch ships bound for Asia.
• They clashed station for the dutch seaborne with local hunting groups.
• The battle for control of southern Africa raged until the late 20th century because of the conflict between Bantu farmers and the expanding Boer empire.

• European colonies in Asia were exceptional.
• Colony was administered by the Dutch East India company.

• The last great emperor of the Mughals, Aurangzeb, died in 1707 and the Seven Years War began.
• As Mughal inefficiency increased, portions of the subcontinent became administrative center for all with a surge of regional states ruled by Indians.

• The British East India Company had two advantages.
• Excellent communication on the ocean routes was achieved through the company's influence over the British government and superior navy.

• French rivals had less political clout at home, where the government was often distracted by European land wars.
• The French were more interested in missionary work than the British were.
• The British used to leave Hindu customs alone and devote themselves to commercial profits.

• The rivalry between France and Britain raged through the 18th century.
• Indian princes and troops were recruited by both sides.
• During the Seven Years War, right warfare erupted twice.
• In the aftermath of the battle, English prisoners were placed in their own jail, where the humidity and overcrowding led to as many as 120 deaths before Indian officials became aware of their plight and released them.
• The "black hole of Calcutta" was used by the English to rally their forces.

• The East India Company's army gained control of additional Indian and French territory thanks to bribes.
• The East India Company took over the administration of the Bengal region, which stretched inland from Calcutta.
• The British gained the island of Sri Lanka from the Dutch.

• The British government took a more active hand in Indian administration in the late 18th century and this is when the full history of British India began.
• British control of the subcon tinent was incomplete.
• Although it was weak, the Mughal empire remained, as did other regional kingdoms, including the Sikh state.
• Britain gained some new territories by force, but also formed al iances with local princes.

• European administration was loose in most colonies.
• South Africa and the Americas were the only places where settlers arrived.
• Out side the Americas, cultural imposements were not very strong.
• In the Philippines, missionary activity won many converts, but not elsewhere in Asia or Africa.
• The main impact of colonies was to encourage commercial production of cheap foods and raw materials in the home country.
• The consequences to colonial peoples were very real here.

• There were wars between key nation-states.
• England and Hol land turned against Spain.
• In the 17th century, the Dutch and English fought each other.
• The British and the French are competing.
• The first world war was called by this indian portrait of two women.

• From the 17th century onward, the use of colonially produced sugar spread widely.

• Sugar used to be an expensive upper-class item.
• For the first time, a basic product available to ordinary people was being traded over long distances.
• The spread of sugar gave ordinary Europeans the ability to get pleasure in a short time, an interesting example of later features of Western consumer behavior.
• A growing role for dentists was promoted by it.

• The profits Europeans brought in from world trade, including the African slave trade, added wealth and capital.
• Many Europeans turned to manufacturing operations as owners and workers because of the opportunities for export.
• Europe's commercial character was enhanced by these developments.
• Growing governments and their military ambitions received addi tional tax revenues from them.

• The impact of the world economy and European colonialism was immense.
• Unfree labor systems to supply goods for world trade became more widespread.

• Latin America and eastern Europe were affected by slavery and serfdom, as well as millions of individual lives.

• The world economy brought benefits and hardships, apart from profits to Europe.
• Some societies were able to deal with scarcity because of new foods and trade patterns.
• Everyone gained new wealth.
• Rapid population growth limited gains from China's imports of silver.
• More and more people and regions joined the world economy network because of the mixture of profits and compulsion.

• Many societies have vibrant political systems.

• The values and institutions that world economic success seemed to tionably saw its economy and military power increase more rapidly involve western Europe.

• Europe and America were not passive as societies that had changes thrust upon them, like Latin.
• Latin Ameri is often in dramatic ways.
• It is tempting to see that cans did not simply adopt European-style Christianity, but rather the Early Modern centuries as a European drama in which other blended in traditional beliefs and practices and many distinctive regions either played supporting roles or watched in awe.

• The relationships to the world economy were becoming simpler as the world was growing closer.

• The roles of the Asian and the west European are compared.
• The economy of European settlements in North America developed in the Early Modern period.

• Cotton availability and consumer passion both increased rapidly.

• The colors and artistry of Indian fabrics made them a popular global commodity in the postclassical and Early Modern periods.

• The contrast with conventional linen and woolen fabrics was marked.
• Indian manufacturers began to target part of their production for the European market after Europeans were taken with floral designs.
• One example of rising levels of global trade spurred new consumer tastes, allowing new levels of personal expression through clothing.

• Portuguese traders were the first to bring cottons to Europe, with peddlers taking them to more northern markets.
• By the 17th century the Danes traveled to India to get decorative textiles for their homes and clothing.

• The moral conservatives chided the showy display.
• Many governments passed rules against wearing brightly colored clothing by the 17th century, while others tried to protect European industry by banning Indian textile imports.

• European manufacturers were starting to wonder if they could take advantage of consumer tastes directly.
• In southern France, several workmen brought in new techniques in partnership with local businessmen around 1650, and also helped set up production in Amsterdam.
• Over 1300 workers were employed in a factory in Switzerland by 1750.

• The best Indian colors and designs are matched by European methods.

• European cottons were moved into the industrial revolution by dramatic new printing processes in the 18th century.
• European consumers, now seeing access to colorful cottons as a routine need, became ever more demanding of dramatic new styles each year, a taste for novelty that was built into modern consumerism.
• The contact with Asia turned into an engine for European change.

• There were a number of big changes in western Europe between 1450 and 1750.
• The new movements added up to a novel cultural framework for intellectuals but also many ordinary people, some key political innovations, and a more commercially based social structure.
• Even in areas as mundane as new preferences for clothing, the developments occurred in a context of growing interaction with other parts of the world.

• Major changes occurred in Europe's economy and culture during the Early Modern period.
• Some innovations, like the idea of a nation-state or the scientific revolution, would have global impacts.

• Agriculture remained basic until the final decades of the period, and there were no fundamental changes.
• Europe was mainly catching up to achievements that other societies had already established, not everything was new or different from a global perspective.

• He used the climb as a symbol of what he could do and he was proud of his skill.

• There was a new spirit of individual pride expressed in this work, intended to be published, compared to the more humble and religious feelings of the Middle Ages when individual artisans did not even put their names on the magnificent cathedrals they built.

• The Renaissance, which began in Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries, began the move away from earlier European patterns.
• The Renaissance challenged medieval values and styles.
• It may have encouraged a new Western interest in exploring strange waters or urging that old truths be reexamined.

• Classical and human-centered themes were the focus of the painting.
• Religion was not a central focus for most influential authors of Italian.
• The Italian Renaissance grew in the 15th and early 16th century.

• Religion was endeavor, method of study that did not attack, but its principles were no longer dominant.
• The reasons for the superiority of this change have been debated by historians.
• Italy's more urban, commercial environment was one factor, but so was the new imitation classical forms over medieval styles of classical Greek and Roman literature and art.

• There were Renaissance merchants languages.

• City-state leaders were experimenting with new political forms.

• General well-being and their city's glory could be improved by Renaissance Art.
• As states began to use art to gain more popular support, they sponsored cultural activities.
• They tried to improve the economy.
• Resistance leaders gave new attention to military tactics and training as wars among the city-states were common.
• The practice of diplomacy was rethought and ambassadors were exchanged for the first time in the West.
• The Renaissance produced some dependence on classical models, but it also encouraged innovation.

• Italy began to decline as a Renaissance center by about 1500.
• The peninsula was invaded by the French and Spanish monarchs.
• New Atlantic trade routes reduced the importance of Mediterranean ports, a huge blow to the Italian economy.

• Renaissance creativity faded in its Italian birthplace.
• After 1450, focused in France, the Low Countries, Germany, and England.

• Classical styles in art and architecture became popular.
• The knowledge of Greek and Latin literature gained ground, although many centered in France, Low Countries and northerners wrote in their own languages.
• England and Germany had more religious people than their Italian counterparts, trying to blend secular interests with continued Christian more emphasis on religion than devotion.

• The writings of Shakespeare in England and Cervantes in Spain are classics in the major Western languages.

• Political change was produced by the Northern Renaissance.
• By the late 16th century, monarchs sponsor trading companies and colonial enterprises.
• New controls on the Catholic church were more interested in military conquest than in the Middle Ages.
• The Ottoman sultan was an ally of the Holy leader.
• The Habsburg ruler of Austria and Spain was his main enemy.
• It was the roman emperor.

• The impact of the Renaissance should not be overstated.
• The political powers of feudal landlords kept Renaissance kings confined.
• The life of peasants and artisans was unaffected by Renaissance values.

• Outside of the Italian commercial centers, economic life did not change much.
• Women in the upper classes sometimes encountered new limits as Renaissance leaders promoted men's public bravado over women's domestic roles.

• The World Shrinks type was built on Chinese printing technology.

• As literacy gained ground, it became a fertile source of new thinking.

• The family structure was changing.
• Nuclear families of parents and children were the focus of the 15th century emphasis on extended families among peasants and artisans of western Europe.
• The goal was to keep family birth rates low.
• By the 16th century, late marriage age, emphasis on the people usual, and a marked contrast to most agricultural societies.
• The importance of husband- wife relations was emphasized by the nuclear family.
• The family was linked to who never married.

• In the 16th century, religious upheaval and a new commercial surge began to define the directions of change more fully.
• He was protesting claims made by a papal representative in selling a german monk, but he was protesting more than that.
• Luther was convinced by the Bible that only faith could get him salvation.
• For God could not be manipulated, the church sacraments were not the path.
• Luther's protest, which was rejected by the papacy, led him to emphasize the importance of faith over the authority of the pope.
• Luther would argue that the works of the Catholic church were not good, that priests should marry, and that the Bible should be translated into state control of the church.

• Luther wanted the church to be on his terms, but he didn't want to break Christian unity.

• During the mid-16th century and beyond, Luther got a lot of support for his views.

• Luther, the Holy Roman emperor, was a Catholic.

• 1517, seize church lands.

• There were reasons for people to change their loyalties.
• Luther's attack on authority was seen by some German peasants as a sanction for their own social rebel ion against landlords.
• Luther's approval of many types of religious belief drew some people to him.

• Lutheranism was more open to moneymaking and other earthly activities than traditional Catholicism was.
• The form of Protes Lutherans did not see special vocations as particularly holy, monasteries were abolished, and some of the Christian bias against moneymaking was present.

• Elizabeth I, Henry's daughter, was Protestant and attracted to some of the new doctrines.

• Calvinist ministers encouraged preachers of God's word.
• Calvinists wanted the participation of all believers in local church access to government, which promoted the idea of a wider access to government.
• Calvinism spread from popular education so that more people could read the Bible.
• Calvinism was accepted in parts of Germany and France, but not in Switzerland, where it produced strong north America.

• Catholicism maintained its hold on significant portions of the continent despite the inroads made by different Protestant denominations.

• Puritan exiles brought it to North America by the 17th century.

• It was not possible to restore religious unity, but it was able to revive Catholic doctrine and the Catholic faith in southern Europe, Austria, Poland, Hungary, and parts of Germany.

• There is a new religious order.
• They attacked popular superstitions and remnants of magical belief, which meant that Catholics and Protestants alike were trying to find new ways to shape the outlook of ordinary reformation.
• Catholic missionary sponsored missions to Asia and the Americas were sponsored by Jesuit fervor.

• There was a series of bloody religious wars.

• The Early Modern Period, 1450-1750: The World Shrinks for a full century, cutting population by as much as 60 percent in some regions.

• The Netherlands gave up its independence to Spain.

• Sweden is locked in combat with Calvinists, Anglicans, and some remaining Catholics Protestants.
• There was tension between the claims of parliament and the emperor's assertions of authority by a new line of English kings.
• The civil war ended in 1660 after King and Spain, but full resolution came only in 1688-1689, when limited after great destruction with the Treaty of religious toleration was granted to most Protestants.

• Religious issues dominated European politics for a long time.
• Although the idea of full religious liberty was still in the future, the idea of Christian unity could not be restored.
• Map 22.2 shows that the wars affected the political balance of Europe.

• France was on the rise after a period of weakness.
• Conflict from Britain galvanized into an international role.
• Spain was briefly ascendant.
• Some kings and princes benefited from the decline of papal authority by taking a stronger role in reli disputes.
• This was true in both Protestant and Catholic areas.
• In some cases, Protestant issues about the powers of the monarchy encouraged popular political movements and enhanced parliamentary power.

• The impact of religious change was much more than politics.
• The execution of the previous king changed popular beliefs.

• New impulses were produced by Catholic reform.
• Western people were less likely to see a connection between God and nature.
• The idea of miracles or other interventions in nature's course was resisted by Protestants.
• Increased concentration on family life was promoted by religious change.
• Love between husband and wife was encouraged by religious writers.
• There were ambiguous implications for women after this promotion of the family.

• Civil war over religious issues resulted in the beheading of Charles I in London in 1649.
• One of the most controversial events in English history was the regicide.

• The rise of absolute monarchies led to the consolidation of national borders.
• A recent study shows that villages that straddled the French-Spanish border were undifferentiated before 1600, but by 1700 they showed marked national differences because of different state policies and the greater impact of belonging to one state or another.

• The religious training of the children was done by the fathers.
• With the new emphasis on affection, women's emotional role in the family improved.

• The spread of the printing press along with religious change promoted literacy.
• In the town of Durham, England, only 20 percent of the population were literate by the year 1570.
• People were given new ideas and ways of thinking as a result of growing literacy.

• The European Reformation was a fascinating case where long-run consequences did not coincide with the intentions of early leaders, or with initial, short-term change.
• The two movements could combine to an extent in their effects on politics and culture by the 17th century.

• The protest was spurred by a more commercial economy.

• The economic structure of the West was fundamentally redefined during the 16th century.
• Market and merchant involvement increased.
• The impact of the new world economy in western Europe was clear.

• The price inflation that occurred throughout western Europe during the 16th century spurred greater commercialization.
• The import of gold and silver from Spain's new colonies in Latin America caused prices to go up.
• The price rise was caused by the availability of more money.
• New wealth increased demand for products to sell in the colonies and Europe, but western production could not keep up.
• When money was losing value, it was cheap to borrow.
• It made sense to take loans for new investments since a sum borrowed one year would be worth less five years later.

• The great trading companies were formed in Spain, England, the Netherlands, and France because of inflation and the new colonial opportunities.
• The Dutch East India Company used to dominate trade with the islands of Indonesia.
• European merchants brought new profits back to Europe.

• Manufacturing was stimulated by colonial markets.
• Most peasants continued to produce for their own needs, but agricultural specialty areas developed in the production of wines, cheeses, wool, and the like.
• Commercial farming and paid laborers were favored by some industries.
• Shoemaking, pottery, metalworking, and other manufacturing specializations were found in both rural villages and the cities.
• In metals and mining, technical improvements followed.

• Many ordinary people saw their prosperity increase as well as the great merchants.
• The average Western peasant or artisan owned five times as many things as their counterparts in southeastern Europe by the year 1600, according to a historian.
• A 16th-century Englishman said that in the past a peasant and his family slept on the floor and had only a pan or two as cookware, but by the last decades of the century a farmer might have a fair amount of pewter in his cupboard, three or four feather beds.
• The result of higher productivity and better trade and transport facilities was that French peasants began to enjoy wine more frequently.

• There were people who were victims of change.
• Many people had to sell their small plots of land because of rising food prices.
• Some people without access to producing proletarians became manufacturing workers, depending on orders from merchant capitalists to keep property, and typically manufacturing their tools in their cottages.
• Others became paid laborers on agricultural estates, where landlords workers, paid laborers in agricultural were eager for a more manipulable workforce to take advantage of business opportunities in the cities.

• A new attitude toward 16th and 17th century was blaming the poor for moral failures.

• The changes in popular economic and cultural traditions provoked a lot of outcries.
• The wave of popular protest in western Europe began at the end of the 16th century.
• Peasants and townspeople rose for protection from poverty and loss of property.
• The currents of change were not affected by the uprisings.

• Social tension and new ideas of equality were revealed in the popular rebellions of the 17th century.

• The English group called the Levelers gained 100,000 signatures on a petition for political rights after the uprisings of 1648.
• Common people praised the kings while attacking their "bad advisors" and high taxes.
• "We should cut off all the gentlemen's heads," said an Englishman.

• Europe experienced new levels of population concentration in some urban areas by 1600.

• In the same decades, there was an eruption against suspected witches in various parts of western Europe and New England.
• The new scale reflected the social and cultural upheaval of the time.
• The death of over 100,000 of the most common targets of persecution was revealed by the hysteria.
• Many of the accused witches thought they had Europeans between 1590 and 1650; however many were accused by their neighbors of being self-serving.
• The society faced with forces of unusual complexity was revealed by the whole witchcraft common in Protestant experience.

• Between 1450 and 1650 there were Balance Sheet Changes in Europe.
• Secular interests clashed with spiritual ones.
• Sharp reactions to change were explained by the confusion of change.
• There were some basic directions to follow.
• The role of families was changing.
• Religion remained strong, but it became more political.
• The stage for further change was set by all of this.

• The cultural reorientation state took on new forms after the revolution in science in the 17th century.
• Changes in popular outlook were promoted by this wave of change.
• The political upheavals intensified after 1650.

• The emergence of the nation-state was the focus of the new government forms in the West.
• The state's functions expanded.
• In the 17th century, key variant such as absolute monarchies and parliamentary regimes emerged, but there were some common patterns beneath the surface.

• There were big changes in western Europe during the early modern period.
• The rise of science in intellectual life was a key development.
• The center of the universe was where this discovery set was located.

• The hero of western science and rationalism is usually Copernicus.

• The central position of the sun was already realized by scientists in other traditions.

• The intellectual history of other societies, including classical Greece, had never seen science take on more importance than it did in the West.
• Change can happen but it does.

• The traditions of the later Middle Ages were used in scientific research during the 16th century.
• His father abandoned the family and his mother was tried for witchcraft, which is unusual for a major researcher.
• He was drawn to astronomy and mathematics while he was at university, but he wanted to be a Lutheran minister.
• He used the work of Copernicus and his own observations to resolve some issues of planetary motion.
• He also practiced astrology, casting horoscopes for wealthy patrons, and worked on optics, with the mixed interests so common in real intellectual life.
• Around 1600, the Belgian Vesalius gained greater precision in his work.
• One of the leading accepted ideas is Johannes Kepler.

• Gains in biology and astronomy were the basis for new instruments such as the microscope.
• The Scientific revolution was condemned.

• The universe was published.
• Chemical research has advanced understanding of gravity and planetary motion.

• The various astronomer and physical influential member of the Scientific observations and wider theories were brought together in a neat framework of natural laws.
• The revolution was set forth byNewton, best known for his work on basic principles of all motion.

• The basic review of all received wisdom (17th scientific method in terms of a mixture of rational hypothesis and generalization and careful century) was stated byNewton.
• There was a vision of a natural universe that could be created and laws that would be captured in simple laws.

• There is a method of knowing that might do away with blind reliance on tradition or nature.

• To advance research and dissemination of the findings, new scientific institutions were set up.

• Beliefs in witchcraft began to decline and establish principles of motion.

• There was a belief that people could control their environment.

• Insurance companies were formed to help guard against risk.
• Doctors increased their attacks on the popular role of divinity in order to promote a more scientific diagnosis of illness.

• The power of the universe of the Scientific Revolution's senses and reason made it impossible for writers affected by the new science to disrupt nature's laws.

• Scientific advances made assumptions about the possibility of human progress.
• The idea that past styles set timeless standards of perfection came under fire.

• Science was central to intellectual life before.
• Continuing contacts with work in the Middle East are the subject of Europe's science Locke, essay.
• The West was not alone in developing important scientific ideas, but it was now the leading center for scientific advancement.

• The key thinkers were alone in seeing science as the key to gaining and defining knowledge.

• The picture shows the grand 17th-century palace at Versailles.
• The classical style is seen to be most prestigious for public buildings.

• It is thought that architecture is the most socially revealing of all the arts because it depends most heavily on public support, and it is harder for architects to be as eccentric as painters or poets.

• New political forms gained ground in Europe.
• The political change from 1600 to 1750 was complicated.

• A tradition of strong monarchy developed in France and other countries.

• In Britain and Holland there was a different emphasis on parliamentary check on royal power.
• Europe's political future was shaped by both traditions.
• More effective central governments and better-trained bureaucrats helped Europe catch up to countries like China.
• There was a new element in politics that would spread to other parts of the world as a result of growing suggestions of what would be called the nation-state.

• The rise of science and the new political currents connected at times.

• The balance between king and nobles was lost in the 17th century.
• The tradition of noble pressure or revolt was curbed in most countries after the cooling of the religious wars.
• More ambitious military organization in states that defined war as a central purpose required more careful administration and improved tax collection.

• France is the West's largest and most powerful nation.

• The power of French kings increased in the 17th century.
• The medieval parliament was stopped and laws were passed as they saw fit.
• gunpowder was undercutting the military basis of feudalism and they blew up the castles of dissident nobles.
• Merchants and lawyers were brought in to create a bureaucracy.
• The end of witchcraft hysteria in the West was caused by out manufacturing jobs.
• From economic control of their lives, the explanation focuses on new efforts by elites, such as local magis trates the power disparity in Western society.
• Discipline mass impulses is what ordinary peo trates.
• Authorities stopped believing that people knuckled under or protested, but they were reacting, not in demonic disruptions of natural processes.

• They were open to new ideas about how to handle health problems without fully converting to a scientific outlook.
• The rise of science edies has been suggested by some historians that they needed witches less.

• A more independent role has been shifted by widespread.
• There was a decline from repeated decisions by peasants and artisans, not just both in witchcraft beliefs, once a key element in the Western men from those at the top.
• The steady technological improvements in tality flowed upward from the practicing artisans of the 16th century.
• New ways of thinking were reflected in the decline.
• It involved complex interac had taken shape by the 16th century and was an innovation between various segments of Western society.
• It helped new parents, villagers, scientists and priests.

• Young groups and creative individuals had to wait to marry until their property-owning caused change.
• The growing importance of social history could cause many to seek new lands or new eco called attention to ordinary people, as we have seen, but it has nomic methods.
• Ordinary people changed their answers to questions about their role.
• These changes had a big impact.

• Europe is an operation created by elites, with the mass as pas.
• It is important to determine whether change was imposed or if ordinary people had to take action by key leadership groups.

• They professionalized the army, giving more formal training to officers, providing uniforms and support, and creating military hospitals and pensions.

• Louis became a major patron of the arts and gave the government a cultural role that was never before seen in the West.
• Social functions should not interfere with state affairs.

• Louis and his ministers created additional functions for nation-states in western Europe using the new bureaucratic structure.
• They created a new state-run during the 17th century and reduced internal tariffs, which acted as barriers to trade.
• mercantilism held that governments should promote monarchs who passed laws without the internal economy to improve tax revenues and to limit imports from other nations.
• Louis XIV set tariffs on imported goods, established state churches, tried to encourage their merchant fleets, and sought to provide raw materials and state economic policies.

• The basic structure of absolute monarchy was developed in other states.

• The most important spread of absolute monarchy was in the central European states.

• The power of the Habsburg rulers increased after they pushed back the last Turk invasion threat in the 17th century and then added Hungary to their domain.

• A strong military was seen as a key political goal by most absolute monarchs.
• The basis for a series of wars from the 1680s onward was Louis XIV's strong state.

• The wars gave France some new territory, but also attracted an opposing alliance system that prevented further advancement.
• In the 18th century, a series of conflicts won new territory for the kings of Prussia, who had long been cautious in exposing their military to the risk of war.

• The trend toward absolute monarchy in the 17th century was different for Parliamentary Monarchies Britain and the Netherlands.
• They emphasized the role of the central state, but also built parliamentary regimes in which the kings shared power with representatives selected by the nobility and upper urban classes.
• The king is English.
• The English parliament did not depend on the king to convene because regular sessions were scheduled to overthrow James II.
• It was able to approve taxation, which allowed it to start most major policies.

• In the 17th century, a growing body of political theory built on these as having basic sovereignty over the parliamentary ideas.
• John Locke argued that power came from the people.

• Monarchs should be restrained by institutions that protect the public interest.
• There is a right of revolution.

• The tension originated in England and Holland and was expressed in new ways.

• Both the absolute monarchies and the parliamentary monarchies had characteristics that made them nation-states.
• They ruled peoples who shared a common culture and language, but some important minorities were not included.
• They could appeal to a certain type of loyalty.
• The idea of special rights for Englishmen helped feed the parliamentary movement in France.
• Ordinary people in many nation-states, even though not directly represented in government, believe that government should act for their interests.
• When bad harvests drove up food prices, the government was obligated to help people out, as Louis XIV faced recurrent popular riots.

• Under the banner of mercantilism, nation-states developed a growing list of functions, which were shared by monarchists and parliamentary leaders alike.
• New political values and loyalties were very different from the political traditions of other civilizations.
• They kept the West at war.

• Basic changes continued in western Europe during the first half of the 18th century.

• New agricultural developments added an important element to the results of commercial changes.
• Europe's cultural transformation continued at both elite and popular levels.
• The Enlightenment resulted in important results for Europe and other parts of the world.

• Key political groups competed for influence without major policy differences during the 18th century, as English politics settled into a parliamentary routine.
• In France, absolute monarchy became less effective.
• It couldn't force changes in the tax structure that would give it more solid financial footing because it couldn't get the aristocrats to give up their traditional exemptions.

• The political developments of the king of Prussia were more frequent in central Europe.
• His government built on military and better agricultural methods and promoted the use of the American potato as a staple crop.
• Laws promoting greater commercial coordination and greater equity were enacted by the bureaucratic foundations.
• This type of ruler claimed to be enlightened, wielding great of religion, and increased state control of authority but for the good of society at large.

• The policies of the major Western nation-states were Enlightened or not.

• The Seven Years War between France and Britain focused on battles for the colonial empire.
• Prussia gained new land after Austria and Prussia fought.
• The wars of the 18th century showed the continued link between statecraft and war that was characteristic of the West.

• The 18th century featured scientific breakthrough and new understanding of major elements, but not the same as the 18th century.

• The Enlightenment believed that rational laws could be used to sketch the modern social sciences.
• Rational laws could describe social behavior.

• According to criminolos, a decent society would be able to rehabilitate criminals through education.
• Although they disagreed about what political form was best, political theorists wrote about the importance of carefully planned constitutions and controls over privilege.
• There is a new school of economists.

• Government should avoid regulation in favor of the operation of individual initiative and market avoid regulation of the economy in favor of forces.
• This was an important statement of economic policy and an illustration of the growing belief of market forces.

• The Enlightenment has an impressive range of single individuals.
• Diderot was trained by the best known for his work on the first Jesuits and went on to write about philosophy, mathematics, and psychology.

• The Early Modern Period, 1450-1750: The World Shrinks controversies about Women changes in family structure and some shifts in the economic.

• When we, whom they style by the name of weaker vessels, other tensions showed in open debate about women's relationships though of a more delicate, fine, soft, and more pliant flesh to men; women not content with a docile wifeliness vied with new therefore of a temper We are set only to land, so we can't vindicate our own injuries, so it may have had wider ramifications.
• During the 18th century, when the needle was quieter, some of these arguments about family confinement and inequality popped up again.
• If we are taught to read, we are limited to our Mother Tongue, and when a more durable feminist movement took shape in the that limit we are not suffered to pass, it was the West.

• When man was sand ways to deceive thee and all such fools as are suitors made of the mere dust of the earth, women had a thousand ways to entice thee.
• The woman had her being them, some of them kept in hand with promises, some of them flattery, and some of them delay with dal iances, and some of them difference even in our complexions.
• They lay out the folds of their hair to entangle is of a melancholy aspect, having their breasts in the vale of destruc face and a forest upon his Chin.

• The representation of a garden of inter eat not men until they are dead, but women devour them alive is called the cheek.

• It is said that men have one fault and that women have two, but that they were not created to be slaves or vassals.
• It is said that things were not out of his foot to be trod upon, but in a medium that was far 888-247-8873.
• He was his fellow feeler, his equal, and companion.

• For the pleasure of the fairest woman in the world lasteth but equal with men, and that for luxury, surquidant obscenity, pro a honeymoon, and all that.

• He visited Catherine the Great of Russia to thank her for her patronage.

• Reason is the key to truth and religions that rely on blind faith or refuse to tolerate diversity are wrong.
• The Catholic Church was attacked because it seemed to support older super stitions while wielding political power.
• If people could be set free, progress would be possible.
• Improving material and social life should be society's goals.

• Although it was not typical of the Enlightenment's main thrust, a few thinkers applied these Gen eral principles to other areas.

• The Enlightenment feminist thinker in England argued that new political rights and freedoms should extend to women.
• Several journals written by women should be extended to women.

• Many ordinary people changed their habits and beliefs as a result of the popularization of new ideas.
• The latest reform ideas were discussed by many urban artisans and businessmen.

• The new intellectual currents were parallel to other changes in popular outlook.
• The attitudes toward children began to change.

• As parents became more interested in freer movement goods and services below elite levels, swaddled infants began to decline.
• The idea that childhood should be a stage for learning and growth was reflected in educational toys and books for wealthy families.

• The treatment of women and children in the home can be improved with revisions.
• Most family members gained new respect as a result of love between modern societies, and an emotional bond in marriage became more widely sought.

• During the 18th century, cultural changes included continued religious vitality, as new groups like Methodists helped stimulated piety.

• There are three points that stand out.
• Many popular attitudes, as well as purely intellectual interests, were changing after the Enlightenment.
• Beliefs in magic began to decline.
• The Enlightenment helped set up a climate for change in the West.
• Some Enlightenment ideas, like the idea that all people share a fundamental rationality and human worth, had implications beyond Europe.
• In the 17th century, new protests against the institution of slavery began in the name of basic rights.

• Changes in popular culture and economy are ongoing.
• The business continued to grow.
• Ordinary Westerners began buying processed products, such as refined sugar and coffee from Indonesia and the West Indies, for daily use.
• Even poor people have the chance to express a sense of style thanks to the growing popularity of cotton textiles.

• Circuses were first introduced in France in the 1670s and began to redefine leisure to include spectatorship and a taste for the bizarre.

• Agriculture began to change.
• A severe economic con straint in an agricultural society was experienced by western Europe until the late 17th century.
• The three-field system left a third of the farmland unplanted to restore fertility.
• There were new procedures for draining swamps in the Netherlands.
• Nitrogen-fixing crops can be used to reduce the need for land.
• New techniques such as seed-drills and the use of scythes instead of sickles improved stockbreeding.
• Ordinary peasants were affected by some of the changes on large estates.
• The potato was important in this category from the late 17th century onward.

• The potato was held to be the cause of plagues because it was not mentioned in the Bible.
• The peasants' desire to win greater economic security and better nutrition led to widespread use of this crop.
• The West improved its food supply and agricultural efficiency.

• Increased manufacturing was spurred by the steady growth of colonial trade and internal commerce.
• Capitalism spread from big trading ventures to the production of goods.
• The 18th century saw a rapid spread of household production of textiles and metal products, mostly by rural workers who alternated manufacturing with agriculture.
• The use of labor was no longer needed for food.
• Hundreds of thousands of people were drawn into this domestic system, in which capitalist merchants distributed supplies and orders and workers ran the production process for pay.
• The spread of domestic manufacturing led to technological innovations designed to improve efficiency.
• In 1733, John Kay in England introduced the flying shuttle, which allowed an individual weaver to do the work of two.
• The Western economy began to move toward an Industrial Revolution as a result of improvements in spinning and printing cotton cloth.

• Human changes preceded technology.
• Most manufac turers who made wool cloth in northern England did part of the work on their own.
• A number of loom owners became manufacturers with new ideas.

• They did not do their own work because they spent their time organizing production and sales.
• They moved their work from their homes.
• They stopped drinking beer with their workers.
• They saw their workers as market commodities and treated them that way.

• After about 1730, agricultural changes, commercialism, and manufacturing combined to produce a rapidly growing population in the West.
• With better food supplies, more people were able to survive.
• New manufacturing jobs helped landless people support themselves.
• Increased competition and a more manipulable labor force resulted from population growth.
• The West's great population revolution, which continued into the 19th century, caused and reflected the civilization's dynamism, but also produced great strain and confusion.

• The various strands of change were intertwined in the 18th century.
• Stronger governments promoted agricultural improvements.
• New economic structures fed changes in popular beliefs that encouraged a reevaluation of the family and the roles of children.
• Political challenges were raised by new beliefs.

• New family practices may have political implications.
• Children raised with less adult globalization are sometimes restrained and encouraged to value their individual worth through parental love and careful education, used to describe the increase of might see traditional political limitations in new ways.

• There was no perfect fit, no inevitable match, in the three strands of change that had been trans trade, while also distinguishing the forming of the West for two centuries or more.
• All of the patterns from the more intense time period were present.
• The combination had already produced an unusual version of an agricultural exchange, and it promised more upheaval in the future.

• Europeans were convinced that their Christianity made them superior to other people and that the world could still provide a sense of wonder.
• They were aware that strange animals were being imported to European zoos.
• The idea of a "noble savage", a person uncorrupted and the strength of their governments, was generated by the Enlighten many societies.
• Europe changed due to advanced civilization and urban ways.
• We admire other people.
• European power saw in the previous chapter how Europeans began to use tech rapid changes within Western civilization to argue that other societies were not even civilized.
• The idea was not interested in technological change.
• The impact of criticisms of the superstitions of other people on European attitudes was powerful.

• The Scientific Revolution was compared to 3.